Postmodernism, spirituality, and the creative writing process: Implications for social

work practice

Families in Society, 01/01/2001, Vol. 82 No. 1; p. 23-34

By: Thecla Damianakis

Abstract

Social work as a profession, is struggling to determine the value of postmodernism and

spirituality, and how these approaches to life provide alternative ways of Interpreting the
universe and the nature of social work practice. Although soda] work Is founded on both
a liberal arts and a social science education, some authors are challenging social works
historical emphasis on the social sciences; they advocate that social work instead
reconsider the role of the humanities as a force affecting practice. While social work
continues to root its practice In modernity, determinism, and the social sciences, the
possibility should be considered that postmodernisrn, spirituality, and the creative writing
process have the potential to expand social work to a more creative and meaningful kind
of practice. By exploring the relationships between power and knowledge, pathology and
creativity, core identity and multiple selves, It becomes clear that our subjectivity, our
human potential, and our voices can facilitate very deep Intuitive, creative, and
transpersonal levels of communication between the social worker and the client.

SOCIAL WORK, AS A PROFESSION, is struggling at a very basic level to come to

terms with the values of both postmodernism and spirituality, and how they might
provide alternative ways of interpreting our universe and hence affect the nature of social
work (Chambon, 1999; Epstein, 1999; Meinert, Pardeck & Murphy, 1998; Murphy &
Pardeck, 1998; Weick & Saleebey, 1998). The historical tensions between modernity and
postmodernity revolve around differences in how power/knowledge and objectivity/
subjectivity are viewed. In a similar way, religion and spirituality are often viewed as
being at odds with social work's pursuit of objective, scientific, and expert knowledge
(Loewenberg, 1988).

"Spirituality" can be operationalized as the search for purpose and meaning in one's life,
whereas "religion" entails a systematic body of beliefs and practices related to such a
spiritual search (Cornett, 1992; Sermabeikian, 1994). A historical rift between religion
and social work has occurred in spite of the fact that religion had an important role in
social work's history (Bullis, 1996; Evans, 1992). Spirituality has tended to be neglected
in social work because it does not conform to what Cornett (1992) describes as social
work's attempt to embrace a rational, linear, reductionist view of the world.

A further historical tension has developed between the contributions of the humanities
and the social sciences with respect to constructing social work practice (Epstein, 1996;
Goldstein, 1990; Irving, 1999; Rodwell, 1987). This tension is reflected in social work's
conflicting loyalties, best captured in the question: "Is social work an art or a science?"
The creative writing process, as I argue throughout, is one example from the humanities
SWG 611E Fall Semester, 2002 1 of 1 pages.
that links spirituality with the universal processes of creativity, energy, and bodily
experience. As such, the creative writing process is not genre-specific to poetry or fiction,
nor does the choice to focus on the creative writing process deny or devalue other artistic
forms of expression in informing social work practice.

This paper explores postmodernity, spirituality, and the creative writing process. In
particular, several sets of conceptual relationships will be examined, that is, between
power and knowledge, and between pathology and creativity, between core identity and
multiple selves. Although both modernists and postmodernists address these concepts,
they define and apply them differently to practice. The contemporary social worker relies
heavily on deterministic and ego-- based theoretical models in working with clients
(Miehls & Moffat, 2000; Smith, 1995). I would suggest that while postmodernism,
spirituality, and creative writing have the potential to open social work to a more creative
and meaningful kind of practice, the social work profession is currently ill-prepared to
receive and integrate these three influences in its practice. Moreover, there is a risk that
without a willingness to change its fundamental values, beliefs, and worldview, rooted in
modernity, social work might simply co-opt the main tenets of these movements in a
superficial and distorted manner, thus perpetuating an agenda of social control, and
thereby effectively protecting the status quo.

Power and Knowledge

The concepts of power and knowledge have been addressed in different ways by modern
and post-modern authors. Under conditions of modernity, power is very much linked to
the notion of power over others (Leonard, 1996). Moreover, power is believed to be in
the hands of experts, who possess knowledge. Thus, both power and knowledge have
become embedded in the social worker's role, as defined by a modernist perspective. This
has often been at the expense of the client's own knowledge and exercise of power,
including his or her influence upon the therapeutic process. With the advent of
postmodernism, however, these assumptions have been challenged. For Foucault (1980),
for example, power and knowledge are interrelated and inseparable. He argues that
"power is everywhere," that power is "first and foremost relational" and that power is
"dispersed" (McLaren, 1997, p. 114).

Foucault's view is consistent with other authors' recurring theme that in Aboriginal and
Afrocentric worldviews, spirituality, like power, is everywhere (Cajete, 1994; Dickason,
1992; Ermine, 1995; Graham, 1999; Holst, 1997; Schiele, 1994). Holst (1997) and
Schiele (1994) note that in the Aboriginal and Afrocentric worldviews, spirituality exists
in all aspects of life and the universe. While many of these authors acknowledge the
multiplicity of their cultures and traditions, they also engage in a broad-base discussion of
the Aboriginal and Afrocentric worldviews. This discussion also prevents obscuring the
underlying unity, which socially and politically unites their people (Dickason, 1992).
Further, spirituality is not seen as a commodity that can be held, manipulated, or
controlled. The Afrocentric worldview emphasizes the "interdependency of all elements
of the universe" and maintains that "people are spiritual (non-material) beings connected
to some universal link" (Schiele, 1994, p. 15). In short, a dichotomy between matter and
SWG 611E Fall Semester, 2002 2 of 2 pages.
spirit does not exist within an Afrocentric worldview. This foundational and traditional
"holistic conception" and relationship (Graham, 1999) echoes postmodern attempts to
reconcile dichotomies indicative of modernist thinking.

According to Holst (1997), an intimate connection exists between Aboriginal people's

spiritual and emotional health on the one hand, and their physical survival on the other. In
fact, the "spiritual landscape exists within the physical landscape" (p. 150). These
worldviews contrast sharply with the Eurocentric worldview, which instead of
reconciling matter and spirit, promotes fragmentation, control, and division (Schiele,
1994). While Foucault does not emphasize the relationship between the spiritual and
social components of life, he does emphasize the importance of moving away from a
position that views the individual as separate from his or her world and toward a more
dialectical relationship between the individual and his or her world.

The nature of knowledge and power and the relationship between them depends on
whether knowledge is derived through rational or intuitive means-- a distinction that has
implications for social work practice. In the context of modernity, rational and scientific
means for acquiring knowledge (and power) are emphasized and typically pursued. For
example, in the social construction of the worker-client relationship, political and cultural
understandings construct the worker as a powerful "expert" (Epstein, 1999; Foot &
Frank, 1999). If the social worker constructs an understanding of the client's reality
through knowledge that he or she has derived only empirically, then he or she may reduce
and oversimplify complex variables in order to assess and arrive at a conclusion
(Rodwell, 1987). Furthermore, the social worker may block other ways of knowing
(Gowdy, 1994). However, in postmodern thought, an alternative means to knowledge
acquisition and power are emphasized, such as those that derive from emotion and
intuition (Gorman, 1993). Through empathy and intuition, the social worker and client,
for example, can "reach feelings and [use] intuition to find ideas" (Raines, 1990, p. 62).
Intuition allows the worker to have "direct, immediate knowledge of something without
relying on the conscious use of reason or sense perception" (Percesepe, 1991, as cited in
Richards & Bergin, 1997). Furthermore, with respect to spirituality, intuition may be
rooted in cosmic knowing or in a "collective unconscious" (Sermabeikian, 1994, p. 179).
In its most effective application, social workers' offerings of intuitive insights or hunches
with their clients can affect those who experience them in integrative, powerful, and
meaningful ways (Richards & Bergin, 1997).

Knowledge acquisition can also be linked to spirituality and the creative writing process.
Here, too, an important distinction exists between rational, ego-based knowledge (which
often is externally driven toward a particular goal or truth) and more reflexive
knowledge. Rational ego-based knowledge is a concept common to both developmental
psychology and ego-psychology. This kind of knowledge contrasts with more reflexive
ways of knowing that are not ego based (Miehls & Moffat, 2000; White, 1997). Reflexive
knowledge is less preoccupied with the outcome and more concerned with the process.
Both spirituality and the creative writing process acknowledge the value of ego- and non-
ego-based paths to knowledge attainment and implementation, namely, those paths that
are rational as well as reflexive.
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Furthermore, "Creativity, with a capital C, is the kind that changes some aspect of the
culture to which it belongs; it is never [solely] in the mind of the person creating it"
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1996, p. 27). Put another way, this requires us to consider expanded
notions of our environment that include "social, nonhuman, and cosmic dimensions"
(Canda, 1988, p. 241). A "monistic paradigm considers all phenomena to be creative,
illusory expressions of a primary, unified field of consciousness. This level of pure
consciousness is believed to be the fundamental source of all that exists in the
phenomenal world including human experience itself" (Strohl, 1998, p. 399). McDermott
(1993) suggests that transpersonalists (i.e., those who exemplify transpersonal
spirituality) are similar to artists and thinkers in the Romantic period of the 18th and 19th
century in that they share the notion that "productions of human minds do not emanate
from a human source but are expressions of infinite mind and spirit, coming through a
person from the deepest realm of nature, a universal consciousness" (as cited in Strohl,
1998, p. 399). Both romanticists and transpersonalists embrace "the internal,
transformational qualities and transcendent realities of human beings " (Strohl, 1998, p.
399). Furthermore, transpersonal experiences encompass a "sense of identity or self [that]
extends beyond (trans) the individual or personal [ego-based self] to encompass wider
aspects of humankind, life, psyche or cosmos" (Walsh & Vaughan, 1993, p. 203). If this
is indeed a possibility, the creative writing process reflects a spiritual dimension and
experience whereby the artist utilizes other more universal ways of knowing, while
continuing to connect self with the world and the experiences of day-to-day living.

In social work practice, the tendency to rely heavily on ego-based approaches has
significant implications. A new vision of the social work practitioner would include an
openness that is not rooted in ego but which taps into the more creative, uncertain, and
cosmic ways of knowing oneself and the world. The challenge for social workers lies in
resisting the internal and external pressures to control both the process and outcome of
their work with clients (Pozatek, 1994). Spirituality in practice is not about "making it
happen"; instead, "spiritual growth leads toward the disenfranchisement of our
powerhungry egos which are constantly trying to fix, name, control, and categorize"
(Fortunato, 1987, pp. 20-21). Moreover, spirituality in practice is a "vibrant awareness of
the oneness of everything ... some deep sense of belonging in a cosmic context" where
we "experience our inner unity" as whole beings and are "not damaged or sick or sinful"
(Fortunato, 1987, pp. 8-16). Therefore, unless social work reconsiders its traditional
emphasis on ego and control and explores (as well as feels) alternative ways of working
with people that equally value the possibility of a non-controlled process or outcome,
social workers will not benefit from the insights offered by postmodernism, spirituality,
and creative writing.

Pathology Versus Creativity

An important aspect of social control is that which occurs through the construction of
language. One of Foucault's most important contributions to the social sciences is his
notion that language can be used to construct and shape people's subjectivities or
identities, oftentimes toward pathology (Leonard, 1997). For example, Foucault suggests
that language is used to create conditions of "otherness," in which individuals are labeled
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as deviant, morally inferior or marginal. In such a scheme, social relationships tend to be
classified hierarchically, founded on underlying judgments about people (Berlin, 1990).
These underlying constructions and attitudes give rise to the opportunity for socially
privileged groups to deepen the differences between them and other groups and to
systematically perpetuate unjust social conditions (Freire, 1970; Ryan, 1976).

Some argue that the humanist (or human potential) movement in psychology strongly
advocates against such pathologizing (Cowley, 1993; Sermabeikian, 1994; Strohl, 1998).
However, this movement can be critiqued, within a postmodern framework, because of
its overemphasis on the notion of human progress (Leonard, 1997). Despite this critique,
the human potential movement presents some important challenges to social work's
assumptions and practices concerning determinism and pathology. Social workers use
language and construct a process that assumes an inevitable causal outcome for the client
(Peile, 1993). Furthermore, "declarative judgments" on the part of the social worker "tend
to take on an air of certainty" that reinforces deterministic thinking and discourages
"probabilistic" ways of thinking which promote exploration and a variety of ideas
(Ashford & LeCroy, 1991, p. 313). The workers' basic beliefs about their clients' abilities
and potential continue to affect the lives of their clients.

Several authors from within the humanist movement in psychology write about
spirituality, and about the necessity of seeing the non-pathological potential in human
thought and experience (Lajoie & Shapiro, 1992; Maslow, 1968; Steele, 1998). Cowley
(1993) refers to the notion of the "transpersonal," a concept rooted in psychological
theory and suggests that "transpersonal social work" is the only valid means of explaining
human development as spiritual growth. Cowley notes that Maslow (1968) identified an
even higher form of human functioning than self-actualization, as defined in his
Hierarchy of Human Needs model, namely, "self-transcendence." This higher form of
functioning was ascribed to "transcending self-actualizers," namely, persons who have
"strong and effective personalities," but also have a deeper sense of eternity, connection
to others and the cosmos (as cited in Cowley, 1993, p. 530). Maslow's underlying
intention challenges both overly narrow perceptions of human capability and notions of
pathology. If social work does not make a fundamental shift away from clients'
weaknesses and toward their strengths (Weick, Rapp, Sullivan, & Kisthardt, 1989) and
fails to fully acknowledge possibilities of human potential as reflected in spiritual
notions, it cannot challenge traditional notions of certainty, materialism, illness, and
dichotomous thinking, all of which serve to reinforce the prevailing paradigm of
pathology and modernity.

The recent acknowledgment of the existence of "a religious or spiritual problem" in the
DSM IV (Lukoff, Lu, & Turner, 1998, p. 22) is a highly significant construction of
changing attitudes among health care professionals. Rather than labeling all religious or
spiritual experiences as pathological, the DSM IV considers only a selected portion of
such experiences as pathological. Some authors distinguish between spiritual conditions
that evoke Maslow's notion of self-transcendence and that appear to have transpersonal
origins, to those that appear to be related to mental illness (Lukoff et al., 1998; Vaughan,
1991). However, there exists a real potential for professionals to confuse the range of
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spiritual expression (Lukoff et al., 1998, Tloczynski, Knoll, & Fitch, 1997; Vaughan,
1991), including the potential for social workers to incorrectly diagnose their clients.
Language may be used to impose labels that divide spiritual experiences into two
categories: those that are acceptable and "sane" versus those that are pathological or
"insane." This distinction both reflects and perpetuates the dichotomous thinking
associated with modernism, which has been criticized by postmodernists. In short, the
development of this new category as a problem suggests that certain spiritual experiences
can now be pathologized by social workers; of particular concern are those involving
important existential questions and postmodern ambiguities relating to identity and
authority. Thus we continue to hear lingering echoes of modernity.

However, Lukoff et al. (1998) cautions professionals that "unusual experiences;

behaviors; and visual, auditory, olfactory or kinesthetic perceptions characteristic of
spiritual emergencies can appear as the symptoms of mental disorders" when they are not
(p. 39). For example, the "jumbled speech of someone trying to articulate the poetic
quality of a mystical experience can appear as loose associations" or visions associated
with a near death experience which can be interpreted as hallucinations (Lukoff et al.,
1998, p. 39). His distinction is an attempt to clarify and narrow the range of
pathologizing. On a positive note, this important distinction emphasizes the belief that
some spiritual experiences are acceptable to the human condition and to human potential,
and have the ability to open up social work practice to richer experiences. Social workers
can choose to integrate the diverse and metaphysical aspects of spirituality, and thus open
up dialogue with clients.

Tensions between creative and deterministic (i.e., pathological) issues also exist within
the creative writing process itself. For example, Frank, in The Wounded Storyteller:
Body, Illness and Ethics (1995), describes the various ways that writing one's story can
be an important means toward reconstructing one's life. He describes the values of those
persons who, having suffered illness, have been treated by a medical system rooted in
assumptions of modernity and pathology. Having been the "wounded storyteller" himself
(p. xiii), Frank views his illnesses of heart attack and cancer as opportunities to recreate
the self through the story and in doing so, reclaim his own subjectivity, which was lost in
the objectification and colonization of his body (Frank, 1991). It is also in the sharing of
one's story that one plays a moral and social role for others experiencing illness. A more
intimate relationship and refined understanding of self is established within authors and
in relation to their readers as they reflect on their experiences and use language to
facilitate self-knowledge and growth.

However, this process has an aspect that is inherently painful, existential, and chaotic, as
is depicted in the chaos narrative, a type of narrative described by Frank. Within this
chaos narrative lies a real sense of the author's void and of the limitations of language:
"The story traces the edges of a wound that can only be told around. Chaos is what can
never be told; it is the hole in the telling" (Frank, 1995, pp. 98 and 101-102). Moreover,
this chaos can be reflected in the oral histories of persons who have experienced extreme
chaos, for example, Holocaust survivors, while the same story, in its multi-
dimensionality, reflects "the resiliency of the human spirit" (Langer, 1991, as cited in
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Frank, 1995, p. 101). Frank suggests that pain has to be acknowledged but he also notes
that there is a social tendency to "romanticize chaos" which is not helpful (p. 112).

Bodily experience is also an important aspect of postmodern subjectivities (Leonard,

1997, Sands & Nuccio, 1992). Postmodernists discuss the depth to which our oppressive
experiences are physically internalized, affecting us at emotional, psychological, social,
political, economic, and physical levels. These internalized experiences include those that
are manifested by way of social prejudices pertaining to race, class, sexual preference,
age, ability, certain conditions of institutionalization and war, as well as those that relate
to technological change. Missing from this analysis, however, is the question of how
these same conditions and experiences in practice break our own and our clients' spirits
(Deegan, 1990). This cumulative experience of spirit breaking, further indicative of an
expression of misused power, shatters hope, and instills indifference, humiliation, and a
deep numbness, in its violation of one's basic human dignity (Deegan, 1990).

The bodily experience is also a crucial aspect of creative writing. Lee, in Writing from
the Body (1994), acknowledges the centrality of the body in the writing process; our
deepest experiences, feelings and knowledge are deeply embedded in our bodies: "There
were the subtler negative messages, and there were those that were not so subtle. ... These
words went straight into our bodies" (p.16). While part of the process of creative writing
is to be fully connected to your body to unleash the knowledge and creativity in the body,
this process will involve an inherently existential pain: "When I began writing, I began
my birth over again ... wrestling with all the color and shadow in my body and soul-both
the dark and the light (p. 75). The artist's intimacy with himself involves his exploration
and relationship to his "shadow self" whereby "as writers, we have touched our own
darkness and reemerged vulnerably awake, humbled, and even more alive" (p.21).

The myth of the tortured writer further perpetuates notions of struggle, often rooted in the
tension between pathology and creativity. This construction is wrongly associated with
the author's credibility as an artist because of their assumed depth of expression.
Csikszentmihalyi (1996) notes that the "reigning stereotype of the tortured genius is to a
large extent a myth created by Romantic ideology" (p.19).

This stereotype perpetuates assumptions of modernity, pathology, and determinism,

expressed as pessimism: "pessimism is a very easy way out when you're considering what
reality is, because pessimism is a short view of life" (Robertson Davies, interview in
Csikszentmihalyi, 1996, p. 19). Davies, however, advises artists to see the more ironic,
ambiguous and complex nature of life rather than dichotomizing it in the tragic
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1996). If the writing process is not agonizing in voicing one's
subjectivities, then implicitly, the author has neither fully captured truth of the human
condition nor the depth of his or her existence. The search for a "truth," in this case the
tragic view of life, echoes notions of an absolute or universal truth characteristic of
modernity.

This is in contrast to creative writing that is more pluralistic and that captures both the
tragic view of life as well as the more ambiguous, ironic, and uncertain complexities
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characteristic of writing in a postmodern worldview. Creativity not only "exposes,
debunks, reduces, deconstructs" but should reflect the "genuine joy and fulfillment [that]
life contains" (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996, p. 20).

Appropriately applied, postmodernism, spirituality, and the creative writing process have
the potential to reduce dichotomized thinking and notions of pathology, pushing
individual existence to a more creative and dynamic movement and evolution. Social
workers are often "stuck" in wrongly assuming notions of psychopathology, in believing
that there exist deeply rooted and innate flaws in people. For example, classifications of
moral deficiency and sin have characterized those struggling with issues of poverty,
addictions, or mental illness (Weick et al., 1989).

This belief in people's innate flaws constrains a more open, natural, and creative approach
and experience. Furthermore, there is often a fear of hearing the deep experiences of
people's stories, since this often leads to uncomfortable feelings for the worker (Epston,
White, & Murray, 1992; Pozatek, 1994).

Another risk associated with facilitating the client's narrative story, in a postmodern
context, is that the worker will intrusively respond to the client's experience, and while
not adapting a reflexive stance, will still maintain a stance of authority, judgment, and
power. Furthermore, social work can very easily glorify its role as producing effective
and healing work while ignoring the potential of its work to reinforce an agenda of social
control characterized by an emphasis of personal inadequacies (Goroff, 1984), blame
(Ryan, 1976), and intrusion of clients' most private lives and intimate details (Margolin,
1997).

Identity: Core Versus Multiple Selves

Modernity and postmodernity differ in their views on human identity. More traditional
views of the self include those identified as the unitary self, authentic self, or core self,
while postmodern views of self are those identified, for example, as narrative self,
subpersonalities, the saturated self, dialogical selves, or possible selves (as cited in
Hoskins & Leseho, 1996). Simply put, a clear distinction exists between modern and
postmodern notions of identity, namely, whether the natural state of our identity is
constant and singular, or whether it is constantly changing and multiple (Klugman, 1997;
Sands, 1996). Implied by this distinction are fundamental differences in how one views
reality and truth. For example, in modernity, identity is something that is knowable and
obtainable, whereas in postmodernity, identity is neither knowable nor attainable
(Klugman, 1997; Sands, 1996). Three views will be explored in this section: (a) the
modern view of the core self, (b) the postmodern view of multiple selves, and (c) the
bringing together of modernity and postmodernity in the coexistence both of a core self
and multiple selves (as reflected in transpersonal, spiritual notions).

A. The Core Self

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The concept of the self, as a fixed entity, assumes that such a self can be discovered in the
search for a personal truth (Hoskins & Leseho, 1996). Under modernity, the core self is
viewed as a stable entity over the lifespan. This core self is well protected by the layers of
masks which are rooted in social expectations arising from one's socialization. These
various layers of personae assist individuals in adapting and surviving in their
environment and thus serve a useful function. In the context of a helping relationship,
internal conflicts experienced by the client are generally understood as the desire for a
more authentic self. Thus, the goal is to search deeply into oneself, to shed the layers of
unwanted identities, by challenging socialization and expectations toward the discovery
of the core or cohesive self (Hoskins Leseho, 1996; Klugman, 1997).

In social work, Keefe (1975) suggests that the Zen perspective has an important role to
play in helping clients toward the development of a "true" and "authentic" self. Unlike
western models of care, which tend to focus on the client's problems, Zen workers focus
on the "true self of desires, feelings, and needs" of their clients in their "changing reality"
(p. 141). They are opposed to focusing excessively on solving their clients' problems, to
the exclusion of their personhood. In this Zen model, there is the view that we can "get in
touch with the true self" (p. 141) or core self. For Vaughan (1991), spirituality includes
an authentic search for and questioning of human purpose as it relates to birth, life, death
while also experiencing aloneness and existential freedom. This links the existential and
authentic search with the spiritual aspects of life. In existential psychotherapy, Bugental
(1965) sees authenticity as a "level of experience" which recognizes the "distorted" and
"incomplete arena of the human experience" in "the familiar world" while being "very
much in that world" (p. 35). Furthermore, it is through this very deep level of authenticity
that a resolution of the subject-object split is achieved. The search for personal
authenticity and meaning reflects "the resolution of the subject-object split, the self-world
dichotomy" whereby our "being" or "self-aware existing," "is in accord with the nature of
ourselves in the world" (Bugental, 1965, p. 32).

B. The Self as Multiple

Postmodernity argues that there exist multiple selves and, therefore, multiple identities
and voices for expressing those selves. These multiple identities are constructed in part
by the four main discourses of family, sexuality, work, and consumption (Leonard,
1997). These discourses impact upon individual subjectivities. Deconstruction then helps
to give voice to the multiple nature of individual voice and identity which has been
silenced by the dominant voice; this dominant voice may appear to be absolute, but in
actuality may be constructed by way of social prejudices and myths, and may or may not
reflect the multiplicity of the individual. Furthermore, the nature of voice and identity
varies according to context. Identity is, therefore, multiple, changing, and represents
"inconsistent representations" of self that are context dependent.

Socially, the struggle for a political voice can result in effective coalition building
(Sampson, 1993). However, the struggle for a political identity and a political voice often
results in divisive "identity politics," based on a particular identity (e.g. ethnic, gender)
(Briskin, 1990; Seller, 1992). Yet, we are more than the sum of our parts; we are more
SWG 611E Fall Semester, 2002 9 of 9 pages.
than the incest survivor, the alcoholic, the Holocaust survivoreven though at certain times
in our lives, these and other identities are in the forefront of who we are and how we
experience our self in the world. Does this mean we are chameleon-like with respect to
our multiple and changing identities? Or are these voiced identities inherent in an
authentic self?

Narrative approaches to social work have facilitated the process of identity and voice
within a therapeutic context (Epston et al., 1992). The worker can facilitate a
deconstruction process with the client, and in the client's reconstruction of self. This helps
to challenge any negative or pathological notions of self that the client holds (as the
person can be influenced to view him or herself as defective with a singular identity).
This helps to challenge any negative or pathological notions of self that the client holds
(as the person can be influenced to view him or herself as defective with a singular
identity, for example, as the alcoholic, or the incest victim), while allowing for alternate
discourses which are both positive-emphasizing the client's strengths-and more accurate
and complex with respect to the client's selfdefined identity.

For example, as the alcoholic, the incest victim, while allowing for alternate discourses
which are both positive, emphasizing the client's strengths, and more accurate and
complex with respect to the client's self-defined identity. It is in this reconstruction
process that a type of therapeutic result occurs for the client (Epston et al., 1992). This
process has the potential to free individuals from socially constructed labels by giving
clients the opportunity to reconstruct their story and their identity for themselves, rather
than from others or from social norms. Even while this view of the self is liberating, it
nevertheless tends to leave out the possible role of spirit in affecting and shaping this
multiplicity of identity.

C The Meeting of Modernirty and Post-Modernity: Co-Existence of a Core Self with

Multiple Selves

Once again, transpersonal theory is helpful in understanding the human condition in

which identity also reflects the spiritual dimension of being human. Within this theory, an
important distinction is made between one's ego self and one's transcendental self.

The transpersonal model also explores the relationship between the two. Matters relating
both to the ego are distinguished from those relating to the spirit yet both are valued. The
transpersonal authors accomplish this distinction while still acknowledging their
interconnectedness: "a strong ego identity must be established before it can be
relinquished" (Vaughan, 1991, p. 110).

With respect to spirituality and identity, transpersonal theory provides the capacity to
explore the view that both a core self and multiple selves can coexist, a view that is
characteristic both of modernity and postmodernity. This view also reflects earlier
notions by Maslow that distinguish between the ego and non-ego basis of experience.
Vaughan (1991), for example, sees healthy spirituality as a support for "personal
freedom, autonomy, self-esteem, and social responsibility" (p. 116). She notes that the
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characteristics of psychologically healthy spirituality are also characteristic of
psychological maturity and include: authenticity, letting go of the past, facing our fears,
insight and forgiveness, love and compassion, community, awareness, peace, and
liberation (Vaughan, 1991, pp.117-118). Tloczynski, Knoll, & Fitch's (1997) empirical
study measures both "healthy personality" characteristics (associated with self-
actualization), and "spiritual" characteristics, and found that higher levels of spirituality
were in fact correlated with healthy personality characteristics.

Hastings (1979-1980), as a transpersonalist, is concerned with human experiences,

actions, and states that "go beyond the usual boundaries of ego personality" (as cited in
Lajoie & Shapiro, 1992, p. 82). These other states of consciousness include ecstasy,
altruism, compassion, psychic experiences that transcend space and time, deep self-
awareness, and mysticism. Hensley (1977) states that the role of transpersonal
psychology is to discover those basic human processes related to experience,
consciousness, and energy (as cited in Lajoie & Shapiro, 1992).

An example from practice of a person dying is helpful to understand the co-existence

both of multiple selves and of a core self within one person. People with HIV/AIDS often
need to reflect deeply on their lives and to understand their lives in a meaningful way that
will bring them some peace (Pakenham, Dadds, & Terry, 1996). They must grieve their
functional roles and identities in the world (Smith, 1995), for example, as lover, friend,
father, accountant, or gardener, and to deal with their immense losses. Since a worker
cannot know the whole person and we can only know the person in the given context and
time of our work together, we can choose to concentrate on those aspects of the
personality or ego that we can see presented or dominant at that moment. However, this
is a limiting way of viewing the individual. Many social work interventions that are ego-
identified lack a theoretical framework for an ego-transcending phenomenon such as
approaching death (Smith, 1995). Generally, spirituality includes the notion that we can
experience a "higher self" (Smith, 1995, p. 409), which is core to our being, even if, at an
ego or personality level, we experience ego losses of identity, or even a feeling of ego
death.

Further, in grieving the loss of one's ego-based roles or ego identities, a new self-
understanding can be achieved regarding one's essence or core self (Weenolsen, 1991).
This self-understanding is rooted in self-love. Notions of identity, self-understanding, and
self-love are not rooted in an egotistic notion of self, but rather create an openness, an
increased acceptance of others, and a moral desire to be involved in changing oppressive
social conditions. This is clearly relevant to social work practice. For example, in
feminist spirituality, the concept of self-love is linked not only to personal
transformation, but to increased personal and political efficacy. Consequently, there is a
greater ability to engage in, resist, and to change one's environment: Personal efficacy
and self-love delegitimizes the dominant system when this clashes with the new self-
evaluation (Finley, 1991). This is consistent with Moreau's (1990) view of structural
social work, in which he asserts that social workers "must seize any opportunity they can
construct with the persons to enable [socially oppressed clients] to replace a self-hatred

SWG 611E Fall Semester, 2002 11 of 11 pages.

with self-respect and self-care" (p. 60). This opportunity often occurs in a system that
oppresses individuals who do not conform to the socially dominant identity.

The above illustration has several implications for social work practice. In day-to-day
living, losses are felt. This illustration suggests a view of self that honors a true or a
constant self (as in modernity), and yet gives equal value to the postmodernist view that
the self is changing and multiple. But to what extent do the experiences of the dying
reflect the experiences of people living in the postmodern age? For many living in a
postmodernist age, uncertainty, ambiguity, and dramatic changes in our social, political,
and economic fabric create conditions that dramatically affect individual identity.
Postmodern notions of identity extend beyond a concern for a developmental process of
change and growth at particular points in time in a person's life. In a world that is so
profoundly influenced by changing conditions and by a lessening of modernity's
structures (Leonard, 1997), postmodern notions of identity further represent the often
sudden, rapid, and adaptive and changing nature of identity. Ego-based identities can thus
consequently be in flux, for example, the grieving of an identity that was deeply seated in
an employment position. When this position is lost, the individual may experience deep
identity confusion, an existential questioning of who he or she is (if he or she is not his or
her job), and an uncertain relationship to his or her constantly changing and unstable
environment. The spiritual notion of a "higher self" which is core to our being (Smith,
1995) and postmodernity's emphasis on multiple selves, deconstruction, pluralist notions
of reality, and voice creates expanded opportunities for self-discovery.

Social workers could further explore the implications for practice of these illustrations.
How much of our reliance on ego creates a fixation with establishing an identity based on
roles, on externally valued things, as opposed to an understanding of self rooted in self-
love? What is the relationship between the spirit and the ego? Social workers could
understand these questions and, furthermore, help clients gain a better understanding of a
spiritual self as well as a multiple self. Social workers might potentially help their clients
deconstruct their current identities and reconstruct their own narratives, while, at the
same time, transcend their multiple identities. It appears that the postmodern challenge,
as reflected in a spiritual knowing, refers to the ability to let go of any restrictive ego and
ego-identified selves in any changing moment or context; to engage in the process of
identity reconstruction and personal meaning while transcending the ego toward a feeling
of self love and connection with one's world.

The creative writing process seems to honor both the search for one's truth and the
fluidity of voice in expressing multiple selves. Frank (1995) and Lee (1994) propose that
the author attempts to reach a "true voice", a "truth of experience," but that he or she can
choose to speak in various narratives.

Furthermore, they make reference to the spiritual dimension in this process: "When we
engage in our lives with full breath, body, and soul, then every act carries in it an echo of
the sacred" (Lee, 1994, pp. 96-97). "The body-self is also a spiritual being ... and exists in
moments of immanence" (Frank, 1995, p. 181).

SWG 611E Fall Semester, 2002 12 of 12 pages.

Also, with respect to absolute versus relativist notions of truth and reality between
modernity and postmodernity, it appears that the notions of universal truth and pluralist
truths can coexist in an ironic and paradoxical way in the creative writing process, rather
than oppose one another. For example, while the artist or writer experiences a personal
truth felt to be real, this does not exclude the possibility that we are constantly
constructing truth and reality in our use of everyday language:

Often the true voice emerges only after a false voice has had its long say, and is silenced
by exhaustion. And our true voice can contain many voices. It is not restricted to the
speech patterns of our particular personality, because the true Voice is that of the inner
self. It is Everyvoice. (Lee, 1994, p. 117).

Furthermore, it is in the process of discovering and voicing our own truth, in its
complexity and multiplicity in the creative writing, that our readers see themselves, and
resonate to a shared experience created in our human condition: "I would dive in and
write some more because I knew that, in my case, getting the story onto the page was
healing me, and that I wouldn't be left alone when it was over" (Lee, 1994, p.75).

Ironically, it is the writers' own construction of his or her self-truth which facilitates in
readers an identification, an experience which evokes their own experiences. This further
intuits an insightful universal "truth"-a non-traditional understanding of the simplicity
and rawness of ourselves as humans.

A Word About Love and Healing

Language is one of the most omnipotent aspects of being human and in shaping our lives
and the lives of others. Equally, language is one of the most restrictive and limiting
impositions on human experiences. Particularly worth noting are experiences described
by artists, writers, and poets of great love, healing, pain, and ecstasy. Our subjectivity,
our human potential, our voice, and our construction of our own narrative links
postmodernism, spirituality, and the creative writing process in powerful ways.

What are the relationships between writing, voice, subjectivity, and language, and its
expression? How might the integration of these create conditions that are conducive to
healing and self-love? In the field of gerontology, Butler (1963, 1974) created the "life
review" because of his recognition of the healing potential for aging persons, through
very deep personal reflection in the telling of their life's story. This is similar to Arthur
Frank's (1991) exploration of his illness experiences, the writing of his own story, leading
to his newfound sense of himself, and of healing.

Terms such as healing and love are only indirectly alluded to in postmodernity. They
appear to be indirectly assumed as part of a process of reclaiming one's voice, of using
language to reconstruct one's new sense of self, all of which form a part of the therapeutic
context (Epston et al., 1992; Johnston, 1997). But, what is the nature of healing and love
for Foucault? Can love and healing coexist with Foucault's notions of power and
knowledge? On the other hand, spirituality is strongly linked to notions of love and
SWG 611E Fall Semester, 2002 13 of 13 pages.
healing in the literature (Finley, 1991, and Montgomery, 1991), which in turn has
implications for social work practice.

A particular kind of communication appears to be more conducive to creating an

atmosphere that supports experiences of healing. This has important implications for
social work practice. As suggested throughout this paper, non-ego, creative, and open
processes, and an ability to face ambiguity and struggle evokes a more reflexive,
intimate, and involved sense-of-self and self in relation to others. Montgomery, in her
book Healing Through Communication: The Practice of Caring (1993), describes a
highly complex form of communication. This type of communication consists of
biological, behavioral, and metaphysical and transpersonal dimensions that are conducive
to healing. In her view, communication is characterized by the caregivers' lack of ego
involvement, their responsiveness in the moment, and their deep emotional involvement
in their work with clients. Furthermore, she describes this type of healing communication
as having an ease and a "flow," and as having a creative or "aesthetic" quality (p. 73).

Watson's model of "human care" (1985) further links a particular type of caring
communication within a helping relationship. This can also serve as a model for social
work practitioners. Watson calls this special kind of relationship the "transpersonal caring
relationship." She suggests that in a helping relationship, this "transpersonal caring" is a
spiritual union between the professional and the client. This union enhances human
dignity and affirms the subjective experience. The feelings and the inner condition of
each person is experienced in a union. More specifically, it frees both from isolation and
increases the client's capacity for self-healing and increased meaning, through the
"release of feelings that have long desired expression" (Watson, 1985, p. 58). This spirit-
to-spirit union, part of the "actual caring occasion," affects both the worker and the client.

It is our subjectivity, our human potential, our voice, and the construction of our own
narrative which links postmodernism, spirituality, and the creative writing process in
powerful ways. Communication at very deep, intuitive, creative, and transpersonal levels,
has the very real capacity to open us up to more fully experiencing ourselves in our world
and to healing through deep personal reflection and expression. Similarly, this particular
type of communication has the capacity to improve the quality of interaction between
ourselves and our clients while facilitating for clients an atmosphere more agreeable to
the creative and healing potential in communication. These possibilities are available to
us all, if and only if, we are willing to let go of and challenge our traditional assumptions
rooted in modernity, and risk engaging in richer ways of experiencing our world.

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Original manuscript received: January 21, 2000

Accepted: December 1, 2000

Thecla Damianakis is a doctoral student Faculty of Social Work 246 Bloor Street West
Toronto, Onatario, Canada M5S 1A1.

Copyright Manticore Publishers Jan/Feb 2001

SWG 611E Fall Semester, 2002 20 of 20 pages.