TERMS OF BIOLOGY

 Hemoglobin, or haemoglobin, abbreviated Hb or Hgb, is the iron-

containing oxygen-transport metalloprotein in the red blood cells of
almost all vertebrates as well as the tissues of some invertebrates.
Hemoglobin in blood carries oxygen from the lungs or gills to the rest of
the body. The cell is flexible and assumes a bell shape as it passes
through extremely small blood vessels. It is covered with a membrane
composed of lipids and proteins, lacks a nucleus, and contains
hemoglobin—a red iron-rich protein that binds oxygen

 A pathogen is defined as an organism causing disease to its host, with

the severity of the disease symptoms referred to as virulence. Pathogens
are taxonomically widely diverse and comprise viruses and bacteria as
well as unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes.

 As well as the iron overload, drinking blood is dangerous simply because

it can spread disease. There are a number of blood-borne diseases that
would potentially be spread by drinking blood. Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C
and HIV are all diseases that could be contracted through ingesting
infected blood.

 Nutrition is the study of nutrients in food, how the body uses them, and
the relationship between diet, health, and disease. Nutritionists use
ideas from molecular biology, biochemistry, and genetics to understand
how nutrients affect the human body.

 Nutrients are compounds in foods essential to life and health, providing

us with energy, the building blocks for repair and growth and substances
necessary to regulate chemical processes. There are six major nutrients:
Carbohydrates (CHO), Lipids (fats), Proteins, Vitamins, Minerals, Water.

 A heterotroph is an organism that eats other plants or animals for

energy and nutrients. Examples include plants, algae, and some types of
bacteria. Heterotrophs are known as consumers because they consume
producers or other consumers. Dogs, birds, fish, and humans are all
examples of heterotrophs.
 Holozoic nutrition is a type of heterotrophic nutrition that is
characterized by the internalization and internal processing of liquids or
solid food particles.

 Phagocytosis is a cellular process for ingesting and eliminating particles

larger than 0.5 μm in diameter, including microorganisms, foreign
substances, and apoptotic cells. Phagocytosis is found in many types of
cells and it is, in consequence an essential process for tissue
homeostasis.

 cytosis: 1. Suffix referring to cells, as in anisocytosis (inequality in the size

of red blood cells), elliptocytosis (elliptical red cells), and phagocytosis
(ingestion of cells). 2. Suffix connoting an increase in cells, as in
leukocytosis (increase in white blood cells) and lymphocytosis (increase
in lymphocytes)

 Pseudopodium is a temporary protrusion of the surface of an amoeboid

cell for movement and feeding.

 Binary fission, asexual reproduction by a separation of the body into two

new bodies. In the process of binary fission, an organism duplicates its
genetic material, or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and then divides into
two parts (cytokinesis), with each new organism receiving one copy of
DNA.

 Asexual reproduction does not involve sex cells or fertilisation . Only one
parent is required, unlike sexual reproduction which needs two
parents. ... As a result, the offspring are genetically identical to the
parent and to each other. They are clones

 Humans cannot reproduce with just one parent; humans can only
reproduce sexually. ... These organisms can reproduce asexually,
meaning the offspring ("children") have a single parent and share the
exact same genetic material as the parent. This is very different from
reproduction in humans.

 Paramecium reproduces asexually by transverse binary fission, in which

the micronucleus passes through characteristic stages of mitosis,
whereas the macronucleus simply divides by amitosis. The mature cell
 divides into two cells and each grows rapidly and develops into a new
organism.

 Paramecium rejuvenates and a new macronucleus is formed. A

Paramecia undergoes ageing and dies after 100-200 cycles of fission if
they do not undergo conjugation. The macronucleus is responsible for
clonal ageing. It is due to the DNA damage.

 Multiple fission is a zoology asexual reproduction in unicellular

organisms, esp sporozoans, in which the nucleus divides a number of
times, followed by division of the cytoplasm, to form daughter cells.

 The binomial naming system is the system used to name species. Each
species is given a name that consists of two parts. The first part is the
Genus to which the species belongs and the second part is the species
name. The binomial naming system was first uniformly used by Carl
Linnaeus.

 In organisms like Amoeba and Paramecium, most of the metabolic

wastes are removed through the general surface of the body by the
simple process of diffusion. ”In Amoeba, waste materials and excess
water are removed by the process of diffusion with the help of a
contractile vacuole.

 Amoeba and paramecium respire through the surface of their body that
is a single cell. Insects breathe through spiracles, trachea. Earthworms
through their moist and slimy skin. Fishes take in water through their
mouths and force it past the gills where the dissolved oxygen is taken up
by blood.

 Humans (and most animals) can see in the “dark” only if there is some
starlight or, better, moonlight. It takes some time (10 to 30 minutes) for
your eyes to become dark adapted to see in such low-light conditions.
Heat produces infrared radiation, which is invisible to the human eye.

 The World of Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium, and Volvox Cells. They live
in water, including lakes, ponds, streams, rivers, and puddles. They
spend most of their time attached to the bottom or to plants. Amoebas
are helpful when they control algae in ponds, lakes, and streams
 Cilium is a short microscopic hairlike vibrating structure found in large
numbers on the surface of certain cells, either causing currents in the
surrounding fluid, or, in some protozoans and other small organisms,
providing propulsion. Cilia are microtubule-based hair-like organelles
that extend from the surface of almost all cell types of the human
body. ... Sensory cilia act as cellular antennae to sense environmental
and morphogenic cues, for example, during development. The cilium is
an organelle found on eukaryotic cells in the shape of a slender
protuberance that projects from the much larger cell body. There are
two types of cilia: motile and non-motile cilia. Non-motile cilia are also
called primary cilia which serve as sensory organelles.

Freshwater is defined as having a low salt concentration — usually less
than 1%. Plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to the
low salt content and would not be able to survive in areas of high salt
concentration (i.e., ocean). There are different types of freshwater
regions: Ponds and lakes.

 Terrestrial refers to things related to land or the planet Earth.

 Differences in size between sexes are also considered secondary sexual

characteristics. In humans, visible secondary sex characteristics include
pubic hair, enlarged breasts and widened hips of females, and facial hair
and Adam's apples on males.

 Muscle cells, commonly known as myocytes, are the cells that make up
muscle tissue. There are 3 types of muscle cells in the human body;
cardiac, skeletal, and smooth. ... Skeletal muscle cells make up the
muscle tissues connected to the skeleton and are important in
locomotion.

 Myofibrils are bundles of protein filaments that contain the contractile

elements of the cardiomyocyte, that is, the machinery or motor that
drives contraction and relaxation.

 A sarcomere is the basic contractile unit of muscle fiber. Each sarcomere

is composed of two main protein filaments—actin and myosin—which
are the active structures responsible for muscular contraction. The most
 popular model that describes muscular contraction is called the sliding
filament theory.

 Cardiac is having to do with the heart.

 Biceps is a large muscle that lies on the front of the upper arm between

the shoulder and the elbow.

 Triceps muscle, any muscle with three heads, or points of origin,

particularly the large extensor along the back of the upper arm in
humans. It originates just below the socket of the scapula (shoulder
blade) and at two distinct areas of the humerus, the bone of the upper
arm

 The oesophagus (gullet) is part of the digestive system, which is

sometimes called the gastro-intestinal tract (GI tract). The oesophagus is
a muscular tube. It connects your mouth to your stomach. ... This moves
the food down the oesophagus to the stomach. The upper part of the
oesophagus is behind the windpipe (trachea).

 The small intestine has three parts: the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
It helps to further digest food coming from the stomach. It absorbs
nutrients (vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, proteins) and water
from food so they can be used by the body. The small intestine is part of
the digestive system.

 Skeletal muscles, commonly called muscles, are organs of the vertebrate

muscular system that are mostly attached by tendons to bones of the
skeleton. The muscle cells of skeletal muscles are much longer than in
the other types of muscle tissue, and are often known as muscle fibres.
The muscle tissue of a skeletal muscle is striated – having a striped
appearance due to the arrangement of the sarcomeres.

 Gastrointestinal tract, also called digestive tract or alimentary canal,

pathway by which food enters the body and solid wastes are expelled.
The gastrointestinal tract includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus.

 Your trachea, or windpipe, is one part of your airway system. ... When
you inhale, air travels from your nose, through your larynx, and down
 your windpipe. The windpipe splits into two bronchi that enter your
lungs. Problems with the trachea include narrowing, inflammation, and
some inherited conditions.

 Anatomic - of or relating to the structure of the body; "anatomical

features" anatomical.
 Anatomic - of or relating to the branch of morphology that studies the
structure of organisms; "anatomical research" anatomical.

 The epiglottis is a small, movable "lid" just above the larynx that
prevents food and drink from entering your windpipe. But if the
epiglottis becomes swollen — either from infection or from injury — the
airway narrows and may become completely blocked.

 Muscles transfer force to bones through tendons. In an antagonistic

muscle pair as one muscle contracts the other muscle relaxes or
lengthens. ... The muscle that is contracting is called the agonist and the
muscle that is relaxing or lengthening is called the antagonist.

 Examples of antagonists are drugs that bind to cell receptors that

prevent the agonists from eliciting a biological response. Other biological
antagonists are muscles that occur in pairs. An antagonist muscle
opposes the action of the agonist muscle, thus, helps in regulating
movements

 In storytelling, the antagonist is the opposer or combatant working

against the protagonist's or leading characters' goal (“antagonizing”) and
creating the main conflict. The antagonist can be one character or a
group of characters. In traditional narratives, the antagonist is
synonymous with “the bad guy

 The colon is also known as the large bowel or large intestine. It is

an organ that is part of the digestive system (also called the digestive
tract) in the human body. The digestive system is the group of organs
that allow us to eat and to use the food we eat to fuel our bodies.

 The long, tube-like organ that is connected to the small intestine at one
end and the anus at the other. The large intestine has four parts: cecum,
colon, rectum, and anal canal. Partly digested food moves through the
 cecum into the colon, where water and some nutrients and electrolytes
are removed.

 Feces is the solid or semi-solid remains of food that was not digested in
the small intestine, and has been broken down by bacteria in the large
intestine. Feces contains a relatively small amount of metabolic waste
products such as bacterially altered bilirubin, and dead epithelial cells
from the lining of the gut.
Feces, also spelled faeces, also called excrement, solid bodily waste discharged
from the large intestine through the anus during defecation. Feces are
normally removed from the body one or two times a day.

 Haemorrhoids, also known as piles, are swellings containing enlarged

blood vessels that are found inside or around the bottom (the rectum
and anus). In many cases, haemorrhoids don't cause symptoms, and
some people don't even realise they have them.

 Smooth muscle, also called involuntary muscle, muscle that shows no

cross stripes under microscopic magnification. Smooth muscle tissue,
unlike striated muscle, contracts slowly and automatically. It constitutes
much of the musculature of internal organs and the digestive system.

 Muscle cells, unique junctions called intercalated discs (gap junctions)

link the cells together and define their borders. Intercalated discs are
the major portal for cardiac cell-to-cell communication, which is
required for coordinated muscle contraction and maintenance of
circulation.

 The four main functions of the heart are: Pumping oxygenated blood to

the other body parts. Pumping hormones and other vital substances to
different parts of the body. Receiving deoxygenated blood and carrying
metabolic waste products from the body and pumping it to the lungs for
oxygenation.

 Two distinguishable sounds can be heard during the cycle of the beating
heart when listened to with a stethoscope. The heart sounds are usually
described as a lup-dup sound. These sounds are due to the closing of the
valves of the heart. Unusual heart sounds are called murmur. The
characteristic "lub-dub " sound of the heart is created by the closing of
the valves. The "Lub" sound marks the start of the contraction of the
 ventricles, known as ventricular systole. The sound is caused by the
closure of the valves separating each ventricle from its atrium. The first
sound (the lub) happens when the mitral and tricuspid valves close. The
next sound (the dub) happens when the aortic and pulmonary valves
close after the blood has been squeezed out of the heart.

 The heart is a muscular organ in most animals, which pumps blood

through the blood vessels of the circulatory system. The pumped blood
carries oxygen and nutrients to the body, while carrying metabolic waste
such as carbon dioxide to the lungs.

 Tracheid, in botany, primitive element of xylem (fluid-conducting

tissues), consisting of a single elongated cell with pointed ends and a
secondary, cellulosic wall thickened with lignin (a chemical binding
substance) containing numerous pits but having no perforations in the
primary cell wall. A tracheid is a long, lignified cell in the xylem of
vascular plants. Tracheid first named after the German botanist Carl
Gustav Sanio in 1863. Used from deutsch Tracheide. There are often pits
or decoratives on the cell walls of tube cells. When mature, tracheids do
not have a protoplast

 Vascular tissue is comprised of the xylem and the phloem, the main
transport systems of plants. They typically occur together in vascular
bundles in all plant organs, traversing roots, stems, and leaves. Xylem is
responsible for the transport of water and dissolved ions from the roots
upwards through the plant.

 Mature sclerenchyma cells are usually dead cells that have heavily
thickened secondary walls containing lignin. Collenchyma cells mainly
form supporting tissue and have irregular cell walls. They are found
mainly in the cortex of stems and in leaves. The major function of
sclerenchyma is support. Lignin is a complex polymer comprised of
aromatic alcohols known as monolignols. It is the most abundant natural
polymer typically found in plant cell walls. Unlike the rest of the
polymers, lignin is not composed of carbohydrate monomers.

 The longest instance of someone holding their breath without inhaling

pure oxygen beforehand is 11 minutes and 34 seconds. However, most
people can only safely hold their breath for 1 to 2 minutes. The amount
 of time you can comfortably and safely hold your breath depends on
your specific body and genetics.

 The partial pressure of oxygen, also known as PaO2, is a measurement of

oxygen pressure in arterial blood. It reflects how well oxygen is able to
move from the lungs to the blood, and it is often altered by severe
illnesses. The partial pressure of oxygen is high in the alveoli and low in
the blood of the pulmonary capillaries. As a result, oxygen diffuses
across the respiratory membrane from the alveoli into the blood. In
contrast, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is high in the pulmonary
capillaries and low in the alveoli.

 The trachea is composed of about 20 rings of tough cartilage. The back

part of each ring is made of muscle and connective tissue. Moist, smooth
tissue called mucosa lines the inside of the trachea. The trachea widens
and lengthens slightly with each breath in, returning to its resting size
with each breath out.

 Cartilage is a non-vascular type of supporting connective tissue that is

found throughout the body . Cartilage is a flexible connective tissue that
differs from bone in several ways; it is avascular and its
microarchitecture is less organized than bone. Cartilage is an important
structural component of the body. It is a firm tissue but is softer and
much more flexible than bone. Cartilage is a connective tissue found in
many areas of the body including: Joints between bones e.g. the elbows,
knees and ankles.

 The xylem vessel is one of the two cell types of tracheary elements, the
other is the tracheid. These two are the water conducting elements in
vascular plants. ... Most angiosperms (flowering plants) have both xylem
vessels and tracheids but the xylem vessels serve as the major
conductive element.

 The airway that leads from the larynx (voice box) to the bronchi (large
airways that lead to the lungs). Also called windpipe

 Rhizosphere is the region of soil in the vicinity of plant roots in which the
chemistry and microbiology is influenced by their growth, respiration,
and nutrient exchange. Rhizosphere also known as the microbe
storehouse is the soil zone surrounding the plant roots where the
 biological and chemical features of the soil are influenced by the roots.
The rhizosphere is coined more than hundred years ago by Hiltner in
1904.

 Crown galls are a kind of plant cancer, caused by the bacterium

Agrobacterium tumefaciens (pictured). This causes uncontrolled growth
of plant cells around the infection, just like a tumour. Other tumours can
be triggered by fungi or physical damage.

 Chromosomes are thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of

animal and plant cells. Each chromosome is made of protein and a single
molecule of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Passed from parents to
offspring, DNA contains the specific instructions that make each type of
living creature unique

 Diploid describes a cell that contain two copies of each chromosome.

Nearly all the cells in the human body carry two homologous, or similar,
copies of each chromosome. The only exception is cells in the germ line,
which go on to produce gametes, or egg and sperm cells.

 Paternal inheritance refers to the transmission of any attribute from a

father to his offspring. Most paternally inherited traits can be explained
by the inheritance of nuclear genes, which are contributed by the male
parent and expressed in his progeny.

 A form of inheritance wherein the traits of the offspring are maternal in

origin due to the expression of extranuclear DNA present in the ovum
during fertilization.

 Triploidy is the presence of an additional set of chromosomes in the cell

for a total of 69 chromosomes rather than the normal 46 chromosomes
per cell. The extra set of chromosomes originates either from the father
or the mother during fertilization.

 “Plants don't get cancer like animals do,” said Susan K. Pell, director of
science at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden, “and the tumors they do get do
not metastasize because plant cells don't move around.” Rather, they
are held in place by cell walls.
 Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the
potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. These contrast
with benign tumors, which do not spread. Cancer describes an
enormous spectrum of diseases that all originate from uncontrolled
cellular growth. Broadly divided into benign tumors (unable to
metastasize) or malignant tumors (able to invade normal tissues),
cancers are further defined and classified by their cell type, tissue, or
organ of origin. Cancer is a disease in which some of the body's cells
grow uncontrollably and spread to other parts of the body.

 Abnormal mitosis is a hallmark of cancer cells in which regulatory

mechanisms are perturbed leading to uncontrolled cell division with
growth advantages of cells lacking tumor suppressor genes which results
in characteristic tumor tissue.

 Spiders are air-breathing arthropods that have eight legs, chelicerae with
fangs generally able to inject venom, and spinnerets that extrude silk.
They are the largest order of arachnids and rank seventh in total species
diversity among all orders of organisms

 Arachnids are spiders , harvestmen , mites and ticks , and their relatives
like scorpions that don't live in Michigan. All arachnids have eight legs,
and unlike insects, they don't have antennae. ... Arachnids are part of a
larger group called arthropods , which also includes insects, myriapods,
and crustaceans.

 A cuticle, or cuticula, is any of a variety of tough but flexible, non-

mineral outer coverings of an organism, or parts of an organism, that
provide protection. Various types of "cuticle" are non-homologous,
differing in their origin, structure, function, and chemical composition

 Dehydration occurs when you use or lose more fluid than you take in,
and your body doesn't have enough water and other fluids to carry out
its normal functions. If you don't replace lost fluids, you will get
dehydrated
 Abstract. Dehydration survival under drought stress is defined in this
review as the transition from plant activity into a quiescent state of life
preservation, which will be terminated by either recovery or death,
depending on the stress regime and the plant's resilience
 Sucrose is made up of one molecule of glucose and one molecule of
fructose joined together. It is a disaccharide, a molecule composed of
two monosaccharides: glucose and fructose. Sucrose is produced
naturally in plants, from which table sugar is refined. It has the
molecular formula C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁.

 Villus, plural villi, in anatomy any of the small, slender, vascular

projections that increase the surface area of a membrane. Important
villous membranes include the placenta and the mucous-membrane
coating of the small intestine. ... The large number of villi give the
internal intestinal wall a velvety appearance.

 The finger-like projections in the small intestine of humans are known as

villi. The shape of the villi is to extend into the lumen of the small
intestine. ... Villi increases the internal surface area of the intestinal walls
so that a greater surface area will be available for absorption.

 Sweat glands are coiled tubular structures vital for regulating human
body temperature. Humans have three different types of sweat
glands: eccrine, apocrine, and apoeccrine. Eccrine sweat glands are
abundantly distributed all over the skin and mainly secrete water and
electrolytes through the surface of the skin.

 Your eyes probably water when you yawn because your facial muscles
tighten up and your eyes get all scrunched up, causing any excess tears
to spill out.

 Normally, the appendix sits in the lower right abdomen. The function of

the appendix is unknown. One theory is that the appendix acts as a
storehouse for good bacteria, “rebooting” the digestive system after
diarrheal illnesses. Other experts believe the appendix is just a useless
remnant from our evolutionary past. Researchers deduce that the
appendix is designed to protect good bacteria in the gut. That way, when
the gut is affected by a bout of diarrhea or other illness that cleans out
the intestines, the good bacteria in the appendix can repopulate the
digestive system and keep you healthy.

 Alcohol changes the chemicals that break down and remove scar tissue.
This means that scar tissue builds up in the liver. Scar tissue replaces
 normal healthy cells. This means that the liver can't work properly and
can fail, leading to death. When you drink alcohol, you don't digest
alcohol. It passes quickly into your bloodstream and travels to every part
of your body. Alcohol affects your brain first, then your kidneys, lungs
and liver. The effect on your body depends on your age, gender, weight
and the type of alcohol. Difficulty walking, blurred vision, slurred speech,
slowed reaction times, impaired memory: Clearly, alcohol affects the
brain. Some of these impairments are detectable after only one or two
drinks and quickly resolve when drinking stops

 Therefore, this is the correct statement. Statement D: The heart of the

frog can excite by itself and it does not need a nervous system to excite,
Hence the heart of the frog is autoexcitable. Due to this feature, the
heart of the frog can beat even after the removal of the heart from the
frog's body.

 Peristalsis is a series of wave-like muscle contractions that move food

through the digestive tract. It starts in the esophagus where strong
wave-like motions of the smooth muscle move balls of swallowed food
to the stomach. ... Stretching out a piece of intestine will make it easier
to see the wave-like motion.

 The heart has its own electrical system that causes it to beat and pump
blood. Because of this, the heart can continue to beat for a short time
after brain death, or after being removed from the body. The heart will
keep beating as long as it has oxygen. Your heart is a busy organ.

 Much of the reduced contractility can be accounted for by the severity

of the acidosis. Although a mild acidosis can delay or prevent damage to
the myocardium from ischaemia or hypoxia, a severe acidosis is not
beneficial and may even cause tissue necrosis

 Actin filaments, usually in association with myosin, are responsible for

many types of cell movements. Myosin is the prototype of a molecular
motor—a protein that converts chemical energy in the form of ATP to
mechanical energy, thus generating force and movement.
 Ligaments are bands of tough elastic tissue around your joints.
They connect bone to bone, give your joints support, and limit their
movement. You have ligaments around your knees, ankles, elbows,
shoulders, and other joints. Stretching or tearing them can make
your joints unstable.

 Cartilage is a flexible connective tissue that keeps joint

motion fluid by coating the surfaces of the bones in our joints and
by cushioning bones against impact. It is not as rigid as bone, but
is stiffer and less flexible than muscle tissue.

 The human body is a remarkable machine comprised of 270 bones

at birth which later decreases to 206 due to fusion of some of our
bones as we age. The joints connect bone to bone, and there are
360 joints in our bodies.

 A joint is the part of the body where two or more bones meet to
allow movement. Generally speaking, the greater the range of
movement, the higher the risk of injury because the strength of the
joint is reduced. The six types of freely movable joint include ball
and socket, saddle, hinge, condyloid, pivot and gliding

 Ball and socket joint. Permitting movement in all directions, the

ball and socket joint features the rounded head of one bone sitting
in the cup of another bone. Examples include your shoulder joint
and your hip joint. Hinge joint. The hinge joint is like a door,
opening and closing in one direction, along one plane. Examples
include your elbow joint and your knee joint. Condyloid joint. The
condyloid joint allows movement, but no rotation. Examples
include your finger joints and your jaw. Pivot
 joint. The pivot joint, also called the rotary joint or trochoid joint, is
characterized by one bone that can swivel in a ring formed from a
second bone. Examples are the joints between your ulna and
 radius bones that rotate your forearm, and the joint between the
first and second vertebrae in your neck. Gliding joint. The gliding
joint is also called the plane join. Although it only permits limited
movement, it’s characterized by smooth surfaces that can slip
over one another. An example is the
 Ball-and-socket joints possess a rounded, ball-like end of one bone
fitting into a cuplike socket of another bone. This organization
allows the greatest range of motion, as all movement types are
possible in all directions. Examples of ball-and-socket joints are
the shoulder and hip joints
 Synovial fluid, also known as joint fluid, is a thick liquid located
between your joints. The fluid cushions the ends of bones and
reduces friction when you move your joints. A synovial fluid
analysis is a group of tests that checks for disorders that affect
the joints.
 Examples of loose connective tissue include areolar tissue and
reticular connective tissue.
 transporting oxygen and nutrients to the lungs and tissues.
forming blood clots to prevent excess blood loss. carrying cells
and antibodies that fight infection. bringing waste products to the
kidneys and liver, which filter and clean the blood.
 Loose connective tissue (also called areolar connective tissue) is a
category of connective tissue which includes areolar tissue,
reticular tissue, and adipose tissue. ... It holds organs in place and
attaches epithelial tissue to other underlying tissue
 Cartilage is a form of connective tissue in which the ground
substance is abundant and of a firmly gelated consistency that
endows this tissue with unusual rigidity and resistance to
compression. The cells of cartilage, called chondrocytes, are
isolated in small lacunae within the matrix.
 About fingersprint tissue : From this explanation, the verse in Surah
al-Qiyamah speaks about taking the fingerprints on all fingers, not
on one finger only because the word banan is plural. From that it is
not strange that fingerprints are a sign of the greatness of Allah in
whom His secrets of creation lie.
 The retina is a complex ocular structure that converts wavelengths
of light into neuronal signals that become perceived visual images.
 From: Progress in Molecular Biology and Translational Science,
2015
 The retina is the layer of cells lining the back wall inside the eye.
This layer senses light and sends signals to the brain so you can
see. Several parts of the eye are associated with the retina. They
include: Peripheral retina
 The meristem is a type of tissue found in plants. It consists of
undifferentiated cells capable of cell division. Cells in the meristem
can develop into all the other tissues and organs that occur in
plants. These cells continue to divide until a time when they get
differentiated and then lose the ability to divide
 Girth is a measurement of the distance around the trunk of a tree
measured perpendicular to the axis of the trunk. In the United
States it is measured at breast height, or at 4.5 feet (1.4 m) above
ground level.
 The petiole is a stalk that connects the blade with the leaf base.
The blade is the major photosynthetic surface of the plant and
appears green and flattened in a plane perpendicular to the stem. =
batang urat daun
 Phloem is the vascular tissue that transports carbon
(photosynthates) from the leaves to basal parts of the plant, and
vascular cambium is undifferentiated tissue responsible for
secondary growth and repair of damaged phloem (Lalonde et al.,
2004).
 Cambium, plural Cambiums, orCambia, in plants, layer of actively
dividing cells between xylem (wood) and phloem (bast) tissues
that is responsible for the secondary growth of stems and roots
(secondary growth occurs after the first season and results in
increase in thickness).
 Phloem (/ˈfloʊ. əm/, FLOH-əm) is the living tissue in vascular
plants that transports the soluble organic compounds made during
photosynthesis and known as photosynthates, in particular the
sugar sucrose, to parts of the plant where needed. This transport
process is called translocation.
 The enzymes made by the pancreas include: Pancreatic proteases
(such as trypsin and chymotrypsin) - which help to digest proteins.
 Pancreatic amylase - which helps to digest sugars
(carbohydrates). Pancreatic lipase - which helps to digest fat.
 The digestion of starch begins with salivary amylase, but this
activity is much less important than that of pancreatic amylase in
the small intestine. Amylase hydrolyzes starch, with the primary
end products being maltose, maltotriose, and a -dextrins, although
some glucose is also produced.
 Maltose is a sugar made out of two glucose molecules bound
together. It's created in seeds and other parts of plants as they
break down their stored energy in order to sprout. Thus, foods like
cereals, certain fruits and sweet potatoes contain naturally high
amounts of this sugar..(sec level of sugar)
 Monosaccharides (from Greek monos: single, sacchar: sugar), also
called simple sugars, are the simplest form of sugar and the most
basic units (monomers) of carbohydrates. ... Examples of
monosaccharides include glucose (dextrose), fructose (levulose),
and galactose. Starch - maltose-glucose
 Amylase is an enzyme produced primarily by the pancreas and the
salivary glands to help digest carbohydrates. This test measures
the amount of amylase in the blood or urine or sometimes in
peritoneal fluid, which is fluid found between the membranes that
cover the abdominal cavity and the outside of abdominal organs.
 Maltase is one type of alpha-glucosidase enzymes located in the
brush border of the small intestine. This enzyme catalyzes the
hydrolysis of disaccharide maltose into two simple sugars of
glucose. Maltase is found in plants, bacteria, yeast, humans, and
other vertebrates.
 The main hormones secreted by the endocrine gland in the
pancreas are insulin and glucagon, which regulate the level of
glucose in the blood, and somatostatin, which prevents the release
of insulin and glucagon.\
 Insulin helps the cells absorb glucose, reducing blood sugar and
providing the cells with glucose for energy. When blood sugar
levels are too low, the pancreas releases glucagon. Glucagon
instructs the liver to release stored glucose, which causes blood
sugar to rise.
 Liver cells (hepatocytes) have glucagon receptors. When glucagon
binds to the glucagon receptors, the liver cells convert the
glycogen into individual glucose molecules and release them into
the bloodstream, in a process known as glycogenolysis
 Diabetes mellitus refers to a group of diseases that affect how
your body uses blood sugar (glucose). Glucose is vital to your
health because it's an important source of energy for the cells that
make up your muscles and tissues. It's also your brain's main
source of fuel.\
 Homeostasis is any self-regulating process by which an
organism tends to maintain stability while adjusting to
conditions that are best for its survival. ... The “stability” that
the organism reaches is rarely around an exact point (such as the
idealized human body temperature of 37 °C [98.6 °F]).
 In biology, homeostasis is the state of steady internal, physical,
and chemical conditions maintained by living systems. This is the
condition of optimal functioning for the organism and includes
many variables, such as body temperature and fluid balance,
being kept within certain pre-set limits
 A blood glucose test is a blood test that screens for diabetes by
measuring the level of glucose (sugar) in a person's blood. Normal
blood glucose level (while fasting) range within 70 to 99 mg/dL
(3.9 to 5.5 mmol/L). Higher ranges could indicate pre-diabetes or
diabetes.
 Having too much sugar in the blood for long periods of time can
cause serious health problems if it's not treated. Hyperglycemia
can damage the vessels that supply blood to vital organs, which
can increase the risk of heart disease and stroke, kidney disease,
vision problems, and nerve problems
 If you don't eat, your blood sugar levels are lower and medication
may drop them even more, which can lead to hypoglycemia.
Hypoglycemia can cause you to feel shaky, pass out, or even go
into a coma. When you “break” your fast by eating, you may also be
more likely to develop too-high blood sugar levels.
 Digestive enzymes play a key role in breaking down the food you
eat. These proteins speed up chemical reactions that turn
nutrients into substances that your digestive tract can absorb.
 Your saliva has digestive enzymes in it. Some of your organs,
including your pancreas, gallbladder, and liver, also release them.
 Goblet cells (GCs) are specialized epithelial cells that line multiple
mucosal surfaces and have a well-appreciated role in barrier
maintenance through the secretion of mucus. Moreover, GCs
secrete anti-microbial proteins, chemokines, and cytokines
demonstrating functions in innate immunity beyond barrier
maintenance.
 A gland is a group of cells in an animal's body that synthesizes
substances (such as hormones) for release into the bloodstream
(endocrine gland) or into cavities inside the body or its outer
surface (exocrine gland).
 A gland is an organ which produces and releases substances that
perform a specific function in the body. There are two types of
gland. Endocrine glands are ductless glands and release the
substances that they make (hormones) directly into the
bloodstream.

 During digestion, your pancreas makes pancreatic juices called enzymes. These enzymes
break down sugars, fats, and starches. Your pancreas also helps your digestive system by
making hormones. These are chemical messengers that travel through your blood.

 The pancreas is an organ located in the abdomen. It plays an essential role in converting the
food we eat into fuel for the body's cells. The pancreas has two main functions: an exocrine
function that helps in digestion and an endocrine function that regulates blood sugar.

 The pancreas contains exocrine glands that produce enzymes important to digestion. These
enzymes include trypsin and chymotrypsin to digest proteins; amylase for the digestion of
carbohydrates; and lipase to break down fats.

 The pancreas is located behind the stomach in the upper left abdomen. It is surrounded by
other organs including the small intestine, liver, and spleen. It is spongy, about six to ten
inches long, and is shaped like a flat pear or a fish extended horizontally across the abdomen

 Trypsin is an enzyme that aids with digestion. An enzyme is a protein that speeds up a certain
biochemical reaction. Trypsin is found in the small intestine. It can also be made from fungus,
plants, and bacteria. But it is usually made for commercial purposes from the pancreas of
livestock.

 The pancreas contains exocrine glands that produce enzymes important to digestion. These
enzymes include trypsin and chymotrypsin to digest proteins; amylase for the digestion of
carbohydrates; and lipase to break down fats.
 Pancreatic enzymes Lipase. This enzyme works together with bile, which your liver produces,
to break down fat in your diet. ... Protease. This enzyme breaks down proteins in your diet. ...
Amylase. This enzyme helps break down starches into sugar, which your body can use for
energy.
 NUVEISHWARAN A/L SEATHURAMAN Moe
 11:51 AM
 Trypsin is an enzyme that aids with digestion. An enzyme is a protein that speeds up a certain
biochemical reaction. Trypsin is found in the small intestine. It can also be made from fungus,
plants, and bacteria. But it is usually made for commercial purposes from the pancreas of
livestock.
 Amylase is an enzyme produced primarily by the pancreas and the salivary glands to help
digest carbohydrates. This test measures the amount of amylase in the blood or urine or
sometimes in peritoneal fluid, which is fluid found between the membranes that cover the
abdominal cavity and the outside of abdominal organs.
 Ptyalin is a starch hydrolyzing enzyme produced by human salivary glands. It is a form of
salivary amylase. Ptyalin, which is secreted in the mouth, aids in the digestion of starch in the
mouth. It hydrolyzes starch into maltose and isomaltose, as well as other small dextrins
known as the limit dextrins.
 The pancreas is an elongated, tapered organ located across the back of the belly, behind the
stomach. The right side of the organ—called the head—is the widest part of the organ and lies
in the curve of the duodenum, the first division of the small intestine.
 Functions of the liver The liver regulates most chemical levels in the blood and excretes a
product called bile. This helps carry away waste products from the liver. All the blood leaving
the stomach and intestines passes through the liver
 Bile is a digestive fluid produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder. ... Bile reflux occurs
when bile — a digestive liquid produced in your liver — backs up (refluxes) into your stomach
and, in some cases, into the tube that connects your mouth and stomach (esophagus). Bile is
the greenish-yellow fluid (consisting of waste products, cholesterol, and bile salts) that is
secreted by the liver cells to perform 2 primary functions: To carry away waste. To break
down fats during digestion.
 Your pancreas creates natural juices called pancreatic enzymes to break down foods. These
juices travel through your pancreas via ducts. They empty into the upper part of your small
intestine called the duodenum. Each day, your pancreas makes about 8 ounces of digestive
juice filled with enzymes.
 The main hormones secreted by the endocrine gland in the pancreas are insulin and
glucagon, which regulate the level of glucose in the blood, and somatostatin, which prevents
the release of insulin and glucagon.
