CHAPTER 28

• Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya are the three largest branches on the tree of life. (Fig. 28.1)
• Bacteria and archaea may look similar at first glance, but they are very different. (Table 28.1)
o Similarities: All bacteria and archaea are prokaryotic and unicellular.
o Fundament al differences:
Bacteria have cell walls made of peptidoglycan.
Archaea have unique phospholipids in the cell membranes.
Bacteria and archaea have different ribosome and RNA polymerase structures.
Archaea are more closely related to Eukarya than to Bacteria.

What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Bacteria and Archaea?

A. Morphological diversity
1. Size, shape, and motility (Fig. 28.7)
a. Bacteria vary greatly in size. For example, more than a billion of the smallest bacterium could fit inside
the largest bacterium.
b. Bacteria may be filaments, spheres, rods, chains, or spirals.
c. Many bacteria can swim or glide.
2. Cell wall composition and the Gram stain (Fig. 28.8)
a. Gram-positive bacteria have a cell wall with abundant peptidoglycan, which stains dark purple when
exposed to a Gram stain.
b. Gram-negative bacteria have a cell wall with a thin layer of peptidoglycan surrounded by a
phospholipid bilayer. They stain light pink.
c. Gram stain analysis can predict sensitivity to certain drugs.
(1) Gram-positive bacteria are often sensitive to penicillin-like drugs that disrupt peptidoglycan synthesis.
(2) Gram-negative bacteria are more likely to be affected by drugs that target bacterial ribosomes.
B. Metabolic diversity
1. Bacteria and archaea are astonishingly diverse in the ways they acquire energy to make ATP and the
carbon compounds they can use as building blocks.
2. There are three ways to acquire energy to produce ATP: (Table 28.3)
a. Phototrophs use light energy to energize electrons, producing ATP by photophosphorylation (light
reactions of photosynthesis).
b. Chemoorganotrophs oxidize organic molecules with high potential energy, such as sugars (cellular
respiration, fermentation).
c. Chemolithotrophs oxidize inorganic molecules with high potential energy, such as ammonia or
methane (usually via cellular respiration).
3. There are two ways to acquire carbon: (Table 28.3)
a. Autotrophs use carbon dioxide or methane to build their own carbon-containing compounds. Example:
Calvin cycle.
b. Heterotrophs acquire carbon-containing compounds from other organisms.

4. Overall, there are six major "feeding strategies" (the six possible combinations of three methods of
acquiring energy and two methods of acquiring carbon).
a. Plants, animals, fungi, and other eukaryotes use only two strategies.
b. Bacteria and archaea use all six. (Table 28.4)
c. Students should be able to match the six example species described in Table 28.3 to the appropriate
categories in Table 28.4.

5. Producing ATP via cellular respiration: variation in electron donors and acceptors

a. In cellular respiration, electrons are moved from molecules with high potential energy and gradually
"stepped down" to a molecule with low potential energy, using the released energy to make ATP. (Fig.
28.9)
b. Eukaryotes are chemoorganotrophs that use a sugar like glucose as the electron donor and oxygen as
the final electron acceptor.
c. Many bacteria and archaea are chemolithotrophs that use an electron donor that is not a sugar and often
an electron acceptor that is not oxygen. (Table 28.5)
(1) The electron donor may be hydrogen molecules, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, or methane.
(2) The electron acceptor may be sulfate, nitrate, carbon dioxide, or ferric ions.
6. Producing ATP via fermentation: variation in substrates
a. Fermentation is a strategy for making ATP from organic molecules that requires a separate electron
acceptor.
b. Fermentation is less efficient than respiration in making ATP.
c. Some bacteria ferment glucose to either ethanol or lactic acid.
d. Other bacteria use a variety of other organic compounds as fermentable substrates. Examples: ethanol,
fatty acids, complex carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids, lactose.

7. Producing ATP via photosynthesis: variation in electron sources and pigments

a. There are three forms of photosynthesis:
(1) Light activates a pigment that transports protons across a membrane, driving the synthesis of ATP via
chemiosmosis.
(2) Geothermal radiation can be used instead of light.
(3) Light can be absorbed by pigments that raise electrons to high- energy states. The electrons are
stepped down with electron transport chains, and the energy released is used to make ATP.
b. The form of photosynthesis that uses electron transport chains requires a source of electrons.
(1) Plants and cyanobacteria use oxygenic photosynthesis. This means they use water as the source of
electrons and produce oxygen as a by-product.
(2) Many bacteria use anoxygenic photosynthesis, using a molecule other than water as the source of
electrons. Examples: hydrogen sulfide, ferrous iron. (They also produce by-products other than oxygen.)

8. Obtaining building-block compounds: variation in pathways for fixing carbon

a. Autotrophs can build their own carbon compounds.
(1) Plants (and cyanobacteria) fix CO2 with the enzymes of the Calvin cycle.
(2) Some bacteria also fix CO2 but use different enzymatic pathways to do so⎯that is, not the Calvin
cycle.
(3) Some bacteria use a molecule other than CO2 as the starting point. Examples: methane, carbon
monoxide, methanol.
b. Heterotrophs obtain organic compounds from other organisms.
(1) Animals, fungi, and many bacteria and archaea use this strategy.

9. Students should be able to defend the claim that, in terms of metabolism, bacteria and archaea are much
more sophisticated than eukaryotes. C. Ecological diversity and global change
1. Bacteria and archaea have altered the chemical composition of the oceans, the atmosphere, and
terrestrial environments for billions of years.

2. The oxygen revolution

a. No free O2 existed in Earth's atmosphere for 2.3 billion years.
b. Cyanobacteria were the first organisms to perform oxygenic photosynthesis, and they are responsible
for the appearance of oxygen in Earth's atmosphere. (Fig. 28.10)
(1) The fossil record shows that cyanobacteria first became numerous in oceans 2.7−2.55 billion years
ago.
(2) Oxygen concentrations began to increase 2.3−2.1 billion years ago.
c. Once O2 was abundant, other organisms could use it as an electron acceptor. The evolution of aerobic
respiration was a crucial event in the history of life. (Fig. 28.11)

3. Nitrogen fixation and the nitrogen cycle (Fig. 28.12)

a. Plant growth is often limited by the availability of nitrogen, but plants cannot use molecular nitrogen
(N2) from the atmosphere.
(1) Some bacteria absorb N2 from the atmosphere and fix or reduce it to NH3, ammonia, a form that
plants can use.
(2) Other bacteria and archaea convert ammonia to nitrates and nitrites, resulting in a complex nitrogen
cycle. (Fig. 28.13)

4. Nitrate pollution
a. Most farmers use synthetic fertilizers, which often contain ammonia, to add nitrogen to soils and
increase crop yields.
b. Bacteria convert the ammonia in fertilizer runoff into nitrates.
c. This has led to worldwide pollution of aquatic ecosystems with excessive nitrates, which causes
overgrowth of algae and results in anoxic "dead zones."

IV. Key Lineages of Bacteria and Archaea

A. Bacteria. At least 16 major phyla now known; 6 are featured here.
1. Firmicutes: low-GC Gram-positives (Fig. 28.15)
a. Traits: Most are rod shaped or spherical.
b. Human and ecological impact: They are very common in the human gut. Some cause anthrax,
botulism, tetanus, gangrene, strep throat, and other diseases. Lactobacillus is used to ferment milk to
make yogurt or cheese.
2. Spirochaetes (spirochetes) (Fig. 28.16)
a. This lineage branches near the base of the bacterial phylogenetic tree.
b. Traits: They have a unique corkscrew shape, with flagella housed in a sheath. Most make ATP via
fermentation.
c. Human and ecological impact: They cause syphilis and Lyme disease. Many live in freshwater and
marine habitats, some in anaerobic conditions.

3. Actinobacteria: high-GC Gram-positives (Fig. 28.17)

a. Traits: They form rods, filaments, and sometimes mycelia. Many are heterotrophs. Some are parasitic.
b. Human and ecological impact: They cause tuberculosis and leprosy. Many antibiotics have been
isolated from Streptomyces. One species is important for making Swiss cheese. Species in this group live
in plant roots and fix nitrogen.
4. Chlamydiae (Fig. 28.18)
a. Traits: They are spherical and tiny. All are endosymbionts and live in hosts.
b. Human and ecological impact: Chlamydia trachomatis infections cause blindness and urogenital tract
infections in humans.

5. Cyanobacteria ("blue-green algae") (Fig. 28.19)

a. Traits: They are highly diverse in morphology. Some form colonies. All perform oxygenic
photosynthesis, and some can fix nitrogen.
b. Human and ecological impact: They produce much of the oxygen and nitrogen that other species need.
A few species live with fungi, forming lichens.

6. Proteobacteria (Fig. 28.20)

a. This very diverse lineage is divided into five subgroups designated by the Greek letters α, β, γ, δ, and ε.
b. Traits: Their morphology is very diverse. They use every metabolic strategy except oxygenic
photosynthesis.
c. Human and ecological impact: They cause Legionnaire’s disease, cholera, food poisoning, dysentery,
ulcers, diarrhea, and other diseases. Rhizobium live in the root nodules of legumes and fix nitrogen.
Escherichia coli, the best-studied bacterium, is in this group.
B. Archaea. At least three major phyla are known.
1. Crenarchaeota, are perhaps the oldest lineage of archaeans. (Fig. 28.21)
a. Traits: They have highly diverse morphology and metabolism.
b. Human and ecological impacts: Some are extremophiles and may be the only life-form present in
certain environments, such as extremely acid pH and extremely deep sea.

2. Euryarchaeota (Fig. 28.22)

a. Traits: They have highly diverse morphology and metabolism. Many species produce methane
(methanogens). They are found in every conceivable habitat.
b. Human and ecological impact: Ferroplasma live in piles of waste rocks near abandoned mines and
produce acids that pollute nearby streams. Methanogens live in the mammalian gut.
3. Korarcheaota were recently discovered through direct sequencing. Almost nothing is known about
them, and they have never been grown in culture.
CHAPTER 29- Protist

What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Protists?

A. What morphological innovations evolved in protists?
1. Early eukaryotes had a nuclear envelope, an endomembrane system, mitochondria, a cytoskeleton, a
flagellum, and no cell wall.
2. The nuclear envelope
a. The nuclear envelope likely arose as infoldings of the plasma membrane that also gave rise to the
endoplasmic reticulum. (Fig. 29.8) (1)
b. The nuclear envelope allowed for the separation of transcription and translation. This enabled
alternative splicing and gave early eukaryotes more ways to control gene expression.
c. Different major lineages of protists have different types of nuclei.

3. Endosymbiosis and the origin of the mitochondrion

a. The endosymbiosis theory (Lynn Margulis, 1981) proposes that mitochondria evolved from an aerobic
bacterium that was engulfed by an anaerobic eukaryotic cell. (Fig. 29.9). This became a mutually
beneficial symbiosis: The host supplied the bacterium with protection and carbon compounds, and the
bacterium produced much more ATP than the host could produce on its own.
b. Many lines of evidence now support this theory.
(1) Mitochondria are similar in size to ˜-proteobacteria.
(2) They divide independently of the host cell, and they divide by fission, as bacteria do.
(3) They have their own ribosomes and synthesize their own proteins, and the ribosomes are similar in
many ways to bacterial ribosomes.
(4) They have double membranes, as would be expected if they were engulfed by another cell.
(5) They have their own chromosomes, which are circular and similar to bacterial chromosomes.
(6) The most conclusive evidence is that mitochondrial genes are very closely related to the genes from ˜-
proteobacteria. (Fig. 29.10)

4. Structures for support and protection

a. The diversification of protists has been associated with the evolution of innovative structures for
support and protection: (Fig. 29.11)
(1) Glass-like shells in a box-and-lid arrangement (diatoms)
(2) A cell wall made of cellulose plates (dinoflagellates)
(3) Chambers of calcium carbonate (Foraminifera)
(4) Coverings of tiny pebbles (other Foraminifera and some amoebae)
(5) An internal support rod (parabasalids)
(6) A collection of protein strips under the plasma membrane (euglenids)
(7) Sac-like structures (alveolates)

5. Multicellularity
a. Multicellular organisms contain more than one cell and have cells that are specialized for different
functions and express different genes.
b. The vast majority of multicellular species are eukaryotes. c. Multicellularity evolved independently in
several eukaryotic lineages: green plants, fungi, animals, brown algae, slime molds, and red algae.

B. How do protists obtain food?

1. Ingestive feeding
a. The large cell size of protists enabled some of them to develop a unique feeding strategy: ingesting
other organisms (ingestive feeding).
b. Ingestion can occur by eating live or dead organisms or scavenging loose bits of organic debris.
c. Protists that feed by engulfing typically lack a cell wall and can move their plasma membranes around
their prey using pseudopodia. (Fig. 29.12a)
d. Some ingestive feeders sit and wait for prey to come by or have cilia that move the environment by
them. (Fig. 29.12b)

2. Absorptive feeding
a. Some absorptive-feeding protists are decomposers and feed on detritus (dead organic matter).
b. Others live inside other organisms. Absorptive feeders that damage their hosts are called parasites.

3. Photosynthesis ⎯endosymbiosis and the origin of the chloroplast

a. The eukaryotic chloroplast is thought to have originated when a protist engulfed a photosynthetic
cyanobacterium (endosymbiosis theory).
b. Evidence for the endosymbiosis theory of chloroplasts:
(1) Chloroplasts have the same bacterial characteristics that mitochondria have (bacterial ribosomes,
reproduction by fission, etc.).
(2) Many endosymbiotic cyanobacteria live inside protists or animals today.
(3) Chloroplast genes are very similar to cyanobacterial genes.
(4) Photosynthetic organelles of some protists have the same cell wall component (peptidoglycan) found
in the cell walls of cyanobacteria.
(5) Chloroplasts have the same chlorophylls and the same system of internal membranes found in certain
cyanobacteria.

4. Photosynthesis ⎯primary versus secondary endosymbiosis

a. Several lineages of protists have chloroplasts that are surrounded by four membranes instead of two. b.
This may have occurred when one eukaryotic species engulfed a second eukaryotic species that already
contained an engulfed cyanobacterium. (Figs. 29.13 and 29.14)

5. Photosynthesis ⎯diversification in pigments

a. Most photosynthetic lineages contain a unique collection of photosynthetic pigments.
b. The presence of different pigments means that different species absorb different wavelengths and
therefore avoid competition with one another. (Table 29.3)

C. How do protists move?

1. Amoeboid motion is a sliding movement produced by extensions of the cell, called pseudopodia, into
which the cytoplasm streams. (Fig. 29.15)

2. Other protists move using cilia or flagella.

a. Flagella and cilia are identical in structure; each is composed of nine sets of doublet microtubules and
two central, single microtubules.
b. Flagella are long and usually single or paired. (Fig. 29.16a) Cilia are short and numerous. (Fig. 29.16b)

3. Even closely related protists can use very different forms of locomotion.

D. How do protists reproduce?

1. Sexual reproduction evolved in protists and is one of the most significant evolutionary innovations of
the eukaryotes.
a. Asexual reproduction occurs via mitosis (protists) or fission (bacteria, archaea). Offspring are
genetically identical to the parents.
b. Sexual reproduction occurs via meiosis and fusion of gametes. Offspring are genetically different from
the parents.
2. Sexual versus asexual reproduction
a. Genetically variable offspring have a better chance of surviving in a changing environment.
b. Pathogens and parasites are highly variable aspects of the environment because they evolve quickly.
Thus, sexual reproduction may primarily be an adaptation to fight disease and parasites.

E. Life cycles⎯ haploid- versus diploid-dominated

1. The evolution of meiosis created a distinction between haploid and diploid phases in life cycles.
a. Either the haploid or diploid phase may be longer and more prominent than the other (Fig. 29.17a, b),
or both may be prominent (Fig. 29.18).
2. Life cycles⎯ alternation of generations (Fig. 29.18)
a. Alternation of generations is a type of life cycle that includes both multicellular haploid and
multicellular diploid phases.
b. Diploid sporophytes produce haploid spores by meiosis; haploid gametophytes produce haploid
gametes by mitosis.

CHAPTER 30 - Green Algae and Land Plants

1. Similarities between green algae and land plants

a. Both have chloroplasts with chlorophyll a and b and ˜-carotene.
b. They have similar structure and composition of their thylakoids, cell walls, sperm, and peroxisomes.
c. They both synthesize starch as a storage product.
d. The ancestor of land plants was probably a multicellular green alga that lived in freshwater, similar to
stoneworts. (Fig. 30.4)

2. Morphological differences among land plants

a. Non-vascular plants (bryophytes) lack vascular tissue. (Fig. 30.5a)
b. Seedless vascular plants have vascular tissue but do not make seeds. (Fig. 30.5b)
c. Seed plants have vascular tissue and make seeds. (Fig. 30.5c)

3. Plants alternate between a multicellular haploid stage and a multicellular diploid stage. (Fig. 30.14)
(1) A haploid, multicellular form called the gametophyte produces haploid gametes via mitosis.
(2) Two gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote.
(3) The zygote grows via mitosis to become the diploid multicellular form, called the sporophyte.
(4) The diploid sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis.
(5) A spore grows via mitosis to become a new gametophyte.

4. The gametophyte-dominant to sporophyte-dominant trend in life cycles

a. In non-vascular plants, the dominant form is the haploid gametophyte. (Fig. 30.15a)
b. In ferns, the diploid sporophyte is larger. (Fig. 30.15b)
c. In gymnosperms and angiosperms, the sporophyte is dominant and the microscopic gametophyte is
retained within the sporophyte.

Heterospory

a. All non-vascular plants and most seedless vascular plants are homosporous, meaning that they produce
a single type of spore. (Fig. 30.17a)
b. Seed plants are heterosporous, with two distinct spore-producing structures that produce two types of
spores. (Fig. 30.17b)
(1) Microsporangia make microspores. Microspores grow to become male gametophytes, which produce
the sperm.
(2) Megasporangia make megaspores. Megaspores grow to become female gametophytes, which produce
the eggs.
(3) The gametophytes of seed plants are either male or female, but never both.

Pollen
a. A pollen grain is a tiny male gametophyte surrounded by a tough coat of sporopollenin.
b. When pollen evolved, heterosporous plants no longer needed water to accomplish fertilization. Instead
of swimming to the egg as a naked sperm cell, the tiny male gametophytes took to the skies.

Seeds
a. A seed includes an embryo and a food supply surrounded by a tough coat.
b. Seeds enable embryos to be dispersed to new habitats. (Fig. 30.18)
c. A summary of the traits of seed plants can be seen in the life cycle of a pine tree. (Fig. 30.19)
Flowers
a. Flowering plants (angiosperms) are the most successful land plants.
b. Flowers contain two reproductive structures: stamens and carpels. (Fig. 30.20)
(1) Stamens have anthers, which contain the microsporangia.
(2) Carpels have ovaries, containing ovules, which contain the megasporangia.
(i) The evolution of the ovary was a key innovation that protects female gametophytes from insects and
other predators.
c. In double fertilization, a pollen grain produces two sperm cells. One sperm cell fuses with the egg to
form an embryo. The other sperm cell fuses with two nuclei in the female gametophyte to form triploid
endosperm.

(1) The adaptive significance of double fertilization is still not understood.

Pollination by insects and other animals

a. Sepals and petals enclose the ovary and give flowers a wide variety of colors, shapes, and smells.
b. Directed-pollination hypothesis: Flowers are an adaptation to attract specific pollinators (rather than
leaving pollination to the wind), thus increasing the probability that pollination will occur.
c. Evidence for this hypothesis: The characteristics of a flower (scent, flower shape, color, etc.) correlate
with the characteristics of its pollinator.
Examples: carrion flowers, hummingbird-pollinated flowers, bee- pollinated flowers. (Fig. 30.21)

Experimental evidence: the spur length of the Disa draconis orchid

(1) Flowers with artificially shortened spurs received less pollen than did control flowers with long spurs.
(Fig. 30.22)
(2) Conclusion: Spur length is an adaptation that increases the frequency of pollination.

Fruits
a. A fruit is a structure that is derived from the ovary and encloses one or more seeds. (Fig. 30.23a)
b. A fruit is an adaptation for seed dispersal. Fruit tissues are nutritious and attractive, so animals eat the
fruit and disperse the seeds via their feces. (Fig. 30.23b)

Summary: Once land plants could grow efficiently in dry habitats, traits associated with pollination and
seed dispersal drove further diversification. (Fig. 30.24)

CHAPTER 31 – Fungi
o Fungi are one of the three major lineages of multicellular eukaryotes.
o Fungi absorb carbon and energy from other organisms.
o Fungi may be decomposers or parasitic or beneficial symbiotes.
o Fungi play a key role in nutrient cycling in terrestrial ecosystems
o Fungi are almost the only organisms capable of digesting both cellulose and lignin, recycling carbon
into glucose and carbon dioxide
1. Fungi have only two growth forms:
a. Single-celled yeasts (Fig. 31.4a)
b. Multicellular, filamentous mycelia. (Fig. 31.4b)

2. The nature of the fungal mycelium

a. Mycelia can be very long-lived and very large.
b. Mycelia constantly grow in the direction of food sources and die back when food is scarce.
c. Mycelia are made up of individual filaments called hyphae. (Fig. 31.5a)

3. The nature of hyphae

a. A hypha may have just one haploid nucleus or several (heterokaryotic). Most heterokaryotic hyphae are
dikaryotic (two nuclei per cell, one from each parent).
b. A hypha is a long, narrow filament that branches frequently.
c. Each hypha is subdivided by septa (walls) with pores through which cytoplasm, organelles, and other
material can flow. (Fig. 31.5b) Due to this flow, a fungal mycelium is intermediate between a
multicellular organism and a large unicellular organism.
d. Hyphae are so thin that they can penetrate tiny fissures in the soil and absorb nutrients that plant roots
cannot reach.

4. Mycelia have a large surface area.

a. The shape of mycelia gives fungi the highest surface-area-to- volume ratio of all multicellular
organisms
b. The large surface area is important because fungi make their living via absorption; however, it also
makes fungi susceptible to dying out.

5. Fungi can perform sexual reproduction in one of four ways.

a. Chytrids have swimming gametes and spores. (Fig. 31.6a)
b. Zygomycetes produce a distinctive spore-producing structure called a zygosporangium, which develops
when haploid hyphae from two individuals meet. (Fig. 31.6b)
c. Basidiomycetes (mushrooms, puffballs, etc.) form spores in small pedestal-like structures called basidia
at the ends of hyphae. (Fig. 31.6c)
d. Ascomycetes produce spores with specialized cells called asci. (Fig. 31.6d)

B. Fungi participate in several types of mutualism.

1. Most plants are covered from tips to roots with mutualistic fungi.
2. Ectomycorrhizal fungi (EMF) (Fig. 31.10a)
a. EMF are often basidiomycetes (or occasionally ascomycetes).
b. They form a dense network of hyphae (0.1 mm thick) around plant roots, extending between root cells
and into the soil.
c. They are abundant in regions with warm summers and cold winters, and they are especially common on
trees of temperate and boreal forests.
d. EMF are the dominant nutrient-gathering organs in temperate forests.
(1) They secrete peptidases that break down proteins in decaying material, take up the amino acids, and
transfer them to the host plant.
(2) They also take up and transfer phosphorus to the host plant.
(3) Experiment: Birch seedlings grown in forest soil in pots without EMF cannot acquire sufficient N and
P for healthy growth.

3. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF; endomycorrhizal fungi) (Fig. 31.10b)

a. AMF are members of Glomeromycota.
b. Highly branched hyphae penetrate the cell walls of root cells and contact the plasma membrane
directly. (1) This increases the contact area for the exchange of molecules.
c. AMF occur in 80% of land plant species, especially in grasslands and tropical forests (areas with long,
warm growing seasons).
d. They deliver phosphorus to plants but not nitrogen.
(1) Nitrogen is readily available in these environments because plant tissues degrade rapidly in warm
climates.
(2) But phosphorus is often scarce because it leaches out of soil.
(3) Radioactive phosphorus was used to demonstrate that AMF deliver phosphorus to their host plants.
e. AMF contain large quantities of a glycoprotein called glomalin, which enriches the organic content of
soil.
4. Are endophytes mutualists?
a. Endophytes are fungi that live in the aboveground tissues of a plant.
b. Some may be beneficial. For example, endophytes in some grasses and in morning glories produce
compounds that deter herbivores.
c. Others may be commensals, since some studies have not documented any benefit to the host plant.

5. Mutualisms with other species

a. Lichens are a mutualistic partnership between an ascomycete and either a cyanobacterium or an alga.
b. Some ant species farm fungi inside their colonies, harvesting them for food.

How does fertilization occur?

a. Chytrids are the only fungi that produce gametes, and they are not different enough in size to be called
sperm and egg.
b. Fertilization in other fungi occurs in two distinct steps: (Fig. 31.11)
(1) Plasmogamy: The cytoplasm from different cells fuses. The nuclei may remain independent; that is,
the mycelium is heterokaryotic.
(2) Karyogamy: Eventually, a pair of unlike nuclei fuse to form a diploid zygote. The fused nucleus then
divides by meiosis to form spores.

Four major types of life cycles

1. Chytridiomycete life cycle (Fig. 31.12a)
a. Chytrids are the only fungi with alternation of generations.
b. Swimming gametes are produced in haploid adults by mitosis.
c. Gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote that grows into a sporophyte.
d. Meiosis occurs in the sporangium (a structure in the sporophyte), forming spores that disperse by
swimming.

2. Zygomycete life cycle (Fig. 31.12b)

a. Hyphae from two individuals fuse (plasmogamy) to form a structure called a zygosporangium.
b. Zygosporangia develop a tough coat and can survive cold, dry periods.
c. Once conditions are favorable, meiosis occurs and spores are produced.
d. Spores germinate into new mycelia.
e. Mycelia can also reproduce asexually.

3. Basidiomycota life cycle (Fig. 31.12c)

a. Heterokaryotic mycelia form large structures including mushrooms, bracket fungi, and puffballs, all of
which contain tiny pedestal structures called basidia.
b. Karyogamy occurs in a basidium, followed by meiosis to produce haploid spores.

4. Ascomycota life cycle (Fig. 31.12d)

a. Short dikaryotic hyphae form sac-like, spore-producing structures called asci.
b. Karyogamy occurs in an ascus, followed by meiosis to produce haploid spores.

CHAPTER 32- Animals

o Animals are the only multicellular heterotrophs that ingest their food.
o All animals move under their own power at some point in their life.
o All animals other than sponges have neurons and muscle cells.

There are three germ layers:

(i) Endoderm gives rise to the lining of the digestive tract.
(ii) Ectoderm gives rise to the skin and nervous system.
(iii) Mesoderm gives rise to the circulatory system, muscles, and internal structures such as bone and
most organs.
All animals other than cnidarians, ctenophores, and sponges are triploblasts.
Nervous systems, body symmetry, and cephalization
a. Sponges have no neurons, no well-defined symmetry, and no head region.
b. Cnidarians and ctenophores have a nerve net and radial symmetry, but no head region. (Fig. 32.4a)
c. All other animals (i.e., the triploblasts) have bilateral symmetry, a head region, and a central nervous
system (CNS) with ganglia.

Bilaterians (triploblastic, bilaterally symmetric animals) can be split into two subgroups:
Protostome development
(1) The mouth forms first during gastrulation. (Fig. 32.7a)
(2) The coelom forms via splitting of blocks of mesoderm.

Deuterostome development
(1) The anus forms first during gastrulation.
(2) The coelom forms via mesoderm pinching off from the gut. (Fig. 32.7b)
Protostomes immediately split into two major groups: ecdysozoans and lophotrochozoans.
a. Ecdysozoans grow by shedding their outer skeletons.
b. Lophotrochozoans grow by extending the size of their skeletons.

Feeding
Suspension feeders (filter feeders) capture food by filtering particles out of water or air.
(1) Examples: sponges, clams and mussels, baleen whales.
(2) They are common in aquatic habitats and in sessile organisms.

Deposit feeders eat their way through a substrate on the surface.

(1) Examples: annelids (earthworms), sea cucumbers. (Fig. 32.12)
(2) All have simple mouthparts and a wormlike body shape.

Fluid feeders suck or mop up liquids (nectar, plant sap, blood, fruit juice).
(1) Examples: butterflies, blow flies. (Fig. 32.13)

Mass feeders take chunks of food into their mouths.

(1) Examples: horses, snails. (Fig. 32.14) (2) Mouthparts vary according to the type of food eaten.

Reproduction
Where do embryos develop?
a. Oviparous animals lay eggs.
(1) Most animals are oviparous.
b. Ovoviviparous animals retain eggs inside the body, but the embryos are nourished by a yolk rather than
through a placenta.
c. Viviparous animals give birth to live young that are nourished by the mother through a placenta.
(1) Viviparity has arisen in a wide variety of animal taxa.

Life Cycles
There are two types of insect metamorphosis:
a. Hemimetabolous (incomplete) metamorphosis occurs when there is only a minor change in form from
juvenile to adult. Example: aphids. (Fig. 32.21a)
b. Holometabolous (complete) metamorphosis occurs when there is a dramatic change in form from larva
to adult. Example: mosquitoes. (Fig. 32.21b)

What is the adaptive significance of metamorphosis?

a. Holometabolous metamorphosis is ten times more common than hemimetabolous metamorphosis.
b. Larvae and adults from holometabolous species do not compete with each other because they use
different food sources and different habitats.
c. Larvae and adults can also specialize for different functions. Examples: caterpillars feed, butterflies
reproduce
 CHAPTER 33- Protostome Animals

What is a lophotrochozoan?
1. The Lophotrochozoa comprise 13 phyla and include the mollusks, annelids, and flatworms.
2. The Lophotrochozoa lack a distinct synapomorphy but many have:
a. A feeding structure called a lophophore (in three phyla) (Fig. 33.3a)
b. A type of ciliated larva called a trochophore (in several marine phyla) (Fig. 33.3b)
c. Growth by incremental additions to the body rather than by molting (Fig. 33.4a)

What is an ecdysozoan?
1. The Ecdysozoa comprise seven phyla and include nematodes and arthropods.
2. All grow by molting—shedding an exoskeleton or covering. (Fig. 33.4b)

Water to Land Transition

Adaptations to terrestrial environments
a. The protostomes that made the water-to-land transition already had adaptations for support and
locomotion (hydroskeletons, limbs, etc.).
b. New adaptations were required to accomplish gas exchange without drying out.
(1) Roundworms and earthworms exchange gases across their entire body surface, but they must stay in
moist environments.
(2) Arthropods and mollusks have gills that are located inside the body where they are protected from
desiccation.
(3) Insects evolved a waxy layer to minimize water loss, with respiratory passages that can be closed
when necessary

Adaptations for feeding

1. Protostomes have extremely diverse mouthparts, which allow them to eat a wide diversity of feeds with
a wide variety of methods. (Fig. 33.8)
2. Larvae and adults often exploit different food sources.

Adaptations for moving

1. Protostomes that lack limbs often move via a hydrostatic skeleton.
2. Arthropods evolved jointed limbs that permit rapid, precise movement. (Fig. 33.9a)
3. The evolution of the insect wing allowed flight. (Fig. 33.9b)
a. About two-thirds of the multicellular species living today are winged insects.
4. Mollusks can glide with waves of muscle contractions of the foot. (Fig. 33.9c)
5. Cephalopods can move rapidly using jet propulsion. (Fig. 33.10)

Adaptations in reproduction
1. Many wormlike phyla can perform asexual reproduction via splitting or fragmenting of the body.
2. Some crustaceans and insects reproduce asexually via parthenogenesis, when an unfertilized egg
develops into an offspring.
3. Sexual reproduction with external fertilization occurs in clams, bryozoans, brachiopods, and other
groups.
4. Sexual reproduction occurs with internal fertilization in crustaceans, snails, and insects⎯probably
because individuals in these groups can move (i.e., can meet each other).
5. A few groups of snails and insects are ovoviviparous, retaining eggs until they hatch.
6. Metamorphosis occurs in many protostomes.
a. In marine species, this allows larvae to disperse to new habitats.
b. In insects, it reduces competition between larvae and adults.
7. Terrestrial lineages evolved desiccation-resistant eggs several times.

CHAPTER 34- Deuterostome Animals

• All deuterostomes undergo development in a similar way.

o The gut develops from posterior to anterior; that is, the anus forms first.
o The coelom, if present, develops from outpocketings of mesoderm.

• There are four phyla of deuterostomes: (Fig. 34.1)

o Echinodermata, including sea stars and sea urchins
o Hemichordata, or acorn worms
o Xenoturbellida, containing a single genus with two wormlike species
o Chordata, including the vertebrates

What Is an Echinoderm?
A. The echinoderm body plan
1. Echinoderm larvae are bilateral, but adults have evolved pentaradial symmetry (five-sided symmetry).
(Fig. 34.2a)
2. Echinoderms have an endoskeleton made of plates of calcium carbonate secreted inside the skin. (Fig.
34.2b)
3. Echinoderms have a system of branching, fluid-filled tubes, and chambers called the water vascular
system. (Fig. 34.3)
a. Tube feet are elongated, fluid-filled appendages of this system.
b. Sections of tube feet called podia project outside the body wall to make contact with the substrate.
c. The water vascular system is a sophisticated hydrostatic skeleton used for movement.

B. How do echinoderms feed?

1. Echinoderms suspension feed, deposit feed, or harvest algae or other animals.
2. Echinoderms use their podia to gather food.
a. For example, sea stars eat bivalves by using their podia to pry open the shells. (Fig. 34.4a)
b. Podia are also used in suspension feeding or deposit feeding, or to move food toward cilia that then
sweep it into the mouth. (Fig. 34.4b)

What Is a Chordate?
A. Chordates are defined by four morphological features:
1. Pharyngeal gill slits in the throat
2. A bundle of nerves that runs the length of the body, called the dorsal hollow nerve cord
3. A stiff, but flexible, notochord that runs the length of the body
4. A muscular tail that extends past the anus
5. Together, these traits create a "torpedo" that can swim forward rapidly.
6. These traits may be present only briefly, but they are present in all chordates at some point in the life
cycle.

What Is a Vertebrate?
A. Vertebrates are a monophyletic group distinguished by two traits:
1. A vertebral column
2. A cranium that encloses the brain

B. The large vertebrate brain is divided into three regions:

1. The forebrain houses the sense of smell and may be elaborated into a large cerebrum.
2. The midbrain is associated with vision.
3. The hindbrain is associated with balance and vision and may include a cerebellum and medulla
oblongata.

What makes a primate a primate?

a. Grasping hands and feet, with nails rather than claws
b. Color vision, with eyes facing forward for good depth perception
c. Large brains, complex social behavior, and extensive parental care

3. What makes a great ape a great ape?

a. Great apes are also called hominids. Humans are great apes.
b. Great apes are larger than other primates and have long arms, short legs, and no tail.
c. One lineage of great apes, the hominins, became bipedal.

CHAPTER 35- Viruses

• Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites that are not cells or organisms. (Table 35.1)
o Viruses cannot manufacture ATP, nucleic acids, or proteins on their own.
o Viruses must enter and take over a host cell to make copies of themselves.
• Viruses are not alive. They are not given scientific (genus + species) names.
• Viruses are extremely abundant. For example, there are 10 billion virions in a wine bottle of seawater.
• Each type of virus infects a certain species or cell type, and all known organisms are parasitized by at
least one kind of virus.

CHAPTER 50
Biologists describe the structure of lakes and ponds by naming five zones: (Fig. 50.5)
a. The littoral zone consists of shallow waters near shore, where flowering plants are rooted.
b. The limnetic zone is offshore and is composed of water that receives enough light to support
photosynthesis.
c. The benthic zone is made up of the substrate.
d. Regions of the littoral, limnetic, and benthic zones that receive sunlight are part of the photic zone
(plankton).
e. Portions of a lake or pond that do not receive sunlight make up the aphotic zone

Wetlands
o Wetlands are shallow-water habitats where the soil is saturated with water for at least part of the year.
o Wetlands are distinct from lakes and ponds for two reasons:
a. They have only shallow water.
b. They have emergent vegetation⎯that is, plants that grow above the surface of the water.
o Marshes and swamps are wetland types characterized by a slow but steady flow of water.
o Bogs develop depressions where water flow is low or nonexistent.
o Bog water is oxygen poor and acidic. (Fig. 50.6a)
o Marshes lack trees and typically feature grasses. (Fig. 50.6b)
o Swamps are dominated by trees and shrubs

Streams
Streams are bodies of water that move constantly in one direction.
. Creeks are small and rivers are large.
. The structure of a stream varies along its length. (Fig. 50.7)
a. At its mountain origin, a stream is usually cold, narrow, and fast.
b. As it reaches its ocean or lake destination, it becomes larger, warmer, and slower.
. The organisms in a stream vary along its length.
a. Small, fast-moving streams rarely have photosynthetic organisms.
b. Wider, slower streams have algae and plants.

Estuaries
1. Estuaries are where rivers meet the ocean, which means that freshwater mixes with saltwater.
2. Because the water is shallow in estuaries and nutrients are constantly renewed by the incoming stream,
estuaries are very productive environments.
3. Salinity has dramatic effects on osmosis and water balance, so species that live in estuaries have
adaptations that allow them to cope with variations in salinity.

The Ocean
1. The world’s oceans form a continuous body of saltwater and are remarkably uniform in chemical
composition.
2. Biologists describe the structure of an ocean by naming six regions: (Fig. 50.9)
a. The intertidal zone (littoral zone) is along the shore.
b. The neritic zone extends from the intertidal zone to an ocean depth of about 200 m (the edge of the
continental shelf).
c. The oceanic zone encompasses the remainder and largest of the ocean environments.
d. The benthic zone is the area at the ocean bottom.
e. The photic zone receives sunlight to support photosynthesis.
f. The aphotic zone is the area that is too dark to support photosynthesis.
3. Tides and wave action are major influences in the intertidal zone.
4. Large-scale currents circulate water in the oceanic zone in response to prevailing winds and Earth’s
rotation.
5. Each zone is populated by distinct species.
6. In the tropics, shallow portions of the neritic zone may support coral reefs—among the most productive
environments in the world.
CHAPTER 51
Proximate causation explains how actions occur.
Ultimate causation explains why actions occur.
Reciprocal altruism is an exchange of fitness benefits that are separated in time
Direct fitness is derived from an individual’s own offspring.
Indirect fitness is derived from helping relatives produce more offspring than they could produce on their
own.
Kin selection is natural selection that acts through benefits to relatives.
The kin selection hypothesis predicts that individuals who do not have close genetic relatives nearby will
rarely give an alarm call. Experimental data indicate that black-tailed prairie dogs are much more likely to
call if they live in a coterie that includes relatives.
CHAPTER 55
A. Biodiversity defines all the distinctive populations and species living today—the phylogenetic tree of
all organisms.
B. Biodiversity can be measured and analyzed at several levels.
1. Genetic diversity—the total genetic information contained within all individuals of a species
2. Species diversity⎯the variety of life-forms on Earth
a. The red panda and Indian river dolphin have few close relatives; therefore, they are species-poor
lineages. (Fig. 55.1)
3. Ecosystem diversity⎯the variety of biotic communities in a region along with the abiotic components
4. Biodiversity changes through time due to mutations, speciations, extinctions.