O Level Computer Science

Paper 1 Revision Guide for Quick Revision

By MAK

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Command words
The table below includes command words used in the assessment for this syllabus. The use of
the command word will relate to the subject context. Make sure you are familiar with these.
Command What it means
word
Analyse examine in detail to show meaning, identify elements and the relationship
between them
Assess make an informed judgement
Calculate work out from given facts, figures or information
Comment give an informed opinion
Compare identify/comment on similarities and/or differences
Complete add information to an incomplete diagram or table
Consider review and respond to given information
Contrast identify/comment on differences
Define give precise meaning
Demonstrate show how or give an example
Describe state the points of a topic/give characteristics and main features
Develop take forward to a more advanced stage or build upon given information
Discuss write about issue(s) or topic(s) in depth in a structured way
Draw draw a line to match a term with a description
Evaluate judge or calculate the quality, importance, amount, or value of something
Examine investigate closely, in detail
Explain set out purposes or reasons/make the relationships between things
evident/provide why and/or how and support with relevant evidence
Give produce an answer from a given source or recall/memory
Identify name/select/recognise
Justify support a case with evidence/argument
Outline set out main points

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 Predict suggest what may happen based on available information
Sketch make a simple freehand drawing showing the key features, taking care over
proportions
State express in clear terms
Suggest apply knowledge and understanding to situations where there are a range of
valid responses in order to make proposals
Summarise select and present the main points, without detail
Write write an answer in a specific way

Binary – base two number system based on the values 0 and 1 only.
Bit – abbreviation for binary digit.
Hexadecimal – a number system based on the value 16 (uses the denary digits 0 to 9 and the letters A to F).
Memory dump – contents of a computer memory output to screen or printer.
ASCII code – coding system for all the characters on a keyboard and control codes.
Character set – a list of characters that have been defined by computer hardware and software. It is necessary
to have a method of coding, so that the computer can understand human characters.

Name of memory size Equivalent denary value (bytes)

1 kilobyte (1 KB) 1 000
1 megabyte (1 MB) 1 000 000
1 gigabyte (1 GB) 1 000 000 000
1 terabyte (1 TB) 1 000 000 000 000
1 petabyte (1 PB) 1 000 000 000 000 000

Name of memory size Number of bytes Equivalent denary value (bytes)

1 kibibyte (1 KiB) 210 1 024

1 mebibyte (1 MiB) 220 1 048 576

1 gibibyte (1 GiB) 230 1 073 741 824

1 tebibyte (1 TiB) 240 1 099 511 627 776

1 pebibyte (1 PiB) 250 1 125 899 906 842 624

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1. DATA REPRESENTATION Example use of binary
1.1 Binary Systems > A register is a group of bits, often
depicted as:
> The binary system is based on the
number 2 o 10010111
> Made up of 1s and 0 > Robotics

> Digital instruments

1.2 Measurement of the Size of Computer
Memories
> A binary digit is referred to as a BIT, 8
bits is a byte
> Byte is used to measure memory size
NAME OF MEMORY SIZE
NO. OF BITS EQUIVALENT DENARY VALUE
> Counting systems
1.3 Hexadecimal
> Closely related to the binary system
> Hexadecimal is a base 16 system
> Numbers 0 to 9 and letters A to Fare used
to represent
each hexadecimal digit
> A =10, B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15

o Separate into two nibbles (4 bits)

o Convert nibbles to denary
o Change denary numbers to hex if needed
(e.g. 10 = A)
84218421
01100001
=6=1
hex value 61

Converting Hexadecimal to Binary

> To convert hex value 6C
o Change hex value to denary numbers
(e.g. 12 = C)
o Separate hex value and convert to 4 bit
binary value

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1.4 Use of the Hexadecimal System
> Examples:
o defining colours in Hypertext Markup
Language (HTML)
o Media Access Control (MAC) addresses
o Assembly languages and machine code
o Debugging

Memory Dumps
> Hexadecimal is used when developing
new software or when trying to trace
errors
> Memory dump is when the memory
contents are output to a printer, monitor.
Assembly code and machine code (low
level languages) Computer memory is
machine code/ assembly code Using
hexadecimal makes it easier, faster, less
error prone to write code compared to
binary.
> Using machine code (binary) takes a long
time to key in values and prone to errors
1.5 Error Checking

Parity Checking
> Parity checking is used to check weather
data has been changed or corrupted
following transmission from one device to
another

There are two types of Parity Checks

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Even and ODD , In Even Parity check
number of ones are even.
> A byte of data is allocated a parity bit
o Systems that use even parity have an
even number of 1-bits
o Systems that use odd parity have an odd
number of 1-bits
Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)
> ARQ is another method to check if data
has been transmitted correctly
> It uses and acknowledgement (message
sent by the receiver indicating that data
has been received correctly)
Checksum
> Checksum is another way to see if data
has been transmitted correctly
> Data is sent in blocks and an additional
value sent at the end of the block
Echo check
> When data is sent to another device, this
data is sent back again to the sender
> The sender compares the two sets to
check if any errors occurred
> Not reliable
1.6 File types
Musical Instrument Digital Format (MIDI)
> Storage of music files
> Communications protocol that allows
electronic musical instruments to interact
with each other
> Stored as a series of demands but no
actual music notes
> Uses 8-bit serial transmission
(asynchronous)
> Each MIDI command has a sequence of
bytes:
o First byte is the status byte – informs the
MIDI device what function to preform
o Encoded in the status byte is the MIDI
channel (operates on 16 different
channels)
> Examples of MIDI commands:
o Note on/off: indicates that a key has
been pressed
o Key pressure: indicates how hard it has
been pressed (loudness of music)
> Needs a lot of memory storage
MP3
> Uses technology known as Audio
Compression to convert music and other
sounds into an MP3 file format
> This compression reduces the normal file
size by 90%
o Done using file compression algorithms
which use Perceptual Music Shaping
o Removes sounds that human ear cannot
hear properly
o Certain sounds are removed without
affecting the quality too much
> CD files are converted using File
Compression Software
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> Use lossy format as the original file is lost
following the compression algorithm
MP4
> This format allows the storage of
multimedia files rather than just sound
> Music, videos, photos and animations
can be stored
> Videos, could be streamed without losing
any real discernible quality Joint
Photographic Experts Group (JPEG)
> JPEG is a file formats used to reduce
photographic file sizes
> Reducing picture resolution is changing
the number of pixels per centimetre
> When photographic file undergoes
compression, file size is reduced
> JPEG will reduce the raw bitmap image
by a factor between 5 and 15
1.7 Lossless and Lossy File Compression
Lossless File Compression
> All the data bits from the original file are
reconstructed when the file again is
uncompressed
> Important for files where loss of data
would be disastrous (spreadsheet)
Lossy File Compression
> The file compression algorithm
eliminates unnecessary bits of data like
MP3 and JPEG formats
> Impossible to get original file back once
compressed
2. COMMUNICATION &
INTERNET TECHNOLOGIES
2.1 Transmission of Data
> Asynchronous data transmission refers to
data being transmitted in an agreed bit
pattern
o Data bits are grouped together & sent
with control bits
o This means the receiver of the data
knows when the data starts and ends,
prevents data getting mixed up
> Synchronous data transmission is a
continuous stream of data (not in discrete
groups like asynchronous)
o Ensures that the sender and receiver are
synchronized with each other
o Faster method
2.2 Serial & Parallel Transmission
> Serial data transmission is when data is
sent one bit at a time over a single wire
o Works well over long distances
o Data transmitted at a slower rate (USB)
> Parallel data transmission is when data
several bits (1 byte) are sent down several
wires at the same time
o Works well over short distance
o Faster method (internal components use
parallel for high speed)
2.3 Simplex, Half-duplex and Full-duplex
> Simplex data transmission is in one
direction only (e.g. computer to printer)
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> Half-duplex data transmission is in both > To remove risk:
directions but not at the same time (e.g.
o Firewalls
phone conversation where only one
person speaks) o Strong passwords/ user IDs
> Full-duplex data transmission is in both o Use of anti-hacking software
directions simultaneously (e.g. broadband
connection on phone line)
> Difference between hacking and cracking
2.4 Universal Serial Bus (USB)
o Hacking breaks into computer system to
> USB is an asynchronous serial data
steal data
transmission method
o Cracking is where someone edits a
> USB consists of:
program code, malicious
o Four-wire shielded cable
Viruses:
o Two wires used for power and earth
> Program that can replicate itself with the
o Two wires used in data transmission intention of deleting or corrupting files,
cause computer malfunction
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
> Effect:
Automatically detected
o Can cause computer to crash
Only fit one way, prevents incorrect
connections o Can delete or corrupt files/data
Maximum cable length is about 5 metres > To remove risk:
Different data transmission rates o Install anti-virus software
Transmission rate is less than 500 mb/sec o Don’t use software from unknown
sources
2.5 Security Aspects
o Be careful when opening emails from
Hacking
unknown
> The act of gaining illegal access to a
Wardriving:
computer system
> The act of locating and using wireless
> Effect:
internet connections illegally
o Leads to identity theft, gaining personal
> Effects:
information
o Possible to steal internet time
o Data can be deleted, changed or
corrupted o Possible to hack into wireless network
and steal user’s password

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> To remove risk: > Used when writing and developing pages
o Use complex passwords > Mark-up language is used in the
processing
o Firewalls
> Html use <tags> to bracket piece of codes
Spyware:
> Different intensity of colours is
> Software that gathers info by monitoring
determined by its hexadecimal value
key presses on the user’s keyboard and
info is sent back Media Access Control (MAC)
> Effects: > MAC address refers to a number which
uniquely identifies a device on the internet
o Access to all data entered
> Refers to the network interface card
o Software is able to install other spyware,
(NIC) which is part of the device
read cookie data
> Usually made up of 48 bits shown as six
> To remove risk:
groups of hexadecimal digits
o Use of anti-spyware software
> NN:NN:NN:DD:DD:DD
o Use a mouse to select characters from
o (NN:NN:NN) first half is the identity
passwords rather than typing them
number of the manufacturer of the device
2.6 Internet Principles of Operation
o (DD:DD:DD) second half is the serial
> Internet Service Protocol: These are number of the device
companies that provide user with access to
> Types of MAC Address:
the internet
o Universally Administrated MAC Address
Internet Protocol (IP) Address
(UAA)
> Each device on the internet is given a
o Locally Administrated MAC Address
unique address known as the IP address
(LAA)
> 32-bit number written in the form:
o UAA is the most common type set by the
109.108.158.1
manufacturer
> IP address gives the location of a device
on the internet whereas the MAC address > Reasons to change MAC address using
identifies the device connected to the LAA
internet
o To ensure they follow the correct
> IP address changes, MAC address formula
remains unchanged
o To bypass MAC address filter on a router
HTML (HyperText Mark-up Language) or a firewall

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o To get past certain types of network
restrictions Web addresses
> Each character on the keyboard has its
own ASCII code
> Can be represented using hexadecimal or
decimal values
> Hexadecimal addresses are used in the
address of files or webpages as a security
figure
> Takes longer to type in URL but
advantage is that you are unlikely to fall
into the trap of copying a fake website
Cookies
> A packet of information sent by a web
server to a web browser
> Generated each time the user visits the
website
> Every time a user visits a website,
cookies will have collected some key
information about the user
> They are able to carry out user tracking
and maintain user preferences
> Cookies are pieces of data
> Information gathered by cookies doesn’t
contain personal information
3. HARDWARE & SOFTWARE
3.2 Computer Architecture &
Fetch Execute Cycle
Computer Architecture
> Address bus – unidirectional
Used to carry memory addresses.
> Data bus – bi-directional
Used to carry data between memory unit
control unit and ALU
> Control bus – unidirectional and bi-
directional.
Carries all control instructions.
> Processor: The processor contains the
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
> Control Unit: The control unit controls
the operation of the memory, processor
and input/output devices
The Fetch-Execute Cycle
1. PC contains address of the next
instruction to be fetched
2. This address is copied to the MAR via
the address bus
3. The instruction of the address is copied
into the MDR temporarily
4. The instruction in the MDR is then
placed in the CIR
5. The value in the PC is incremented by 1,
pointing the next instruction to be fetched
6. The instruction is finally decoded and
then executed
3.3 Input Devices
SCANNERS:
Two-dimensional Scanners:
> Used to input hard-copy documents
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> The image is converted into an electronic
form which can be stored in the computer
o Document is placed on a glass panel
o A bright light illuminates the document
o A scan head moves across the document
until the whole page is scanned. And image
of the document is produced and sent to a
lens using a series of mirrors
o The lens focuses the document image
o The focused image now falls onto a
charge couple device (CCD) which consists
of a numbers of integrated circuits
o Software produces a digital image from
> Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a
software which converts scanned
documents into a text file format
> If the original document was a
photo/image, then the scanned image
forms an image file such as JPEG
Three-dimensional Scanners
> 3D scanners can scan solid objects and
produce a three- dimensional image
> Scanners take images at several points, x,
y and z (lasers, magnetic, white light)
> The scanned images can be used in
Computer Aided
Design (CAD) or to a 3D printer to produce
a working model
Application of 2D Scanners at an Airport:
> Make use of (OCR) to produce digital
images which represent the passport pages
> Text can be stored in ASCII format
> The 2D photograph in the passport is also
scanned and stored as jpeg image
> The passenger’s face is also
photographed using a digital camera and
compared using face recognition software
> Key parts of the face are compared
(distance between eyes, width of nose)
Barcode readers/scanners
> A barcode is a series of dark and light
parallel lines of varying thicknesses
> The numbers 0 -9 are each represented
by a unique series of lines
> The left and right hand sides of the
barcode are separate using guard bars
> Allows barcode to be scanned in any
direction
o Barcode is read by a red laser or red LED
o Light is reflected back off the barcode;
dark areas reflect little light which allows
the bars to be read
o Reflected light is read by sensors
(photoelectric cells)
o Pattern is generated which is converted
to digital
Quick Response (QR) Codes
> Another type of barcode is the QR codes
> Made up of a matrix of filled in dark
squares on a light
background
> Can hold more storage (7000 digits)
> Advantages of QR codes:
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o No need for the user to write down
website address
o QR codes can store website addresses
Digital Cameras
> Controlled by microprocessor which
automatically adjusts the shutter speed,
focus the image, etc.
> Photo is captured when light passes
through the lens onto a light sensitive cell
> Cell is made up of pixels
> Number of pixels determines size of the
file
Keyboards
> Connected to computer with a USB
connection or by wireless connection
> Each character has an ASCII value and is
converted into a digital signal
> Slow method
> Prone to errors
Pointing devices
> Mouse/trackball
o Traditional; mechanical ball, connected
by USB port
> Modern type; red LEDs to detect
movement.
Mouse
• An example of a pointing device
• The ball underneath the mouse is used to
detect movement
• The left button is for selecting by double on it
and the right is to bring drop-down menus
• There is usually a scroll button which speeds
up the process of moving through a document
• Uses
o Used for opening, closing and minimising
software
o Used for grouping, moving and deleting files
o Useful when editing images (e.g. controlling
the size and position of the image)
o Used for controlling the position of a pointer
on the screen to allow:
▪ Selection from a menu
▪ Selecting an icon
▪ Scrolling up/down and right/left
• Advantages
o Faster to select an option by a mouse than a
keyboard
o Enables rapid navigation through
applications and the internet
o Mice are small and don’t take much area
• Disadvantages
o People with restricted hand/wrist movement
can find it hard to operate a mouse
o Easily damaged and can easily be clogged up
with dirt
o They are hard to use if there is no flat surface
available
Touchpad
• Touchpads are used in many laptop
computers as a pointing device
• The pointer is controlled by the user moving
their finger on the touchpad
• Uses
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o Used for opening, closing and minimising
software
o Used for grouping, moving and deleting files
o Useful when editing images (e.g. controlling
the size and position of the image)
o Used for controlling the position of a pointer
on the screen to allow:
▪ Selection from a menu
▪ Selecting an icon
• Advantages
o Faster to select an option by a touchpad than
a keyboard
o Enables rapid navigation through
applications and the internet
o Since the touchpad is integrated into laptop
computer,
there is no separate mouse, aiding portability
o They can be used when no flat surfaces are
available
• Disadvantage
o People with limited hand/wrist movement
can find touchpads hard to use
o It can be more difficult to control the pointer
when compared to a mouse
o They are more difficult when doing
operations such as
‘drag and drop’
Tracker Ball
• Tracker ball is like a mouse except that it
has a ball on the top of the device
• Users control the pointer on the screen
by rotating the ball
• Uses
o Have the same pointing/cursor control
capability as a mouse
o Used in applications where the user has a
disability (RSI)
o Used in a control room environment,
where it is faster than a mouse to navigate
through process screens and more robust
than a mouse
• Advantages
o Tracker balls don’t need the same fine
control as a mouse
o People with limited hand/wrist
movement find easier to use than a mouse
o The pointer can be positioned more
accurately on the screen than with a
mouse
o They take less desk space than mice since
they are stationary
• Disadvantages
o Tracker balls are not supplied with the
computer as standard, so they are more
expensive
o User may need training since they are
not standard equipment
Microphones
> Used to input sound to a computer
> When a microphone picks up sound, a
diaphragm vibrates producing an electric
signal
> The signal goes to a sound card and is
converted into digital values and stored in
computer
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> Voice recognition, voice is detected and
converted into digital
Digital Cameras
• Photographs are stored in memory
• They can be easily transferred to a
computer using a USB
• Uses
o Digital cameras can produce photographs
for direct transfer to a computer or to print
out
o Digital cameras allow short video clips to
be produced
o Photographs can be uploaded directly
into application software such as word
processor
• Advantages
o Easier to produce better quality
photographs than with a tradition camera
o Easier and faster to upload photographs
to a computer
o There is no need to develop film and
print out
photographs (saves paper and no longer
needs the chemicals to produce
photographs from films)
o Easy to delete an image from the
memory if it’s not satisfactory
o The memory card can store several
hundred photographs
• Disadvantages
o The camera user needs to be computer
literate to use the camera properly
o There is some artistry lost since clever
software corrects errors in the
photographs
o The resolution is not yet as good as
traditional cameras
o Images often need to be compressed to
reduce the amount of memory used
o It is possible to fill up computer memory
very quickly with several photos of the
same subject (to find the perfect snap
shot)
Microphone
• Can be connected directly to a computer
• Sounds can be inputted and manipulated
• Uses
o Microphones are used to input
speech/sounds to be used in various
applications
o They are used in voice recognition
software- for
conversion of speech into text, and
recognition of commands
• Advantages
Faster to read in text than to type it using a
keyboard
o Possible to manipulate sound in real time
using special software
o If used in a voice activation system, this
has the advantage of improving safety
• Disadvantages
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o Sound files can use up a lot of computer
memory
o Voice recognition software isn’t as
accurate as typing in manually
Touchscreens
> Capacitive (medium cost tech)
o Made up of many layers of glass
o Creating electric fields between glass
plates in layers
o When top layer of glass is touched,
electric current changes
o Co-ordinates where the screen was
touched is determined by an on-board
microprocessor
> Infra-red heat (expensive)
o Use glass as the screen material
o Needs warm object to carry an input
operation
> Infra-red optical (expensive)
o Uses glass as screen material
o Uses an array of sensors (grid form)
o Point of contact is based on which grid
co-ordinate is touched
> Resistive (inexpensive)
o Upper layer of polyester, bottom layer of
glass
o When the top polyester is touched, the
top layer and bottom layer complete a
circuit
o Signals are then sent out which are
interpreted by a microprocessor,
determine where screen was touched
Sensors
> Devices which read or measure physical
properties
> Data needs to be converted to digital
> Analogue to Digital Converter (ADC)
converts physical values into digital
Control of Street Lighting
> Light sensor sends data to the ADC
> Digitises data and sent to the
microprocessor
> Microprocessor samples data every
minute
> If data from sensor < value stored in
memory:
o Signal sent from microprocessor to street
lamp
o Lamp switched on
3.4 Output Devices
PRINTERS:
Inkjet Printers
> Used to print one-off pictures and
documents
1. Data from document sent to printer
driver
2. Printer driver ensures data is in correct
format
3. Check made by printer driver that
chosen printer is available
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4. Data is sent to printer, stored in a
temporary memory (printer buffer)
5. Sheet of paper is fed; sensor detects if
paper is available in paper tray
6. Print head moves across paper printing
text/image, four ink colours sprayed in
exact amount
7. Paper is advanced so next line is printed
8. Repeated until buffer is empty
9. Once it is done, printer send an interrupt
to the processor (request for more data to
be sent)
Laser Printers
> Used to print flyers, high quality
> Use dry powder ink (toner) and static
electricity to produce text and images
> Prints the whole page in one go
1. (steps 1-4 same as inkjet)
2. Printing drum is given a positive charge;
as the drum rotates, a laser beam is
scanned across it removing the positive
charge leaves negatively charged areas
which match the text/image
3. Drum is then coated with positively
charged toner, it only sticks to negatively
charged parts of the drum
4. A negatively charged sheet is rolled over
the drum
5. Toner on the drum now sticks to the
paper to produce copy of page
6. Paper finally goes through a fuser (set of
heated rollers); heat melts the ink so it is
permanent
7. Discharge lamp removes all electric
charge from the drum, ready to print next
page
3D Printers
> Used for models of cars
> Produce solid objects that work
> Built up layer by layer, using powdered
resin, ceramic powder
> A design is made using Computer-aided
Design (CAD)
3D Printer
• A new type of printer that produces solid 3D
models using modified inkjet technology called
tomography
• Very thin layers of fine powder (plaster,
resin, starch) are bonded together as a 3D
model is slowly built up
• Items produced are known as prototypes
• Uses
o Used to produce prototypes which work
from CAD packages, photograph images,
stored drawings etc.
o Scale models are produced in colour before
the real thing is manufactured
o The ultimate objective is to produce organic
objects using this layering technology (such as
replacement human organs)
• Advantages
o Save a lot of money, other methods of
making prototypes are very time consuming
and expensive
o The powders used can often be ground up
and reused
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o Physical scale models are produced with
working parts, which gives a better idea of
how the product will look
• Disadvantages
o Expensive to buy
o Slow at producing their output
o Product is sometimes a little rough, often
further work needs to be done
2D and 3D Cutters
> 3D cutters can recognise objects in x, y, z
direction
> 3D laser cutters can cut; glass, crystal,
metal, wood
Actuators
Actuators
• A type of controlling device
• Transducers that are used to take signals
from a
computer and convert them into some form of
motion
e.g. operating motors, pumps, switches and
valves
• Digital signals are sent from the computer to
an actuator to operate a device
• Conversion of the digital signal to analogue is
required first (using a DAC) Motors
• Turned on or off by the actuator
• Uses
o Used in many domestic appliances
o Automatic washing machines (to make the
drum rotate)
o Cookers (to switch on fans)
o Water pumps in central heating systems
o Automatic greenhouses to open windows
and switch on fans
o Used to control robot arms in the industry
o Operate fans, disk drives and DVD drives in
computers
Buzzers
• Switched on or off by the actuator
• Uses
o Used in cookers and microwave ovens to tell
the operator when the cooking process is
complete
o Used in burglar alarm systems to warn if
intruders are present
Heaters
• Actuators are connected to switches which
turn the
heater on or off
• Uses
o Used in automatic washing machines,
cookers and central heating systems
o Used in automatic greenhouses to control
the temperature Lights
• The actuator is connected to the switch that
turns the lights on or off
• Uses
o Security lights
o Used in greenhouses to control the lighting
conditions
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> Used in many control applications
involving sensors and devices (ADC and
DAC)
Loudspeakers/Headphones
> Sound is produced by passing the digital
data through a DAC then through amplifier
and then emerges from loudspeaker
> Produced by voltage differences vibrating
a cone in the speaker at different
frequencies
CRT Monitor
• Cathode Ray Tube monitors
• Least expensive type of monitor, becoming
rarer as TFT
monitors take over
• Come in various sizes
• Picture created is made up of tiny dots (red
green or
blue), the intensity of the colour of the dot
determines
the colour perceived by the eye
• Uses
o Primary output device for computers, user
can
immediately see what they are typing in
o Used with light pens to allow designs to be
created on screen
• Advantages
o Produce higher quality images than TFT
monitors
o Angle of viewing is better than a TFT monitor
o They work with light pens in CAD and CAM
applications (Computer Aided
Design/Manufacturing)
• Disadvantages
o Tend to be heavy, weight hazard if not
supported
properly
o Run very hot, can cause fires if left
unattended –
especially if they are old
o Consume more power than TFT monitors
o They can flicker, this leads to headaches and
eyesight
problems with prolonged use
TFT Monitor
• Thin Film Transistor monitors
• Taking over from CRT monitors as the main
output device
• The progress in TFT technology is one of the
reasons for the rapid development of laptop
computers
• The screen is made up of thousands of tiny
pixels which are made up of transistors
controlled by a microprocessor
• Each pixel has three transistors-red, green or
blue; the intensity of each determines the
colour of the pixel seen.
• Uses
o Primary output device for computers, user
can immediately see what they are typing in
o Integral part of laptop computers
• Advantages
o Lightweight, so no weight hazards like CRT
monitors
18
o Less glare produced than in CRT monitors; o High power consumption
also emit
o Slow response time
less radiation
• Note: Old LCD monitors used CCFL (cold
o Consume much less power and generate less cathode
heat
fluorescent lamp) technology to light up the
than CRT monitors screen.

• Disadvantages LED Monitor:

o Angle of viewing is critical, image appears • Front layer made from liquid crystal diodes;
unclear if viewed slightly from the side grouped

o This is an issue if several people are looking together to form pixels (RGB or RGBY-more
at the screen at the same time vivid colours)

o They cannot yet be used with light pens, • For the image to show up on-screen a light
source of LED

backlight is used.
IPS/LCD Monitor
• Advantages (over LCD monitors):
• Front layer made from liquid crystal diodes;
grouped o Lighter and thinner

together to form pixels (RGB or RGBY-more o Longer life

vivid colours)
o Lower power consumption
• Receive analogue and digital signals,
o Greater contrast and more vivid colour
although most
o Relatively more robust
modern projectors only work with digital
inputs • Disadvantages:
• IPS (In-plane switching) is the technology o Glare gives viewers headaches
used in LCD
o Images too sharp, so can cause eye strain
monitors.
Touch Screen
• Advantages:
• Automatic selection without a pointing
o Colour can be seen accurately from different device
viewing
• Uses:
angles
o Automatic teller machines
o No lightening on touching
o EFTPOS (electronic fund transfer point of
• Disadvantages: sales)
o Expensive o PDA

19
o Smartphones
o Public information points
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Faster data entry Limited options
Easy to choose options
Frequent usage can lead to RSI, etc.
User-friendly and Intuitive Constant usage
results in the screen getting dirty; visibility and
sensitivity decreases
Multimedia Projector
• Receive analogue and digital signals,
although most modern projectors only work
with digital inputs
• The signal source is usually from a computer,
television, or DVD player
• The image from the source is magnified and
projected onto a large screen
• The devices usually work with a remote
control, but can also use virtual mouse
technology – cordless PC mouse (has a laser
pointer)
o It is then possible to direct the presentation
without being tied to the computer
o Most multimedia projectors take input from
various types of video format e.g. PAL, NTSC or
SECAM
• Uses
o Used for training presentations (allows the
whole audience to see the images from a
computer)
o Also used for advertising presentations
(shown at exhibitions, shopping malls etc.)
o Home cinema systems (projecting the images
from a
DVD or television) use multimedia projectors
• Advantages
o Enables many people to see a presentation
rather than all of them crowded around a
small computer screen
o Avoids the need for several networked
computers
o e.g. when looking at a video clip on the
internet,
everybody can see the video on the large
screen rather
than logging on to several computers
• Disadvantages
o Images can sometimes be fuzzy
o Expensive to buy
o Setting up projectors can be a little difficult
Laser Printer
• Produce very high-quality hard copy output
• Print rate per page is fast if many pages are
being printed
• Rely on large buffer memories – the
data for the whole document is stored before
pages can be printed out
• Uses
o Used where noise levels need to be kept low
e.g. in an office
o The best option for fast, high quality, high
volume printing
• Advantages
o Printing is fast for high volumes, slightly
faster than inkjet if only a few pages are to be
printed
o Can handle very large print jobs
20
o Quality is consistently high
o Toner cartridges last for a long time; laser
printers can be a cost-effective option if colour
outputs are not required
• Disadvantages
o Expensive to buy
o Only fast if several copies are being made
o Colour laser printers tend to be expensive to
run since four cartridges are needed as well as
diffuser kits, etc.
o Produce ozone and volatile organic
compounds
because of their printing method and type of
toner/ink used
o These have been linked to health hazards in
the office
LCD and LED Monitors
> Front layer of monitor is made up of
Liquid Crystal
Display (LCD), these tiny diodes are
grouped together in threes as pixels (LCD
doesn’t emit any light)
> LCD monitors are back lit using Light
Emitting Diode
(LED) because:
o LEDs reach their maximum brightness
immediately
o LEDs sharpens image (higher resolution),
CCFL has yellow tint
o LEDs improve colour image
o Monitors using LED are much thinner
than CCFL
o LEDs consume very little power
> Before LEDs, LCD monitors were backlit
using CCFL
> CCFL uses two fluorescent tubes behind
the LCD screen which supplies the light
source
LIGHT PROJECTORS:
> Two common types of light projectors:
o Digital Light Projector (DLP)
o LCD Projector
> Projectors are used to project computer
output onto larger screens/interactive
whiteboards
Digital Light Projectors (DLP)
> Uses millions of micro mirrors
> the number of micro mirrors and the way
they are arranged on the DLP chip
determines the resolution of the image
> When the micro mirrors tilt towards the
light source they are on
> When the micro mirrors tilt away from
the light source they are off
> This creates a light or dark pixel on the
projection screen
> A bright white light source passes
through a colour filter on its way to the
DLP chip
> White light splits into primary colours
LCD Projectors
> Older technology than DLP
21
 Laser
Printer

Stage Description of what happens

1 data from the document is sent to a printer driver
2 printer driver ensures that the data is in a format that the chosen printer can understand
3 check is made by the printer driver to ensure that the chosen printer is available to
print (is it busy? is it off-line? is it out of ink? and so on)
4 data is sent to the printer and stored in a temporary memory known as a printer buffer
5 printing drum given a positive charge. As this drum rotates, a laser beam scans across it
removing the positive charge in certain areas, leaving negatively charged areas which
exactly match the text/images of the page to be printed
6 drum is coated with positively charged toner (powdered ink). Since the toner is
positively charged, it only sticks to the negatively charged parts of the drum
7 negatively charged sheet of paper is rolled over the drum
8 toner on the drum sticks to the paper to produce an exact copy of the page sent to the
printer

9 to prevent the paper sticking to the drum, the electric charge on the paper is removed
after one rotation of the drum
10 the paper goes through a fuser (a set of heated rollers), where the heat melts the ink so
that it fixes permanently to the paper
11 a discharge lamp removes all the electric charge from the drum so it is ready to print the
next page

22
Ink-jet Printer

Stage Description of what happens

1 data from the document is sent to a printer driver
2 printer driver ensures that the data is in a format that the chosen printer can understand

3 check is made by the printer driver to ensure that the chosen printer is available to
print (is it busy? is it off-line? is it out of ink? and so on)
4 data is sent to the printer and stored in a temporary memory known as a printer buffer
5 a sheet of paper is fed into the main body of the printer. A sensor detects whether
paper is available in the paper feed tray – if it is out of paper (or the paper is jammed),
an error message is sent back to the computer
6 as the sheet of paper is fed through the printer, the print head moves from side to side
across the paper printing the text or image. The four ink colours are sprayed in their
exact amounts to produce the desired final colour
7 at the end of each full pass of the print head, the paper is advanced very slightly to
allow the next line to be printed. This continues until the whole page has been printed
8 if there is more data in the printer buffer, then the whole process from stage 5 is
repeated until the buffer is empty
9 once the printer buffer is empty, the printer sends an interrupt to the processor in the
computer, which is a request for more data to be sent to the printer. The process
continues until the whole of the document has been printed

23
Sensor Example applications
temperature • control a central heating system
• control/monitor a chemical process
• control/monitor temperature in a greenhouse

moisture/humidity • control/monitor moisture/humidity levels in soil/air in a greenhouse

• monitor dampness levels in an industrial application (for example,
monitor moisture in a paint spray booth in a car factory)

light • switch street lighting on at night and off during the day
• monitor/control light levels in a greenhouse
• switch on car headlights when it gets dark

infrared/motion • turn on windscreen wipers on a car when it rains

• detect an intruder in a burglar alarm system
• count people entering or leaving a building

pressure • detect intruders in a burglar alarm system

• check weight (such as the weight of a vehicle)
• monitor/control a process where gas pressure is important

acoustic/sound • pick up noise levels (such as footsteps or breaking glass) in a burglar

alarm system
• detect noise of liquids dripping from a pipe

gas (such as O2 or • monitor pollution levels in a river or air

CO2) • measure O2 and CO2 levels in a greenhouse
• check for CO2 or NO2 leaks in a power station

pH • monitor/control acidity/alkalinity levels in soil

• monitor pollution in rivers

magnetic field • detect changes in in cell phones, CD players, and so on

• used in anti-lock braking systems in motor vehicles

24
Examples of monitoring
• monitoring a patient in a hospital for vital signs
such as heart rate, temperature, and so on
• checking for intruders in a burglar alarm system
• checking the temperature levels in a car engine
• monitoring pollution levels in a river
Examples of control
• turning street lights on at night and
turning them off again during daylight
• controlling the temperature in a central
heating/air conditioning system
• controlling the traffic lights at a road
junction
• operating anti-lock brakes on a car
when necessary
• controlling the environment in a
greenhouse
25
 RAM
• temporary memory device
• volatile memory
• can be written to and read from
• used to store data, files, programs, part of OS
currently in use
• can be increased in size to improve
operational speed of a computer
Pros of embedded systems
• small in size and therefore easy to
fit into devices
• relatively low cost to make
• usually dedicated to one task,
making for simple interfaces and
often no requirement of an
operating system
• consume very little power
• very fast reaction to changing input • any device that can be accessed over the internet is
(operate in real time)
• with mass production comes
reliability
ROM
• permanent memory device
• non-volatile memory device
• data stored cannot be altered
• sometimes used to store BIOS and other
data needed at start up
Cons of embedded systems
• difficult to upgrade devices to take advantage of new
technology
• troubleshooting faults in the device becomes a
specialist task
• although the interface can appear to be simple, in
reality it can be more confusing (changing the time
on a cooker clock can require several steps, for
example)
also open to hackers, viruses, and so on
• due to the difficulty in upgrading and fault finding,
devices are often just thrown away rather than being
repaired (wasteful)
26
> A powerful beam of white light is
generated from a bulb
> This beam of light is then sent to a group
of chromatic-coated mirrors; these reflect
the light back at different wavelengths
> When the white light hits the mirrors, the
reflected light has wavelengths
corresponding to red, green and blue
> These three different light pass through
three LCD screens; these screens show the
image to be projected as millions of pixels
in grayscale
> When the coloured light passes through
the LCD screens, a red, green and blue
version of the grey image emerges
> Finally, the image passes through the
projector lens onto the screen
3.5 Memory, Storage Devices & Media
PRIMARY MEMORY:
Random Access Memory (RAM)
> Features of RAM
o Volatile/temporary memory (contents
lost if RAM is turned off)
o Used to store; data, files
o It can be written to or read from and the
contents from the memory can be changed
> Larger the size of the RAM, faster the
computer will operate
> RAM never runs out of memory,
continues to run slow
> As RAM becomes full, the processor has
to continually access the hard drive to
overwrite old data on RAM with new data
Read Only Memory (ROM)
> Features of ROM
o Non-volatile/permanent memories
(contents remain even when ROM is
turned off)
o Used to store start up instruction (basic
input/output systems)
o Data/contents of a ROM chip can only be
read, cannot be changed
SECONDARY STORAGE:
Hard Disk Drives (HDD)
> Data is stored in a digital format on the
magnetic surface of the disks (platter)
> Number of read/write heads can access
all of the surfaces of the disk
> Each platter will have two surfaces which
can be used to store the data
> Data is stored on the surfaces in sectors
and tracks
> HDD have very slow data access
compared to RAM
3.1 Magnetic Backing Storage Media
Fixed Hard Disks/Drives
• Available on all computers and is the main
method used for data storage
• Uses a read/write head to write and read
data from it
• Disk surface coated in magnetic film, storage
is done by altering binary codes to 1s or 0s
27
• Uses • Read and written by read/write head

o Used to store operating systems and working • Uses

data
o Application where batch processing is used
o Used for storing application software
o Used as a backup media
o Real time systems and online systems used
• Advantages
fixed hard drives
o Generally, less expensive and very robust
o Used in file servers for computer networks
technology
• Advantages
o Data transfer rate is fast
o Very fast data transfer rate and fast access
• Disadvantages
times to data
o Access time is very slow
o Have very large memory capacities
o When updating another tape is needed
• Disadvantages
Memory Cards
o Can be easily damaged
• A form of electrically erasable programmable
o They lack portability
read only
Portable & Removable Hard Disks/Drives
memory (EEPROM)
• Like fixed hard disks but are usually
• Uses
connected via universal serial bus
o Used to store photos on digital cameras
• Uses
o Mobile phones use them as memory cards
o Can be used as backup systems to prevent
loss of data o Used in MP3 players to store music
o Can be used to transfer data, files and o Used as a backup in hand held devices
software between computers
• Advantages
• Advantages
o Very compact
o Data access time and transfer rate is very fast
o Very robust
o Large memory capacities
• Disadvantages
o Can be used to transfer information between
computers o Very expensive per Gb of memory when
compared to hard drive disks
• Disadvantages
o Has a finite life in terms of the number of
o Can be easily damaged times they can be read from/written to.
Magnetic Tapes & Drives 3.2 Optical Backing Storage Media
• Thin strip of plastic which is coated in a CD-ROM/DVD-ROM
magnetic layer

28
• Read only memory – cannot be overwritten o Once burned (and finalized) they are like
ROM
• Data is stored as a series of pits and lands
formed by a laser beam etching the surface at • Disadvantages
manufacturing stage
o Can only be reordered once
• Uses
o Not all CD/DVD players and can read CD-R
o Store music files and software.
CD-RW/DVD-RW
o Very large storage capacity and are used to
• ‘RW’ means that these disks are re-writable
store films.
media can
• Advantages
be written over several times
o Holds more data than floppy disks
• Unlike CD-R/DVD-R they don’t become ROMs
o Less expensive than hard disk drives
• The recording layer uses a special phase-
• Disadvantages changing metal alloy

o Data transfer rate and data access time are • The alloy can switch between crystalline and
slower amorphous

CD-R/DVD-R (non-crystalline) phases, thus changing its

reflectivity to light, depending on the laser
• The letter ‘R’ means the disc is recordable
beam power
only once and then it becomes ROM
• Spots are produced which can be read by a
• Use a thin layer of an organic dye as the
laser
recording media
• System allows data to be written, erased and
• DVDs also use an additional silver alloy or
re-written many times
gold reflector
• Uses
• Laser beam produces heated spots and
unheated spots o CD-RWs and DVD-RWs are used to record
radio and television programs
• Uses
o They are used in closed circuit television
o They are used for home recording of music
(CCTV) systems
(CD-Rs) and films (DVD-Rs)
• Advantages
o They are used to store data for later use
o Can be re used many times
o Used in applications where it is necessary to
prevent the deletion or over-writing of o Different file formats can be used each time
important data
o Less wasteful than R format since files or
• Advantages data can be added at a later stage

o Cheaper than RW disks • Disadvantages

o Relatively expensive media

29
o Possible to accidentally overwrite
DVD-RAM
• Recent addition to optical media group
• Unlike other CD and DVD formats, DVD-
RAMs have several discrete concentric tracks
rather than a single spiral track
• Gives them advantage that writing, and
reading can occur at the same time
• Makes it possible to watch an already
recorded
television program at the same time as a
different program is being recorded
• Recording layer is made from similar phase-
changing material to that used in RW
technology
• Shiny and dull marks represent data to a
computer
where they are interpreted
• Uses
o DVD-RAMs are used in recording devices
such as
satellite receivers to allow simultaneous
recording and playback
o They are used in camcorders to store films
• Advantages
o Have a long life (30 years)
o Can be re written on more than the DVD-
RWs
(100,000 times)
o Very reliable as they have built in verification
software to ensure accuracy of data
o Access is very fast
o No need to finalize the disk
o Very large capacities
o Ability to read and write data at the same
time
• Disadvantage
o DVD-RAMS are not as compatible as R or
RW, many systems will not recognize this
format
o More expensive than DVD-RW
Blu-Ray Discs
• Uses
o Blu-ray disks are used in home video
consoles
o Used for storing and playing back films
o PCs can use this technology for data storage
or backing up hard drives
o Camcorders can use this media to store film
footage
• Advantage
o Very large storage capacity
o Data transfer rate is very fast
o Data access speed is faster than with other
optical media
• Disadvantage
o Disks are relatively expensive
o Blu-ray disks still have encryption problems
3.3 Solid State Backing Storage
• Solid state systems control the movement of
electrons within a microchip: if the transistor
conducts a current, this is equivalent to a 1,
otherwise it is a 0
• Have no moving parts, consume much less
power and are extremely robust
30
• Used primarily as removable storage devices
and are collectively known as flash memory
Solid State Drives
• Supports reading/writing data & maintains
stored data in a permanent state even without
power
• Functions much like a hard drive but
different tech
• Built with an array of semiconductors that
form its memory and operated using an
integrated circuit
• Uses
o Used to store operating systems and working
data
o Used for storing application software
o Used in file servers for computer networks
• Advantages
o Faster than hard disks because they do not
need to ‘spin up’ the disk
o Robust because no mechanical parts
o Read performance is fast even when data
fragmented
o Less susceptible to data loss
o Lighter, quieter and require less power than
hard disks
• Disadvantages
o More expensive than hard disks
o Have a smaller capacity than modern hard
disks
o Lower number of write cycles causing
performance to diminish over time
Flash Drives
• Otherwise called pen drive/memory
stick/USB stick
• Can store several GBs of data and use solid
state technology
• Connected to a computer through USB port
and power
to operate drawn from host computer
• Some expensive software increasingly uses
these storage
methods as a form of security
• Uses
o Used to transport files between computers
o Used as a security device – a dongle – to
prevent software piracy
• Advantage
o Very compact and portable media
o Very robust
• Disadvantage
o Not possible to write protect the data and
files
o Small physical size and are easy to lose.
o Lower storage capacity than hard disk
Solid-State Storage (SDD)
> No moving parts and all data is received
at the same time (not like HDD)
> Store data by controlling the movement
of electrons within NAND chips, as 1s and
0s
> Non-volatile rewritable memory
> Benefits of using SDD rather than HDD:
31
Compiler
The end user only needs the executable code,
therefore, the end user benefits as there is no
need to purchase a compiler to translate the
program before it is used.
The developer keeps hold of the source code, so it
cannot be altered or extended by the end user,
therefore, the developer benefits as they can charge
for upgrades and alterations.
Compiled programs take a shorter time to execute
as translation has already been completed and the
machine code generated may have been optimised
by the compiler.
Compiled programs have no syntax or semantic
errors.
The source program can be translated on one type
of computer then executed on another type of
computer.
A compiler finds all errors in a program. One error
detected can mean that the compiler finds other
dependent errors later on in the program that will not be
errors when the first error is corrected. Therefore, the
number of errors found may be more than the actual
number of errors.
Untested programs with errors may cause the
computer to crash.
The developer needs to write special routines in
order to view partial results during development,
making it more difficult to assess the quality of
particular sections of code.
End users do not have access to the source code and
the run-time libraries, meaning they are unable to make
modifications and are reliant on the developer for
updates and alterations.
Interpreter
The end user will need to purchase a
compiler or an interpreter to translate the
source code before it is used.
The developer relinquishes control of the
source code, making it more difficult to
charge for upgrades and alterations. Since
end users can view the source code, they
could potentially use the developer’s
intellectual property.
An interpreted program can take longer to
execute than the same program when
compiled, since each line of the source
code needs to be translated before it is
executed every time the program is run.
Interpreted programs may still contain
syntax or semantic errors if any part of
the program has not been fully tested,
these errors will need to be debugged.
Interpreted programs cannot be interpreted
on one type of computer and run on another
type of computer.
It is easier to develop and debug a
program using an interpreter as errors
can be corrected on each line and the
program restarted from that place,
enabling the programmer to easily
learn from any errors.
Untested programs should not be able to
cause the computer to crash.
Partial results can be viewed during
development, enabling the developer to
make informed decisions about a section
of code, for example whether to continue,
modify, or scrap and start again.
If an interpreted program is purchased,
end users have all the source code and
the run-time libraries, enabling the
program to be modified as required
without further purchase.
32
o More reliable (no moving parts) > Very small, lightweight suitable from
transferring files
o Considerably lighter (suitable for laptops)
> Small back-up devices for photo, music
o Lower power consumption
> Solid state so need to be treated with
o Run much cooler than HDDs
care
o Very thin
3.6 High- & Low-Level Languages
o Data access if faster than HDD
High-Level Languages
> Drawback – questionable longevity
> Easier to read and understand as the
(20GB per day)
language is closer to human language
OFF-LINE STORAGE
> Easier to write in shorter time
CD/DVD Disks
> Easier to debug at the development stage
> Laser (red) light is used to read and write
> Easier to maintain once in use
data in the surface of the disk
Low-Level Languages
> Use a thin layer of metal alloy to store
data > Refer to machine code
> Both systems use a single, spiral track > Binary instructions that computer
which runs from the centre of the disk to understands
the edge
TRANSLATORS:
> DVD uses Dual-Layering which increases
> A program must be translated into binary
the storage capacity (two individual
before a computer can use it
recoding layers)
> Types of translators; Compiler,
Blu-ray Disks
Interpreter and Assembler
> Uses blue laser to carry out read and
Compiler
write operations
> Translates a program written in high-
> Wavelength of laser light is less than CD
level language into machine code
and DVD (stores up to five times more data
than DVD) > Used without compiler
> Automatically come with secure > Executable file of machine code
encryption (prevent piracy and copyright produced
infringement)
> One high-level language translated into
> Used as back-up systems several machine code instructions
USB Flash Memories > Used for general use

33
Interpreter > The programmer is the alerted to the
place in the program where error was
> Executes a high-language program a
found
statement at a time
> The error is corrected and interpretation
> No executable file of machine code
continues
produced
4. SECURITY
> One high-level language program
statement may require several machine > Need to keep data safe from accidental
code instructions to be executed damage, including corruption and human
errors
> Cannot be used without interpreter
> Need to keep data safe from malicious
> Used when program is being developed
actions, including unauthorized viewing,
Assembler deleting, copying and corruption
> Translates a low-level language program
into machine code
> Executable file of machine code
produced
> One low-level language translated into
one machine code instructions 4.1 Firewalls & Proxy Servers
> Can be used without assembler > A firewall sits between the user’s
computer and an external network
> Used for general use
(internet) and filter information in and out
Syntax Errors: of the computer
> When program is being compiled, if any > Tasks carried out by firewall:
syntax errors are found no translated
o Examining ‘traffic’
program is produced
o Checking weather incoming or outgoing
> Instead, a list of all errors in program is
data meets criteria
produced
o If data fails the criteria, the firewall
> Programmer corrects program and
blocks ‘traffic’
recompiles
o Firewall can keep a list of all undesirable
> When a program is being interpreted, the
IP addresses
interpreter preforms the action until
syntax error is found o Helping to prevent viruses or hackers
entering the user’s computer

34
> Proxy servers act as an intermediary
between the user and a web server
> Functions of proxy servers:
o Allowing the internet ‘traffic’ to be
filtered
o By using cache, they can speed up access
to information from a website
o Keeping the user’s IP address secret
> Acting as a firewall
4.2 Security Protocols
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)
> Type of protocol that allows data to be
sent and received securely over the
internet
> When a user logs onto a website, SSL
encrypts the data
> https or padlock in the status bar
> When user wants to access a secure
website:
o User’s web browser sends a message so
it can connect with required website which
is secured by SSL
o Web browser requests that the web
server identifies itself
o Web server responds by sending a copy
of its SSL certificate
o Web browser checks if certificate is
authentic
o Sends signal back to web browser
o Starts to transmit data once connection
is established
o If not secure, browser will display an
open padlock
Transport Layer Security (TLS)
> Form of protocol that ensures the
security and privacy of data between
devices and users when communicating
over the internet
> Designed to provide encryption,
authentication and data integrity in a more
effective way than SSL
> Possible to extend TLS by adding new
authentication methods
4.3 Encryption
> Used to protect data in case it has been
hacked
> Doesn’t prevent hacking, makes data
meaningless
Symmetric Encryption
> A secret key which can be a combination
of characters
> If this key is applied to a message, its
contents is changed
> One key is needed to encrypt a message
and another key is needed to decrypt a
message
> Increasing the length of the key increases
the strength of the encryption
Plain text and Cypher Text
> Plain text is the normal representation of
data before it goes through an encryption
algorithm
> Cypher text is the output from an
encryption algorithm
35
Authentication
> Authentication is used to verify that data
come from a trusted source
> Works with encryption to strengthen
internet security
> Passwords: usually a user id/name and
password are
used to log on to systems
> Digital Signatures: public key encryption;
ensure an electronic document is authentic
> Biometrics: relies on the unique
characteristics of human beings
(fingerprint scans, retina scans)
4.4 Phishing, Pharming & DoS
Phishing:
> Creator sends out a legitimate-looking
email; as soon as recipient clicks on link,
user is sent to a fake website
> Effect:
o Creator of email can gain personal data;
bank account
o Can lead to fraud
> To remove risk:
o Many ISPs filter out phishing emails
o User should be cautious
Pharming
> Malicious code installed on a user’s hard
drive or on the web server, code will
redirect the user to a fake website
> Effect:
o Creator of malicious code can gain
personal data; bank account
o Can lead to fraud or identity theft
> To remove risk:
o Some anti-spyware can identify and
remove pharming code from hard drive
o User should be alert
Denial of Service Attacks (DoS)
> An attempt at preventing users from
accessing part of a network
> Usually temporary but may be damaging
> Attacker me be able to prevent user
from:
o Accessing their emails
o Accessing websites
o Accessing online services
4.5 Applications
> Ways bank protect their costumers from
online fraud
o Banks use 10/12-digit code unique to the
costumer
o May be asked to input three random
numbers from a four-digit PIN
o Some use a hand-held device into which
a customer inserts their card. Device will
generate an eight-digit code which the
customer types into web page
o Some ask to key in parts of their
passwords using drop-down boxes (using a
mouse)
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5. ETHICS
> A set of principles set out to regulate the
use of computers
> Plagiarism is when a person takes
another person’s idea/work and claims it
as their own
5.1 Types of Softwares
Free Software
> Software source code can be freely
accessed and modified as required
> Run, copy, change or adapt free software
(e.g. Scribus, Abiword)
> Possible to distribute modified versions
of software to friends and family
Freeware
> A software a user can download from the
internet free of charge
> Once it has been downloaded, there are
no fees associated (e.g. Adobe, Skype)
> Subject to all copyright laws User is not
allowed to study, modify code
Shareware: Trial version, with limited
features and limited time period.
Some more important points
Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
• Web browsers use URLs to retrieve files
• They are multiple ways of locating on the
internet
• Standard form: 4 numbers e.g.
194.106.220.19
• Alphanumeric form:
• protcol://web address/path/filename
o Where; Protocol is usually http
o Site address consists of: computer name,
domain name, domain type, and country code
o Path is the web page
o Filename is the item on the page
Internet Service Provider (ISP)
• These are companies that provide users with
access to the internet
• Provider in return for these services is
charged a monthly or annual fee
• After paying this fee, a username and
password are issued which can be used to
connect to the internet.
Extra mile with MAK:
2 E-Safety
• E-safety refers to the safety of data and
personal
information while using the internet.
• E-safety is required to make sure a user’s
personal information is not made vulnerable
and even leaked to hacker’s for e.g., which can
lead to identity fraud, bank A/C issues, etc.
Personal Data
• Any data regarding a living person who can
be identified
against the data or the data along with any
other information.
• Examples of personal data:
37
o Full Name
o Home Address
o Banking details (A/C no, pin, etc.)
o Medical history (suffered from depression,
etc.)
o Personal data like ethnic origin, political
views, criminal activity, mental health history,
o Sexual orientation and religion can be used
to blackmail victims of data breaches
• If personal data is leaked (data breach), the
following can occur:
o Identity theft
o Bank fraud
o Damages to personal property
o Kidnapping (if kidnappers get access to the
victim’s
address.
o Etc.
• To prevent the above, it is essential that
personal data is protected.
• Personal data can be leaked intentionally
and unintentionally. Electronic data is at risk
due to: hacking, viruses, spyware, phishing,
pharming, Smishing, vishing, ransomware1 ,
spam, moderated and un-moderated forums,
cookies, etc.
• If a student shares a photograph of
themselves in their school uniform on social
media, then paedophiles, child predators,
kidnappers, etc. can physically reach the
student. This should not be done
A malicious program that encrypts data on a
computer system and demands for a ransom
to provide and decrypt the data
Internet Safety
• To keep personal data safe, one must:
o Not give unknown people (on the internet)
personal information or send pictures of
oneself to them.
o Maintain privacy settings to control which
cookies are on their computer
o Use learner friendly search engines and
websites recommended by your educational
institution, e.g. MAK.org
o The website being accessed is from a trusted
source,
or has a padlock symbol/ https protocol (s for
secure):
Email Safety
• Open emails from known sources, and do not
click on an emails wit hyperlinks without
confirming with the sender of the email. Think
before opening an email from an unknown
person, never send any other sensitive
information (picture in school uniform, credit
card PIN, etc.)
• Ask their ISP to eanble email filtering to
classfy spam mails as spam.
Social Media Safety
• Blcok and report users who seem suspicous
or use inappropriate language
• Never use you real name, only use a
nickname
• Use appropraite language
• Do not enter private chat rooms, as users can
lure you
into giving personal inforamtion by seeming
too nice.
• Do not meet anyone off the internet for the
first time on
38
your own, or atleast speak to a trusted adult
first.
• Do not missue images (of someone to
blackmail them, for e.g.)
• Respect the confidentiality of other users
Online Games
o Have a backup of data in case of damage
o Firewalls User IDs
• To log on to a network, a user must type in a
user ID
• User ID assigns user privilege once user logs
in

• Similar measures apply to that taken when • The top-level privilege for a network is an
using social media. administrator:

• Additionally, players should be careful about: o Able to set passwords and delete files from
server etc.
o In-game violence
• User privilege may only allow to access their
o Cyber bullying
own work area
o Keeping their webcams off (other potentially
Passwords
dangerous players have direct access to your
image) • After typing in user ID, the user will be
requested to type in their password
o Predators may use voice masking technology
to lure a user to reveal their age, sex etc. • Generally, it is a combination of letters and
numbers
o Cyber-attacks involving viruses, ransomware,
etc. • Passwords are shown as stars (***) so
nobody overlooking can see it
8.3 Security of Data
• Many systems ask for password to be typed
Hacking
in twice as a verification check, in case of input
• Hackers are people who get into your errors
computer system without having the rights. It
• To help protect the system, user has a finite
can lead to corruption or loss of data or a data
number of attempts
breach
• If password is forgotten, administrator must
o Some prove that a system is vulnerable -
reset it
maybe
• If password is forgotten on a website, it will
employed to test (ethical hacking)
be sent to your e-mail
o Some want to steal data
Biometric Data
o Alter or destroy data
• Uses features of the human body unique to
o For fun or a challenge every individual, such as fingerprints, retina,
iris, face and voice
• Prevention:
recognitions. It is used in authentication
o Protect with authentication techniques (user techniques as it is very difficult / impossible to
ID and password, etc.) replicate.

39
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Usernames and passwords don’t have to be
remembered
• Almost impossible to replicate body parts.
• Somebody else can’t gain access, like with a
stolen card
o Web browser requests that the web server
identifies itself
o Web server responds by sending a copy of its
SSL certificate
o Web browser checks if certificate is authentic
o Sends signal back to web browser

• They can’t be forgotten, like a card o Starts to transmit data once connection is
established
• The readers are expensive
o If not secure, browser will display an open
• Damages in fingerprints can
padlock
deny access
Features of a Secure Web Page
• Some people worry about their personal
• Webpage URL: If the webpage is secure, it
information being stored
will start with ‘https’ instead of ‘http’.
Digital Certificate
• Padlock sign Phishing
• A digital certificate is an electronic passport
• Phishing is a fraudulent operation involving
used in the security of data sent over the
the use of emails
internet.
• The creator sends out a legitimate looking
• They can be attached with mails so that the
email hoping
receiver can
to gather personal and financial information
know that the mail is sent from a trusted
from the recipient of the email
source.
• The message appears to be from a legitimate
Secure Socket Layer (SSL)
source (e.g. a famous bank)
• Type of protocol that allows data to be sent
• When the user clicks on the link they are sent
and received
to a spoof
securely over the internet
website
• When a user logs onto a website, SSL
• They will be asked for personal info e.g.
encrypts the data
credit card details, PINs
• https or padlock in the status bar
• This could lead to identity theft
• When user wants to access a secure website:
• ISPs attempt to filter out phishing emails
o User’s web browser sends a message, so it
Pharming
can
• Pharming is a scam in which malicious code is
connect with required website which is
installed on a computer hard disk or a server
secured by SSL

40
• This code can misdirect users to fraudulent
websites
without their knowledge
• Phishing requires an email to be sent to
every person who has been targeted, while
pharming does not require emails to be sent
out to anyone
• Pharming can target a larger group of people
more easily
• How pharming works:
o A hacker will infect the computer with a
virus, either
by sending an email or installing software on
their
computer when they first visit their website
o Once infected, the virus sends user to a fake
website that looks identical to the one they
wanted to visit
o Personal info. from the user’s computer can
be picked up by the pharmer/hacker
o Anti-spyware, anti-virus software or anti-
pharming software can be used to identify this
code and correct the corruption
Smishing
• An attempt to extract a user’s confidential
information via SMS (short message service) by
tricking the user into downloading a Trojan
horse (a virus that masks itself).
• It is phishing via SMS. Preventing Phishing,
Pharming & Smishing
• User education
• Set up anti-malware and anti-spyware
software
• Enabling protocols such as SPF and DKIM
• Do not download random .exe (executable
file formats), .php, .bat, .com etc.
• Users should when being redirected to other
websites.
• Therefore, technology enables unauthorised
users to
gain access to otherwise inaccessible
information.
• If a person on the internet is asking for
personal information, or to meet in real life or
acting suspicious, they should be reported to
cyber security agencies, or one’s
parents/guardians.
• Websites/pop-ups can be made to mimic
legitimate ones, or seem too good to be true,
for e.g.lotrei.net instead of lottery.com
• Banks and organisations will never ask for a
PIN to be entered on website like this.
Effects of phishing, pharming and Smishing on
a user:
• Personal and sensitive information is lost,
which can be
used for previously stated purposes.
Moderated & Unmoderated Forums
Online forums are places on the internet
where people
can join discussions on almost any topic and
also add their
views.
• There are two types of forums:
MODERATED FORUMS UNMODERATED
FORUMS
• Has a moderator who checks comments
before they are posted
41
• There will be no spams or rude and offensive
comments
• No diversions from the topic
• Highly secure due to moderation
• No moderator who checks the comments
• Spams, rude and offensive comments
present
• Diversions from topic are possible
• Personal information can be obtained from
you
• Not secure due to lack of moderation
Spam
• Spam is electronic junk mail and is a type of
advertising from a company sent out to a
target mailing list
• Harmless but can clog up networks and slow
them down
• It is more of a nuisance than a security risk
• Many ISPs are good at filtering out spam, and
prevent the user from getting these spam
emails.
• It is often necessary to put a legitimate email
address
into a contact list to ensure wanted emails are
not filtered out by mistake Encryption
• The conversion of data to code by encoding it
• Done by using encryption software
• Since data is encoded, it appears
meaningless to a hacker
• This technique prevents illegal access
• Necessary to use decryption software to
decode the data
• Used to protect sensitive data e.g. banking
details
• Encryption keys are complex algorithms
which makes
codes almost unbreakable
Computer Viruses
• It is a malicious program that replicates itself
and is
designed to cause harm to a computer system.
They
spread through downloadable files, external
store media (e.g. pen drives, etc.)
o May cause the computer to crash
o Loss of files, corruption of the data
• Viruses infect computers through email
attachments, illegal software or downloaded
files
• Prevention of Viruses
o Anti-virus software - Detects and then
removes or isolates and use firewalls
o Do not use illegal software
o Only download from reputable sites
The threats of using credit cards online and
prevention:
• Key logging/spywares: records the keys
pressed on a keyboard.
o Can be used to obtain credit card details,
passwords and personal information.
o Use virtual keyboards to type in password.
o Install anti-spyware software.
• Bogus sites: sites that look exactly like the
original sites, but aren’t.
42
o They can steal your card details and personal
information when you make purchases.
o Always type in URLs, sometimes links in the
mails can be of bogus sites.
• Phishing, pharming and Smishing:
o They trick you to reveal card and personal
details as responses to messages or mails.
o Open attachments only from trusted sources.
o Install anti-spyware software.
• Hacking into secure sites to obtain the
details:
o Encrypting the details will make it of no use
to the hacker.
o Use strong passwords.
o Use firewalls.
• Tapping into wireless networks:
o Always use a password controlled Wi-Fi since
it is
relatively hard to tap into a secured Wi-Fi.
*ALL PREVENTION TECHNIQUES WRITTEN
HERE ALSO APPLY FOR THE THREATS IN
GENERAL (NOT SPECIFIC T CREDIT CARDS) *
Cloud Storage
• Your data is stored remotely and not on your
computer,
so you don’t have control over the physical
security of
your data.
• Some of the data stored may be personal
data which are open to hackers, and have to
be encrypted in order to prevent hackers from
obtaining them.
• The company providing the storage may go
out of business. In this case what has to be
done to the data will have to be considered.
• The company providing the storage will have
to put in all its efforts and safety measures in
order to keep your
data safe.
• If the company providing the storage doesn’t
backup your data, you may lose it in case of
power cuts or fires, etc. Firewalls
• A firewall sits between the user’s computer
and an external network (internet) and filter
information in and out of the computer
• Tasks carried out by firewall:
o Examining ‘traffic’
o Checking weather incoming or outgoing data
meets criteria
o If data fails the criteria, the firewall blocks
‘traffic’
o Firewall can keep a list of all undesirable IP
addresses
o Helping to prevent viruses or hackers
entering the user’s computer
Methods of Internet Security
AUTHENTICATION
METHOD
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
PASSWORDS
• Inexpensive as nothing other than a
computer is required
• Can be easily hacked
• Can be forgotten
43
FINGERPRINT SCANS FACE RECOGNITION

• Highly recognized everywhere • Non-intrusive

• Very high accuracy • Relatively inexpensive

• Easy to use • Affected by changes in lighting, person’s

hairstyle, age and spectacles
• Relatively low storage requirement

• Intrusive

• Damages will

prevent access

SIGNATURE RECOGNITION

• Non-intrusive

• Very little time to identify

• Relatively low Expensive

• Problems occur if sign is not consistent

• High error rate (one in 50)

RETINA SCANS

• Very high accuracy

• No known way to replicate a person’s retina

• Very intrusive

• Relatively slow to verify retina scans

• Very expensive to install and set up

IRIS RECOGNITION

• Very high accuracy

• Verification time is usually less than 5

seconds

• Very intrusive

• Lot of memory needed for storage

• Very expensive to install and set up

44
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