Rafael M. Marzan Allandre S. Afingwan Virgilio A. Bas-Ilan Ii

SCHOOL OF
TEACHER EDUCATION
AND
LIBERAL ARTS
RAFAEL M. MARZAN
ALLANDRE S. AFINGWAN
VIRGILIO A. BAS-ILAN II
Table of Contents
COVER PAGE 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS 2
INTRODUCTION 5
I. INTRODUCTION: ETHICS AS THE FIRST PHILOSOPHY 7
A. IMPORTANCE AND USE OF PHILOSOPHY IN LIFE 6
B. HOW TO READ PHILOSOPHY 11
1. FIVE STEPS FOR SUCCESSFUL READING 11
2. HOW THE FIVE STEPS WORK 12
C. ETHICS IN PHILOSOPHY 14
1. BASIC PERSPECTIVE IN ETHICS 15
2. BASIC THEMES IN ETHICS 15
II. MORAL EXPERIENCE 19
A. MORAL STANDARDS AND RULES 19
1. ELEMENTS OF MORAL EXPERIENCE 20
2. MORAL VERSUS NON-MORAL STANDARDS 20
3. IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS 23
B. MORAL ACT AND DILEMMA 26
1. AMORAL, MORAL AND IMMORAL ACTS 27
2. MORAL DILEMMA 29
3. THREE LEVELS OF MORTALITY 29
C. HUMAN ACTS AND RESPONSIBILITY 34
1. HUMAN ACT: FOUNDATIN OF MORALITY 35
2. ESSENTIAL ELEMENT OF HUMAN ACT 36
III. MORAL AGENT 42
A. MORAL COURAGE 42
1. THE VIRTUE OF COURAGE 43
2. DEFINITION OF COURAGE 43
UNIVERSITY OF BAGUIO
School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts
2
B. REASON AND IMPARTIALITY, FEELINGS, AND MORAL DECISION-MAKING 49
1. REASON AND IMPARTIALITY: MINIMUM REQUIREMENT OF MONEY 50
2. FEELING AS INSTINCTIVE AND TRAINED RESONSE TO MORAL DILEMMAS 51
3. MORAL DECISION-MAKING: SEVEN STEPS 52
C. CULTURAL BEHAVIOR AND CULTURAL RELATIVISM 54
1. CULTURE AND ITS ROLE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR : THE ROLE OF CULTURE IN SHAP-
ING MORAL BEHAVIOR 55
2. THE ROLE OF MORAL BEHAVIOR IN SHAPING CULTURE 57

3. CULTURAL RELATIVISM: ITS STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES 57
4. NON TENABILITY OF CULTRAL RELATIVISM 58
IV. ETHICAL FRAMEWORK 62
A. VIRTUE ETHICS: ARISTOTELIAN 63
1. VITUE: THE MEAN OF TWO VICES 63
2. MORALITY AS TECHNE, NOT EPISTEME 63
3. ERGON OF MAN 64
4. SPECULATIVE INTELLECT 65
5. PRACTICAL REASON 66
6. VIRTUE AS SOCIAL NOT MERELY INDIVIDUAL HABIT 66
B. VIRTUE ETHICS: NATURAL LAW 69
1. NATURAL VS UNNATURAL 69
2. ARISTOTLE’S FIRST PHIOSOPHY 70
3. TELOS 71
4. AQUINAS’ MORAL PHILOSOPHY 72
5. CONSCIENCE 73
6. NATURAL LAW 74
7. PARTICIPATION 74
8. EFFICIENT CAUSE 75
3
C. DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS: KANTIAN 76
1. CATEGORICAL VS HYPOTHETICAL IMPERATIVES 76
2. LANT’S REASONING 76
3. FOUR MAIN TYPES OF MORAL DUTIES 77
4. GOOD WILL 78
5. MAIN POINTS OF KANT’S THEORY 79
D. UTILITARIANISM 81
1. PLEASURE AND HAPPINESS 81
2. FUNDAMENTAL TENETS OF UTILITARIANISM 81
3. UTILITARIANISM AND MORALITY 81
4. BASES OF MEASUREMENT OF PLEASURE 81
E. DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE 85
1. JUSTICE AS FAIRNESS 85
2. GUIDING IDEAS OF JUSTICE AS FAIRNESS 86
3. PRINCIPLES OF JUSTICE AS FAIRNESS 86
V. ETHICS THROUGH THICK AND THIN, & ETHICS AND RELIGION 89
A. THE CHALLENGES OF PLURALISM AND FUNDAMENTALISM: THE SEARCH
FOR UNIVERSAL VALUES 90
1. GLOBALIZATION AND ITS ETHICAL CHALLENGES 90

2. ETHICAL CHALLENGES OF GLOBALIZATION 90
3. APPLICATION OF DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE THROUGH TAXATION 95
4. ETHICAL CHALLENGES AND RESPONSES OF FILLINIALS TO GLOBALIZATION 97
5. THE CHALLENGES OF RELIGION TO ETHICS 101
EVALUATION OF THE COURSE 104
REFERENCES 105
4
Introduction
Course Code: GETHCS1 Course Title: Ethics
Course Description:
ETHICS deals with the principles of ethical behavior in modern society at he level of the person,
society and in interaction with the environment and other shared resources ( CMO 20 s 2013).
Morality pertains to the standards of right and wrong that an individual originally picks up from the
community. Society, and interaction with the environment and other shared resources. The course
also teaches students to make moral decisions by using dominant moral frameworks and by
applying a seven-step moral reasoning model to analyze and solve moral dilemmas.
The course is organized according to the three (3) main elements of the moral experience: (a) agent,
including context – cultural, communal, and environmental; (b) the act; and (c) reason or framework
(for the act).
This course includes the mandatory topic on the morality of taxation.
Requirement of the Course:
At the end of the course, The students should create a position paper on the most efficient
ethical framework/s for the Philippines. In order to accomplish this, students would be asked to:
1. Identify, Select, and Research on recent Moral Problems of the Philippines with complete
citations and references.
2. Apply one, two, or all of the Ethical Frameworks to address the moral problems that they
have researched.
5
Learning Competencies:
1. Differentiate between moral and non moral problems

2. Describe what a moral experience is as it happens in different levels of human experience
3. Explain the influence of Filipino culture on the way students look at moral experiences and solve
moral dilemmas
4. Describes the elements of moral development and moral experience
5. Discover the role and advantages of feelings in moral decisions
6. Appreciate the dynamics of reasoning and impartiality
7. Use ethical frameworks or principles to analyze moral experiences
8. Make sound ethical judgments based on Principles, facts, and the stakeholders affected
9. Develop sensitivity to the common good
10. Understand and internalize the principles of ethical behavior in modern society, and in interaction
with the environment and other shared resources
Study Schedule:
WEEK 1 WEEK 2 WEEK 3 WEEK 4 WEEK 5 WEEK 6

3 HOURS 3 HOURS 3 HOURS 3 HOURS 3 HOURS 3 HOURS
FIRST GRADING
MODULE NO. I III C

EXAM
WORK SHEET
1-5 18-19
NO.
MIDDLE TERM
MODULE NO. II III A, III B

EXAM
WORK SHEET
6-14 15-17
NO.
FINALS
MODULE NO. IV V
EXAM
WORK SHEET
20-26 27-33
NO.
6
Part 1
Introduction:
Ethics as the First Philosophy
It is expected that by the end of Part 1,

the learners will be able to:
1. Identify true statements about philosophy;
2. Discuss how to apply a certain philosophy of life;
3. Explain one’s own philosophy; and
4. Identify the five steps of successful reading in philosophy,
branches of philosophy, and the basics perspectives and themes
7
A. Importance and Use of Philosophy in Life
The term "Philosophy" is derived from two Greek words, namely: 'Philos' and 'Sophos'
which means love and wisdom, respectively. So literally, philosophy means the “love of wisdom”,
This is why “philosophers are known as lovers of wisdom.
Other desirable descriptions of Philosophy:

a. Philosophy is a search for meaning or a quest for understanding;
b. Philosophy is a pursuit of fundamental truths;
c. Philosophy is a study of principles of conduct;
d. Philosophy seeks to establish standards of evidence to provide rational methods of resolving
conflicts, and to create techniques for evaluating Idea and arguments;
e. Philosophy develops the capacity to see the world from the perspective of other individuals and
other cultures;
f. Philosophy enhances ability to perceive the relationships among the various fields of study; and,
g. Philosophy deepens one's sense of meaning and variety of human experience.
Importance of Philosophy
a. For acquiring persuasive powers: Philosophy helps develop one's ability and charisma to be
more convincing of himself and of others,
b. For better communication skills: Philosophy helps one express one's views properly, enhance
one's ability to explain difficult and challenging reading materials, and helps one eliminate ambi-
guities and vagueness from one's writing and speech;
c. For enhancing better writing skills: Philosophy helps one to use his philosophical reasoning and
imaginations in expressing his ideas through writing where creativity and originality is encour-
aged. Creativity and originality are also encouraged;
d. For problem solving: Philosophy helps one to distinguish fine differences between views and to
discover common ground between opposing positions.
e. For educational pursuits: It is important for better understanding of other academic disciplines as
it is helpful and useful in assessing the various standards of evidence used by other academic
disciplines.
f. For enhancing and developing sound methods of research and analysis. This is because Philos-
ophy emphasizes clear formulation of ideas and problems, selection of relevant data, and objec-
tive methods for assessing ideas and proposals.
g. As a foundation for undergraduate students who want to pursue post-graduate studies,
h. For personal development, Philosophy helps one gain better self-knowledge, better foresight,
and a better sense of direction in life.
i. For professional advancement and promotion, people trained in philosophy are not only prepared
to do many kinds of tasks, but they can also cope easily with change, or move into new careers
more readily than others. A recent long-term study by the Bell Telephone Company determined
that those who major in the fields of liberal arts in which philosophy is a central discipline,
"continue to make strong showing in managerial skills and have experienced considerable busi-
ness success."
8
NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY
1 Theoretical Assessment
I. TRUE OR FALSE
INSTRUCTION: Write TRUE if the statement is correct and write FALSE if the statement is errone-
ous or incorrect.
_______ 1. "Philosophy" is derived from two Greek words; namely, 'philos' and 'sophos' which
means wisdom and love; respectively.
_______ 2. Philosophy is, in a sense, escapable since life confronts every thoughtful person with
some philosophical questions, and nearly everyone is guided by philosophical assumptions.
_______ 3. Philosophical training enhances our problem-solving capacities, our abilities to under-
stand, express ideas and persuade.
_______ 4. Philosophy guarantees wisdom, leadership, and an excellent guide for our counterfeit
existence
_______ 5. Philosophy helps one gain better self-knowledge, better foresight, and a better sense of
direction in life.
II. REFLECTION
INSTRUCTION: Choose one quotation to reflect on. How are you going to specifically apply this
quotation to your life? Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.
1. "Each man has his own fortune in his hands; as the artist has a piece of rude matter, which he is
to fashion to a certain shape. But the art of living rightly is like all arts: the capacity alone is born
with us; it must be learned and practiced with incessant care." —Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
2. "Let each one of us leave every other kind of knowledge and seek and follow one thing only, if
peradventure he may be able to learn and find someone who will make him able to learn and
discern between good and evil, and so to choose always and everywhere the better life as he
has opportunity" — Plato
3. "l am not interested in power for power's sake, but l i m interested in power that is moral, that is
right and that is good." Martin Luther King, Jr.
4. "The truth of the matter is that you always know the right thing to do. The hard part is doing it."
Norman Schwarzkopf
5. "Good and evil are asymmetrical; there are more ways to harm people than to help them, and
harmful acts can hurt them to a greater degree than virtuous acts can make them better off." —
Steven Pinker
6. "Whatever we learn to do, we learn by actually doing it; men come to be builders, for instance,
by building, and harp players by playing the harp. In the same way, by doing just acts we come
to be just; by doing self-controlled acts, we come to be self-controlled; and by doing brave acts,
we become brave."— Aristotle
9
NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY
2 MY PERSONAL PHILOSOPHY IN LIFE
INSTRUCTION: Based on the discussion, write your own philosophy in life through a quotation.
Explain the meaning of your philosophy.
MY PHILOSOPHY IN LIFE
BRIEF EXPLANATION
10
B. How to Read Philosophy
FIVE STEPS FOR SUCCESSFUL READING
Because of so many different perspectives and styles of discourse are represented in this text,
a consistent approach is recommended for a more successful reading of each of the selections.
Identify the specific philosophical issues addressed in the reading. The writings
are organized into general categories and subcategories (such as "Metaphysics"
STEP 1.
and "Right and Wrong conduct"), but each author has a unique agenda regarding
one or more of these.
For each philosophical question or controversy in the essay or excerpt, identify the
answer (or answers) offered by the author explicitly or implicitly. In addition, look
STEP 2.
for possible answers formulated and subsequently rejected by the author in favor
of other conclusions.
For each position taken on an issue, try to identify the reasons given to justify it.
This is fairly easy if authors make one or two obvious claims in defense of a posi-
tion, but it is more difficult if they use long and complex lines of reasoning, entail-
ing arguments within argument. Especially in complex arguments, you will need to
STEP 3.
look for hidden premises and unstated assumptions and be willing to read crea-
tively in attempt to grasp the intended meaning of particular passages. You also
may find it useful to remember the guideline of giving an argument a fair hearing
Once you have figured out the specific issue being addressed, the answers being
offered, the reasons being offered, and the reasons given for those answers, the
next step is to decide whether the reasons are convincing. To evaluate these rea-
STEP 4.
sons, you must determine whether the logical inference they entail are sound and
whether the various kinds of human experience and grounding beliefs they rely on
Finally, since a recurring theme in this text will be how authors' social and histori-
cal context influence the reader's comprehension of what is said, try to answer the
following question after the critical analysis of each selection: How would some-
STEP 5. body with a background different from author's respond to the author's conclu-
sions? In other words, would it ma significant difference in the persuasiveness of
an author's claims if the reader lived in a different historical period or culture, in
different economic conditions? If yes, then why? If not, why not?
11
HOW THE FIVE STEPS WORK
On Tao. To see if this recipe for reading works, let us first apply it on a short passage (eight chap-
ters) of the Ancient Chinese classic, the Dao De Jing, generally thought to be authored by Laozi,
which is primarily the literary text associated with the philosophical and spiritual tradition of Daoism.
The best (man) is like water.

Water is good; it benefits all things and does not compete with them.
It dwells in (lowly) places that all disdain.
This is why it is so near to Tao.
(The best man) in his dwelling loves the earth.
In his heart, he loves what is profound.
In his associations, he loves humanity.
In his words, he loves faithfulness.
In government, he loves order.
In handling affairs, he loves competence.
In his activities, he loves timeliness.
It is because he does not compete that he is without reproach.
The primary question addressed in the reading has to do what kind of moral character the individual should
try to achieve — that is, what would the morally ideal person be like? When read in conjunction with other
STEP 1.
passages in the work, it becomes clear that although this question is relevant for all individuals, it is directed
especially at political rulers, so that a secondary issue is the character of a good ruler.
The answer (or conclusion) to both the primary and secondary questions is not a single, simple statement,
but a complex description of character traits as manifested in different aspects of daily life (lines 6-13) and
STEP 2.
unified by the analogy with water in line 1. What is meant in this context by "profound", "humanity", "order",
and other terms, and their connection to the image of water may take more investigation.
The justification for this composite answer also involves a couple of different claims: Lines 2-5 point out that
water is not only powerful natural element (an implied assumption) and an essential good for all living things,
but it is also a yielding element that flows to the point of least resistance even while being ultimately unstop-
pable. The Tao (the Way) is the natural order of the universe---naturally harmonious, underlying flow and
rhythm of life itself---and thus water exhibits the nature of the Tao more obviously than does, say a solid ob-
STEP 3.
ject. By analogy, the more a person possesses such character traits as simplicity, humility, prudence, persis-
tence, allowing things to happen naturally rather than forcing them to happen, the more that person is in har-
mony with the Tao, and subsequently the more he or she benefits others and is a better person, morally
speaking. Further, line 14 asserts that a person who lives this way will not suffer reproach from others
Is the position on the best moral character one of those that you find persuasive? The author makes both fact
and value claims, in the complex conclusion and among its supporting reasons that have to be assessed. For
STEP 4.
example, is noncompetition always good? Would political leaders this kind of character have improved the
lives of Chinese people back then, or would they be better for us today? Is the Tao real?
Imagine how a contemporary European and American corporate executive, or a trade unionist, might respond
to this writing. What would be the basis of agreement or disagreement? Does gender have any influence in
STEP 5.
the reader's acceptance of this account of moral character? If so, is that because males and females experi-
ence Social relations differently?
12
On Methodic Doubt. Next, let us take a passage from "Meditations," Written by the seventeenth-
century French philosopher Rene Decartes, and use the same five steps to analyze it.
But what am I ? Can I affirm that I posses the least of all those things which I have just
said pertain to the nature of body? I pause to consider, I revolve all these things in my
mind, and I find none of which I can say that it pertains to me... Let us pass the attrib-
utes of soul and see if there is any one which is in me? What of nutrition or walking (the
first mentioned)? But if it is so that I have no body it is also true that I can neither walk
nor take nourishment. Another attribute is sensation. But one cannot feel without body,
and besides I have thought I perceived many things during sleep that I recognized is my
walking moments as not having been experienced at all. What of thinking? I find here
that thought is that attribute that belongs to me; it alone cannot be separated from me. I
am, I exist, that is certain. But how often? Just when I think; for it might be possibly be
the case if I ceased entirely to think, that I should likewise cease altogether to exist I do
not now admit anything which is not necessarily true; to speak accurately I am not more
than a thing which thinks, that is to say a mind or a soul, or an understanding, or a rea-
son, which are terms whose significance was formerly unknown to me. I am, however, a
real thing and really exist; but what thing? I have answered: a thing which thinks.
The central issue in this passage is the essential nature of human person, yet Descartes is trying to answer
STEP 1. that question not by focusing on humans generally, but by reflecting on what he can assert about himself with
absolute certainty (that is, what is "necessarily true" and which thus logically cannot be otherwise).
Earlier in the Meditations, Descartes, had established with certainty that he exists, at least when he is think-
STEP 2. ing; now he concludes that what he is, essentially, is "a thing which thinks." Also, this thinking thing must be
nonphysical.
For Descartes, the metaphysical question of the nature of the self is inseparable from the epistemological
question of we can acquire certain knowledge about the self (mere probabilistic, inductive judgment where
seldom good enough for him). He handles this latter question by excluding from the concept of his own self
any property that is not logically necessary to it, and then also assumes that the essence of any conceivable
thing is the sum of its logically necessary properties (that is, those attributes without which it cannot be clearly
STEP 3. conceived). Since each of the properties he associates with the "nature of body" can be conceived of as at
least possibly not part of his self, whether or not they really are so, he reasons that nothing of the body is
essential to the self. On the other hand, at least in the present moment when he is thinking about all of this, it
is logically impossible for him to conceive of himself as not thinking (though he can't yet say for sure that he
will be thinking two minutes hence, or that he was thinking two minutes earlier), and thus the attribute of
thought itself is essential to the concept of his self.
Whether one is not convinced by Descartes's conclusions, and find them useful for understanding human
nature generally, it will depend on a number of factors beyond your immediate assessment of the deductive
inferences he employs. Is the set of logically necessary properties the most insightful way to characterize the
STEP 4.
essence of something? Is his conceptual split between body and mind defensible? Is something important
missing from his account in this passage (maybe to be discovered by reading the preceding parts of the Med-
itations, as well as what follows)? If he is correct, are social relations then inessential for human nature?
In traditional Native American thought, it is rather common to deny the dualistic assumption that the individual
person has both a bodily aspect and a qualitatively distinct, separate mental/spiritual aspect: It is argued in-
stead that there is no essential distinction between the two. How would you solve this disagreement? How
STEP 5.
should we asses Descartes's position in light of the gender colorings that body and mind/soul have often
been given throughout recorded history (for example, that mind is superior and associated with the male,
while body is inferior and aSsociated with female)?
13
C. Ethics in Philosophy
BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
Ethics is seen in different branches of philosophy like questions about reality, being, the uni-
verse, truth, divinity, beauty, reasoning, and even in ethics itself. Ethics in philosophy entails that
Ethics is part of philosophy and philosophizing per se. When we seek the truth, when we start to phi-
losophize, we must first be ethical because thinking or philosophizing means being good not only for
the self but for humanity. As such, ethics being in philosophy means that it is the core of philosophiz-
ing. The following are the branches of philosophy:
1. Metaphysics. It is coined from the Greek words meta, which means "beyond," and physico,
physical or observable. Thus, 'Metaphysics' deals with the principles, structures, and meanings
that underlie all observable reality. This means that it seeks to understand the nature of reality;
2. Ontology. It is from the Greek word Ontos meaning "Being" and from Latin logos meaning
"study." It is a study of "Being" in general. It also deals with concepts about essence and exist-
ence. Thus, Ethics deals with the concepts of existence as having potentials toward transcend-
ence (telos);
3. Cosmology. It is from the Greek word kosmos meaning world; order and harmony. It is a study
of the origin and development of the universe. In turn, it is also a study of the fate of the universe.
Aside from that, it also studies the laws that govern reality like space and time;
4. Epistemology. It came from the Greek words episteme and logos, meaning "knowledge" and
"theory," respectively. Thus, it is called the theory of knowledge. It deals with the possibilities and
limits of human knowledge. It also focuses on the validation of human knowledge it the search for
truth;
1. Is there knowledge?
Concerns in
2. If there is knowledge, what can be known?
Epistemology
1. Perception;
2. Memory;
Four Ways of Knowing:
3. Reason; and
1. Empiricism (a posteriori) knowledge by use of senses and expe-

Theories of Knowing: rience
2. Rationalism (a priori) knowledge generated by innate reasoning
5. Theodicy. It is from the Greek word Theos meaning "God" and like meaning "justice." It is the
justification of the divine goodness and providence in view of the existing evil;
6. Logic. It came from the Greek word logike, meaning thought, and the Latin word logos meaning
theory, reason, or discourse. It is defined as the science and art of correct thinking or valid argu-
mentation;
7. Aesthetics. It is derived from a Latin word aesthetica meaning "sense perception." It is the
branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of beauty, the arts, and taste or appreciation;
14
8. Ethics. It is the branch of philosophy dealing with human behavior, morality, and responsibilities
of people to each other and to society; and
9. Axiology is part of ethics that deals with human values.
BASIC PERSPECTIVES IN ETHICS
1. Absolutist. either one's action is right or wrong; good or evil

2. Non-absolutist. either one's action is right or wrong; good or evil however if the act is evil, it may
be forgiven because of human error
3. Generalist. all rules are generally applicable but there may be exceptions. Truth is generally
okay and in turn lies are also generally OK as long as no one gets hurt.
4. Consequentialist. if the result of one's action is good then it is moral. However, if the result is
evil, then it is immoral.
5. Situationalist. an act's goodness or badness depends on the purpose or intention. Thus, an act
is good if it is done out of love.
BASIC THEMES IN ETHICS
1. Virtue Ethics (Aristotelian Ethics). focuses on how to live a virtuous life.

2. Natural Ethics (Aquinas' Ethics). focuses on divine laws, natural laws and human laws in rela-
tion to human acts.
3. Deontological Ethics (Kantian Ethics). focuses on universal laws and universalization of ac-
tions. Universal laws are based on the categorical imperatives:
 Formula of universability and the law of Nature;
 Formula of humanity;
 Formula of autonomy; and
 Kingdom of ends.
4. Utilitarianism. focuses on pleasure principle and happiness principle.
15
NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY Theoretical Assessment

3 I. IDENTIFICATION
INSTRUCTION: Identify each of the processes of successful reading in Philosophy i the second
column and rank them from step 1 to 5 by writing the corresponding rank in the first column.
STEP PROCESSES OF SUCCESSFUL READING

For each position taken on an issue, try to identify the reasons given to justify it.
This is fairly easy if authors make one or two obvious claims in defense of a
position, but it is more difficult if they use long and complex lines of reasoning,
Finally, since a recurring theme in this text will be how authors' social and historical
context influence the reader's comprehension of what is said, try to answer the
following question after the critical analysis of each selection: How would some-
body with a background different from the author's respond to the author's
conclusions?
Identify the specific philosophical issues addressed in the reading. The writings are
organized into general categories and subcategories (such as "Metaphysics" and
"Right and Wrong conduct"), but each author has a unique agenda regarding one
Once you have figured out the specific issue being addressed, the answers being
offered, and the reasons being offered, and the reasons given for those answers,
answer (or answers) explicitly or implicitly offered by the author. In addition, look
for possible answers formulated and subsequently rejected by the author in favor
16
NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________

4 II. MULTIPLE CHOICE
INSTRUCTION: Encircle the letter of your answer that corresponds to the statement/s in each of
the items.
1. This deals with the principles, structures, and meanings that underlie all observable
reality. It seeks to understand the nature of reality.
a. Ontology b. Cosmology c. Metaphysics
2. This is the study of the origin and development of the universe. It is also a study of the
fate of the universe.
a. Ontology b. Cosmology c. Metaphysics
3. This is the theory of knowledge. It deals with the possibilities and limits of human
knowledge.
a. Ontology b. Epistemology c. Cosmology
4. This is the study of Being in general. It also deals with concepts about essence and
existence.
a. Ontology b. Epistemology c. Cosmology
5. This is the justification of the divine goodness and providence in view of the existing
evil.
a. Logic b. Theodicy c. Aesthetics
6. This concerns with the nature of beauty, the arts, and taste or appreciation.
7. This deals with human behavior, morality, and responsibilities of people to each other
and to society.
a. Theodicy b. Axiology c. Ethics
8. This deals with human values.
a. Theodicy b. Axiology c. Ethics
9. This is defined as the science and art of correct thinking or valid argumentation.
10. This studies Perception, Memory, Reason, and Testimony.
a. Aesthetics b. Epistemology c. Cosmology
17
NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________

5 III. MATCHING TYPE
INSTRUCTION: Match column A with column B. Write the letter of your choice on the space
provided before each number.
A B
_____ 1. If the result is evil, then it is immoral. a. Generalist
_____ 2. An act is good if it is done out of love. b. Natural Law Ethics
c. Utilitarianism
_____ 3. How to live a virtuous life. d. Rationalism
_____ 4. Study of being. e. Ontology
f. Situationalist
_____ 5. A Posteriori
g. Absolutist
_____ 6. Study of what is a good and bad act. h. Consequentialist
_____ 7. Kantian i. Deontological Ethics
j. Virtue Ethics
_____ 8. An evil act may be forgiven. k. Epistemology
_____ 9. Happiness principle. l. Non-absolutist
_____ 10. A Priori m. Empiricism
n. Metaphysics
_____ 11. Knowledge and theory. o. Ethics
_____ 12. An action is either right or wrong.
_____ 13. All rules are generally applicable.
_____ 14. Beyond and physical.
_____ 15. Divine laws and human laws.
18
Part 2
The Moral Experience
A. Moral Standards and Rules
It is expected that by the end of Part 2A,

1. Identify the elements of moral experience;
2. Differentiate between moral and non-moral standards;
3. Describe what moral experience is as it happens in different
levels of human existence;
4. Discuss the significance of Ethics;
5. Explain what people say about Ethics; and
19
1. Elements of Moral Experience
Since time immemorial, people need morality that require unity, peace harmony, and solidarity
in the community. The moral life is and will always will be the concern of humanity. For as long as
people have been living together in groups, the moral regulation of behavior has been necessary to
the group's well-being. Although these morals were formulized and turned into arbitrary standards of
conduct, they were developed sometimes irrationally. Such standards came into existence either
after religious taboos were violated, out-of-chance behaviors that have become a habit then a
custom, or from laws that were imposed by chiefs to prevent disharmony in tribes.
Ancient Egyptian and Sumerian civilizations developed no systematized ethics; yet, maxims
and precepts set down by secular leaders mixed with a strict religion that affected the Egyptian
worldview. In ancient China, the maxims of Confucius were accepted as a moral code. The Greek
philosophers, beginning about the 6th century BCE, theorized intensively about moral behavior,
which led to the further development of philosophical ethics.
From the Ionians to Socratic Greek world, moral experience was always about the
amazement and wonder of how to live in relation to the environment. As such, these thinkers were
then cosmocentric because they were reflecting on the relation of man to nature. Medieval life was
focused on the relation of man to God thus were theocentric because they were proving God as the
beginning and end of man's life. Modern thinkers were focused on the use of human reasoning and
human abilities thus from then on, the main concern of doing things was anthropocentric because
everything is centered on the human person.
Contemporary life or human endeavor today integrate the moral experience of

cosmocentrism, theocentrism, and anthropocentrism. In short, we cannot deny our human need for
nature, interpretation of human experience in relation to faith towards the Mystery, the Sacred or the
Divine Being; and, the need to bring back the glory of humanity as the center of all human
experiences.
Practically, there is no denial of ethical life that it is important to consider why are there moral
standards and how do they differ from rules of lives? Wh at are moral dilemmas? Why is freedom
crucial in our ability to make mor al decisions? What are the advantages of owning moral standards
over merely abiding by moral standards? Let us now look into the following; moral versUS non-moral
standards, moral dilemmas, three levels of moral dilemmas and, the foundation of morality.
2. Moral VS Non-Moral Standards

There are some misinterpretations and misconceptions of what Ethics is all about. Such
misinterpretations and misconceptions can obliterate the real essence of Ethics as an important
branch of Philosophy.
Raymond Baumhart, a sociologist, once asked some people: "What does ethics mean to
you?" Among their replies were the following: "Ethics has to do with what my feelings tell me is right
or wrong; " "Ethics has to do with my religious beliefs. " "Being ethical is doing what the law
requires;" "Ethics consists of the standards of behavior our society accepts;" and, “I don't know what
the word means.”
20
These replies might be typical of our own. The meaning of ethics is hard to pin down, and the
views that some people have about ethics are shaky and dangerous.
Ethics and Feelings: Like Baumhart’s first respondent, many people tend to equate ethics
with their feelings. But being ethical is clearly not a matter of following one's feelings. A person
following his or her feelings may recoil from doing what is right. In fact, feelings frequently deviate
from what is ethical. Several students fall into the trap of engaging in pre-marital sex because they
allow their feelings or emotions to dominate their rationality.
Ethics and Religion: Most religions, of course, advocate high ethical standards. Yet if ethics
were confined to religion, then ethics would apply only to religious people. But ethics applies as
much to the behavior of the atheist as to that of the saint. Religion can set high ethical standards
and can provide intense motivations for ethical behavior. Ethics, however, cannot be confined to
religion nor is it the same as religion.
Ethics and Law: Being ethical is also not the same as following the law. The law often
incorporates ethical standards to which most citizens subscribe. But laws, like feelings, can deviate
from what is ethical. What is legal is not necessarily ethical; but what is ethical is necessarily worth
legalizing. For instance; gambling, divorce abortion, and the like can be legalized in some nations,
but they do not necessarily mean that they are ethical.
Ethics and What Society Accepts: Being ethical is not the same as doing "whatever society
accepts." In any society, most people accept standards that are, in fact, ethical. But standards of
behavior in society can deviate from what is ethical. An entire society can become ethically corrupt.
Nazi Germany before, particularly during the time of the holocaust, is a good example of this. If
being ethical were doing "whatever society accepts," then to find out what is ethical, one would have
to find out what society accepts. To decide what I should think about abortion, for example, I would
have to take a survey of American society and then conform my beliefs to whatever society accepts.
But no one ever tries to decide an ethical issue by doing a survey. Finally, the lack of social
consensus on many issues makes it impossible to equate ethics with whatever society accepts.
Some people accept abortion but many others do not. If being ethical were doing whatever society
accepts, one would have to find an agreement on issues which does not, in fact, exist.
Ethics is not the same with morality but is closely linked to it. While th e moral standard or
norm of action is fixed and already set, ethics dwells on the use of reason. It is because we cannot
limit philosophy from mere norms of conduct. However, ethics is identical to moral science or moral
philosophy based on the Latin term mos (nominative) or moris (genitive) which also means custom,
or "traditional line of conduct." It is from this root word that the word moral or morality is derived. The
term morality is synonymous with the word ethics in etymological meaning; however, ethics deals
more on the principles and laws on the morality of human acts by providing the person knowledge
that s/he may know, what to do and how to do it. In other words, ethics provides the guides to the
21
Ethics is derived from the Greek word ethos, which means a characteristic way of acting
which also refers to the principles or standards of human conduct. Ethics is also called "moral
philosophy" that involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong
behavior; thus, ethics is sometimes referred to as the study of morality.
Ethics is said to be a "science" insofar as it is a body of systematized knowledge arranged

with its accompanying explanation. In terms of content, it is not to be classified as a course in
science. Ethics as a practical science means that it consists of principles and laws that are applied in
daily living. In this sense, ethics is not a course taken for the sake of contemplation; rather, it is a
study taken for application in a person's everyday course of action. Ethics then is an applied
knowledge.
As a philosophical science, ethics is not a technical course or a laboratory study. Devoid of

human experience, it presents and deliberates its subject matter "in the light of its deepest principles
by means of human reason alone."
There are various ways of defining and discussing Ethics:

1) Ethics is a subject matter with content. It is a discipline with a body of knowledge;
2) Ethics is a process of decision-making because it is a thinking skill leading to actions that we
perform coupled with accountability;
3) Ethics refers to well based standards of right and wrong that prescribe what humans ought to do
in terms of rights, obligations, benefits to society, fairness, or specific virtues. It refers to
standards that impose the reasonable obligations to refrain from committing wrongful actions
such as rape, stealing, murder, assault, slander, and fraud. Ethical standards also include those
that enjoin virtues of honesty, compassion, and loyalty. Ethical standards include values relating
to rights, such as the right to life, the right to freedom from injury, and the right to privacy. Such
standards are adequate standards of ethics because they are supported by consistent and well-
founded reasons;
4) Ethics refers to the study and development of one's ethical standards. Since feelings, laws, and
social norms can deviate from what is ethical, it is necessary to constantly examine one's
standards to ensure that they are reasonable and well-founded. It is a continuous effort of
studying our own moral beliefs and our moral conduct and striving to ensure that we live up to
standards that are reasonable and solidly-based; and
5) Ethics involves the study and application of "right” conduct. When people ask themselves, "What
ought l to do?" they are concerned of their actions that might be wrong or are having difficulty
working through the moral or values dimensions and from these, they are asking an ethical
question.
22
3. Importance of Ethics
For some people, the importance of Ethics only comes as a result of encountering unethical
conduct. But if Ethics is inculcated into one's system, it is being carried into one's bloodstream and
to the day-to-day activity of the individual. Ethics is an important requirement for human existence. It
is our means of deciding a proper course of action. Without it, our actions would be aimless and not
properly rooted. When a rational ethical standard is taken, we are able to correctly organize our
goals and actions to accomplish our most important values. Any blunder in our ethical values will
reduce our chances to be successful in our endeavors.
Ethics is important because of the following reasons:
1) It serves as a guide towards our goals, rather than just allowing our lives to be controlled by self-
serving motives, accidental occurrences, customs, feelings, or our impulses;
2) It helps us deepen our reflection on the ultimate questions of life and help us think better about
the concerns of morality;
3) It offers us a wider perspective on how to live our life to the fullest, taking into consideration that
we do not have the luxury of eternal time in this world;
4) It reminds us of our duties, responsibilities, and accountabilities to ourselves, to our fellowmen, to
our society, to our nation, and to the world in general;
5) It encourages us to examine our life and honestly evaluate how we are responding to the
challenges and demands of this contemporary time;
6) It increases our capacity to perceive and be sensitive to relevant moral issues that deserve
consideration in making our choices that will have significant impact on ourselves and on others;
7) It polishes, strengthens and brings out to the fore our valued priorities in life which will make us
better and happy individuals; and
8) It helps us realize and become what we ought to be in this challenging, yet beautiful, world.
23
NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY
6 QUOTATION AND REFLECTION
INSTRUCTION: On the space provided below, discuss what moral experience is. Specifically,
describe what a moral experience is as it happens in different levels of human existence by
choosing one quotation and explain what it means to you or how it has affected your life.
1. "Natural law is the first principle of morality; it forbids evil and commands good" (Martin Luther).
2. "Men never do evil so completely and cheerfully as when they do it from religious conviction" (Blaise
Pascal).
3. "The natural law, in its universal character, can in no way be blotted outfrom men's hearts." (Thomas
Aquinas)
4. "Seek not the good in things external instead seek it in yourselves: if you do not, you will not find
it" (Epictetus).
5. "An unexamined life is not worth living. (Socrates)
6. "It is not running here and there outside of itself that the soul understands morality; it learns morality from
its own natural nature. " (Cicero)
7. "Goodness does not more certainly make men happy than happiness makes them good." (W.S. Landor)
8. "Ethics is not definable, is not implementable, because it is not conscious; it involves not only our
thinking, but also our feeling. " (Valdemar W. Setze)
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NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY
7 Moral Standards VS Non-moral Standards
INSTRUCTION: Cite 2 - 3 differences between moral and non-moral standards and explain the
importance of knowing their differences.
MORAL STANDARDS NON-MORAL STANDARDS
MY EXPLANATION
25
Part 2
B. Moral Act and Moral Dilemma
It is expected that by the end of Part 2B,

1. Explain quotations on morality;

2. Describe moral experience;
3. Create an example under each of the three levels or morality;
and
4. Classify the parts of human acts according to the levels of
morality.
26
1. Amoral, Moral, and Immoral Acts
Recognizing important terms in ethics: There are ethical terms to be distinguished in relation
to human acts: It is important to consider moral, non-moral, amoral, and immoral acts or actions.
Moral actions or events are those which require the goodness of the object chosen, the
intention or the end in view, and of the circumstances together. Non-moral actions or events are
those areas of interest where moral categories cannot be applied. These actions come out naturally
as part of our human nature. Examples of these include the blinking of our eyelids, our breathing
patterns, snoring while sleeping, scratching an itchy part of our body, taking a sip of water, and
many others.
Amoral actions or events are those actions or areas of interest exhibiting indifference. At
times, these are manifested in the absence of knowledge, freedom, and voluntariness on the part of
the acting agent. Here are some examples: a young child who speaks bad words, an insane person
who obstructs a city traffic, a person innocently taking a sip of water but the water contains an
arsenic substance, or a man accidentally entering the ladies comfort room.
Finally, Immoral actions or events are those actions or areas of interest where moral
categories do apply and are considered to be evil, sinful, or wrong according to the code of ethics.
For examples: consciously telling a lie; graft and corruption; cheating during examinations, gluttony,
taking a sip of water fully aware that there is hemlock in it (suicide), and many more.
Other ethical terms to distinguish, in relation to human acts, are Amoral, Non-Moral, and
Immoral. The terms amoral, non-moral, and immoral are characterized in a different manner than
how it is usually characterized in ordinary language. How do we distinguish between a moral issue
and a non-moral issue? We use questions like: Is littering on campus a moral issue? Which shoe
you put on first in the morning a moral issue?
Non-moral actions or events are areas of interest where moral categories cannot be applied.
For example, wondering whether one should eat dog meat, wear socks of a specific shade of color,
or part your hair or not are usually all considered non-moral issues. Thus, true statements in the
sciences are considered non-moral issues.
Immoral actions or events are areas of interest where moral categories do apply and of are
such a kind as to be evil, sinful, or wrong according to some code or theory of ethics. For instance,
telling a lie is an immoral action because an immoral action is a violation of a rule or code of ethics.
Strictly speaking, an action could be considered immoral on the basis of one rule, code, or theory
and separately be considered moral or even non-moral on another rule, code or theory.
Amoral actions or events: those areas of interest exhibiting indifference to and not abiding by
the moral rules or codes of society. It is to be noted that an amoral action by one person could be
considered non-moral or even immoral by the society, depending upon the moral code of the
society. For instance, if I tell a lie without concern for the moral concepts of a society on what is
good and bad, then I have acted amorally. Notice how such a view makes the use of "amoral"
intentional. For example, a sociopath, sometimes called a person without a conscience, and a very
young child are called amoral because the person has no feeling or understanding of the concepts
of right and wrong.
School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts 27
If I tell a lie without concern for the moral rules of society and it is a "white" lie and "white" lies
are permissible in that society, then I am acting amorally. Nevertheless, my action is considered to
be "non-moral" or morally permissible. The "white" lie told in a society where such actions are
against the moral code would be an immoral action and called wrong.
"Amoral" is sometimes used in ordinary language in the same way that "non-moral" is used.
Many dictionaries indicate the terms as synonymous. In this course, the distinction between "amoral"
and "non-moral" will be observed as a theoretical distinction using the above theoretical
characterizations.
"Amoral" in dictionaries is sometimes defined with reference to value-free situations (neither

moral nor immoral). This definition of "amoral" makes it a synonym of "non-moral" thus, physics is an
amoral discipline in this sense of the term. Nevertheless, in this course we will not follow this
ordinary language practice. Instead, we will mark a theoretical difference between the two terms.
"Amoral" is also used (in philosophy) in contrast to non-moral and immoral. This area would
include non-intentional but not necessarily unintentional actions.
"Non-moral" actions would be those actions where moral categories such a right and wrong
cannot be applied. A non-intentional action such as reflex or an accident would be ordinarily a non-
moral action. An unintentional action resulting from ignorance is sometimes called "non-moral" and
other times called "immoral" depending upon the code of the society. Under this theoretical
definition, amoral actions would be without concern or intention to moral consequences.
Finally, "amoral" is ambiguous in ordinary language. Taking a sip of water can be described
as non-moral as well as amoral in the usual dictionary definitions. We will term such an act "non-
moral." If the water contains hemlock and the subject intentionally sips it with indifference to the
wrongness of suicide, then the action would not be described as non-moral but would be properly
called amoral.
2. Moral Dilemma
A moral dilemma is a situation in ethics where the human person is to choose between two
possible alternatives and the options become limited, In decision-making, even when you do not
want to choose to act in a situation, that is stilt considered a choice. It is impossible then that there is
no possible option Thus, whatever is the decision a person makes, it is expected for that person to
stand and be responsible with the decision s/he takes whatever the consequences could be. To
decide is to be responsible.
Three Levels of Moral Dilemma:

INDIVIDUAL A personal decision-making or an action on the level of the person
A decision-making within an organization or a person considering not only
ORGANIZATIONAL his personal affairs and beliefs but also his organizational duties and
values
STRUCTURAL A macro level that involves network of institutions and societies.
28
Moral dilemma happens when we cannot make a distinction between what is a good act from
an evil act. When we encounter question of ethics like, is it moral to attend my class even if I am
sick? Is it necessary to avoid killing someone when my life is in danger? Is waking up early
necessary when I am always late in going to school? Is it important to maintain my diet even if my
doctor advised me not to? To avoid moral dilemma, it is important to understand what a good from a
bad act.
A morally good act requires the goodness of the object chosen, of the intention, and of the
circumstances together. An evil end corrupts the action, even if the object is good in itself like for
instance in the case of praying and fasting in order to be seen by men. The chosen object can by
itself vitiate or destroy an act in its entirety. There are some concrete acts, such as bribery, robbery,
fornication, and the like, which are always wrong to choose, because choosing them entails an evil
act.
It is therefore an error to judge the morality of human acts by considering only the intention
that inspires them or the circumstances which supply their context. There are acts which, in and of
themselves, independently of circumstances and intentions, are always gravely illicit by reason of
their object; such as blasphemy, murder, adultery, and the like. One may not do evil so th at good
may result from it. According to St. Thomas Aquinas, an evil action cannot be justified by reference
to a good intention. A good intention does not make the action or behavior that is intrinsically
disordered, good or just. The end does not justify the means. Thus, the condemnation of an innocent
person cannot be justified as a legitimate means of saving the country.
3. Three Levels of Morality

Freedom makes man a moral subject. When he acts deliberately, man is, so to speak, the
master of his acts. Human acts, that is, acts that are freely chosen in consequence of a judgment of
conscience, can be morally evaluated. They are either good or evil. The morality of human acts
depends on the object chosen; the end in view or the intention; and the circumstances of the action.
These make up the sources, or constitutive elements, of the morality of human acts.
1. Object Chosen. This is a good toward which the will deliberately directs itself. The chosen object
resides out the acting subject. The object chosen morally specifies the act of the will, insofar as
reason recognizes and judges it to be or not to be in conformity with the true good. Examples of
Good Chosen Objects: nutritious foods; hard-earned money or wealth; educational books and
films; and the like. Examples of Bad Chosen Objects: Forbidden drugs; Pornographic materials;
Leakages for examinations; and others.
2. Intention. This is a movement of the will toward the end. It is concerned with the goal of the
activity. The end is the first goal of the intention and indicates the purpose pursued in the action.
It aims at the good anticipated from the action undertaken. Intention is not limited to directing
individual actions but can guide several actions toward one and the same purpose; it can orient
one's whole life toward its ultimate end. For example, a service done with the end of helping
one's neighbor can at the same time be inspired by the love of the Divine Being as the ultimate
end of all our actions. One and the same action can also be inspired by several intentions, such
as performing a service in order to obtain a favor or to boast about it. The intention resides in the
acting subject as contrast to the object chosen. Because it lies at the voluntary source of an
action and determines it by its end, intention is an element essential to the moral evaluation of an
action.
3. Circumstances. These, including the consequences, are secondary elements of a moral act.
They contribute to increasing or diminishing the moral goodness or evil of human acts. For
instances: the number of people killed; the amount of money being stolen; the number of trees
cut by loggers; the regularity Of the graft and corruption done by politicians; the number of times
a lie is spoken; or, the number of times a student cheated. They can also diminish or increase
the agent's responsibility. For examples: acting out of ignorance or fear Of death; acts done
because of habit; choosing between two or more evils in a certain situation; being forced to do
something against one's will; and so on. It Should be noted that circumstances of themselves
cannot change the moral quality of acts themselves; they can make neither good nor right an
action that in itself is evil.
**Application. The object chosen is a good toward which the will deliberately directs itself. It
is the matter of a human act. The object chosen morally specifies the act of the will, insofar as
reason recognizes and judges it express be or not the to rational be in conformity order of good with
and the evil, true attested good. Objective to by conscience norms express the rational order of
good and evil attested to by conscience. In contrast to the object, the intention resides in the acting
subject. Because it lies at voluntary source of an action and determines it by its end, intention is an
essential to the moral evaluation of an action. The end is the first goal of intention and indicates the
purpose pursued in the action. The intention is movement of the will toward the end: it is concerned
with the goal of the activity It aims at the good anticipated from the action undertaken. Intention is
limited to directing individual actions but can guide several actions toward and the same purpose; it
can orient one's whole life toward its ultimate end. example, a service done with the end of helping
one's neighbor can at the same time be inspired by the love of God as the ultimate end of all our
actions. One and the same action can also be inspired by several intentions, such as performing
service in order to obtain a favor or to boast about it.
In summary, a morally good act requires the goodness of the object, of the end, and of the
circumstances together. An evil end corrupts the action, even if the object is good in itself (such as
praying and fasting "in order to be seen by others"). The object of the choice can by itself vitiate an
act in its entirety. There are some concrete acts - such as fornication - that it is always wrong to
choose, because choosing them entails a disorder of the will, that is, a moral evil.
It is therefore an error to judge the morality of human acts by considering only the intention
that inspires them or the circumstances (environment, social pressure, duress or emergency, etc.)
which supply their context. There are acts which, in and of themselves, independently of
circumstances and intentions, are always gravely illicit by reason of their object; such as blasphemy
and perjury, murder and adultery, One may not do evil so that good may result from it.
The object, the intention, and the circumstance make up three “sources” of the morality of
human acts. The object chosen morally specifies the act of willing accordingly as a reason
recognizes and judges it good or evil. “An evil action cannot be justified by reference to a good
intention” (cf. St. Thomas Aquinas, Dec. praec. 6). A morally good act therefore requires the
goodness of its object, of its end, and of its circumstances together. There are concrete acts which
are always wrong to choose, because their choice entails a disorder of the will, i.e., a moral evil. One
may not do evil so that good may result from it.
30
NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY
8 QUOTATIONS ON MORALITY FOR REFLECTION
INSTRUCTION: Choose one Quotation and write down what the quotation means to you. You can
write in Filipino, in English, or in your local language.
1. “To act in conformity with virtue is nothing but acting, preserving our being and directing our rea-
son” (Baruch Spinoza)
2. “To the end of all moral speculations is to teach us our duty” (David Hume)
3. “Morality is mot a doctrine about how we should make ourselves happy, but how we should be-
come worthy of happiness” (Immanuel Kant)
4. “The best thing we can do is to conceive a right rule of life, commit it to memory, and apply it to
the particular cases that meet us in life” (Baruch Spinoza)
5. “Absolute good and evil are unknown to us. IN life, they are blended together” (Jean Jaacques
31
NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY
9 RECOGNIZING AND RECALLING A MORAL EXPERIENCE
INSTRUCTION: To be able to fullu understand the importance of ethics and values, recall a signifi-
cant problematic experience you had in the past and state how you were able to handle it.
Brief description of my experience of a moral

How I was able to solve the dilemma?
dilemma
32
NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY
10 HUMAN ACTS AND THE LEVELS OF MORALITY
INSTRUCTION: Arrange the following components of a moral act according to intention, means ,
and end.
INTENTION MEANS END

ITEMS
(OBJECT CHOSEN) (CIRCUMSTANCES) (CONSEQUENCES)
For Example:
Nourishment, To have a meal Eating Nourishment
Eating, To have a
meal
Prating, enjoyment
of God, to be holy
Self preservation,
killing an
unprovoked
aggressor, to
preserve one’s self
from harm
To pass the exam,
studying hard,
passing the exam
Winning the
mayoralty post, vote
buying, to be the
next city mayor
Rehearsing dance
steps, to dance
gracefully, standing
ovation
To save the life of
the mother, survival
of the mother,
abortion
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Part 2
C. Human Acts and Responsibility
It is expected that by the end of Part 2C,

1. Discuss why human act is the foundation of morality;
2. Distinguish human acts from acts of man
3. Identify amoral, moral, and immoral acts; and
4. Discuss human acts as the basis of moral responsibility.
34
1. Human Act: Foundation of Morality
Human acts are the foundation of morality. These acts are under the control of the will and
therefore done knowingly and willingly; not acts happen by accident, as falling, or by nature, as
growing, but acts choice, that is, after deliberation and decision. They are imputable to their human
author to the extent that he has knowledge of his own activity and its to the extent that he has
freedom of election. The moral or ethical the human act lies in this, that it is freely placed with
knowledge of its objective conformity or nonconformity with the law of rational nature.
As elaborated by ethicists, human acts are characterized by the following:

1) Acts which are free and voluntary;
2) Acts done with knowledge and consent;
3) Acts which are proper to man as man; because of all animals, he alone has knowledge and
freedom of the will;
4) Acts which are under man's control, and for which he is responsible for its consequences; and,
5) Acts which man master and has the power of doing or not doing as he pleases.
On the other hand, human acts should be differentiated from ordinary 'acts of man'. Acts of
man are bodily actions performed without deliberation and in the absence of the will.
For instances, the blinking of our eyelids, our breathing patterns, sneezing, and the like are
considered as acts of man. In many ways, we are accountable to our actions but somehow our
responsibility is lessened unlike human acts that absolutely require moral obligation and
responsibility.
Human Act requires moral responsibility that is derived from a person. If responsibility is a
coined term of "response" and "ability" then the ability to response is important in ethics because "no
one can give what s/he does no have." It is expected for young people taking up ethics in our time
today to respond to the problems of society based on their capacities. As such, we can apply the old
saying, "if there's a will, there's a way."
For example, the right to vote in local and national election, participate any assembly, joining
school organizations, becoming choir members of church, joining professional associations, and
other organizing activities, simple ways we can do to become responsible individuals.
If a person achieves an ethical attitude, it presupposes that that s/he takes moral responsibility
to society. A personal conviction of what is "right and wrong” becomes a social duty and such duty
must be put into action. This makes an axiology, or what philosophy calls praxis, the emphasis on
the application of ethical ideas
There are two significant considerations of ethics; the Ethics of Being and the Ethics of Doing.
In the Ethics of Being, the emphasis is on the "character development" while the Ethics of Doing
focuses on the ability of the person to put into action his/her ethical conviction. Both considerations
are inseparably related to helping the person become a better person intellectually mature,
psychologically stable, socially involved, spiritually nourished and economically well-off.
35
Our ethical responsibility is reflected in the following scheme:
FOUNDATION OF
MORALITY
ETHICS HUMAN ACTS

Theory and Principles as Bases of human MORAL
guidelines of human responsibility: Free, RESPONSIBILITY
actions Voluntary, and Deliberate
2. Essential Elements of Human Act

There are three essential elements of human acts to consider. Without one of these elements, the
action cannot be considered as a human act. These are knowledge, freedom of the will, and
voluntariness.
1. Knowledge is an awareness or the state of being conscious of one's actions including its
possible consequences. The act of knowing is always consciousness of something which is
inevitably linked to the subject, who is the knower. For example, an insane person and a three-
year old child are not liable for their actions since they are not capable of acting with proper
knowledge. Their actions can never be considered as immoral. College students and
professionals are expected to be possessors of knowledge; thus, they cannot claim excuses for
their immoral actions. They are liable for the consequences of their actions.
According to Aristotle, knowledge is the first element of ethical practice. This knowledge
provides a framework for deliberating about the most appropriate technique(s) by which
the good can be attained. But, it should be noted that; although, knowledge is a requirement for
considering an act to be a human act, being knowledgeable or being aware of what is ethical or
moral is not a guarantee that the person is already considered as an ethical or moral person. It is
not enough for an individual to know what is good. What really count are his good acts.
2. Freedom of the Will. According to St. Thomas Aquinas, this is the power which human beings
have in determining their actions according to the judgment of their reasons. This always
involves a choice or an option of whether to do or not to do a certain action. Without this freedom
of choice, then responsibility and/or liability on the part of the individual would be meaningless.
Insane people who have no control of their minds and children who have no idea of what they
are doing or are not free to do or not to do, are not responsible for their actions. Matured people,
college students and professionals are expected to be free from doing or not doing; thus, they
are responsible or liable for their actions.
36
3. Voluntariness. This is an act of consenting or accepting a certain action whether it is done
whole-heartedly, half-heartedly, or non-heartedly. According to Aristotle, the moral evaluation of
an action presupposes the attribution of responsibility to a human agent; thus, responsible action
must be undertaken voluntarily (Nicomachean Ethics Ill). Agapay presented four modes of
voluntariness. These are perfect, imperfect, conditional, and simple voluntariness.
Kinds of Voluntariness:
a. Perfect Voluntariness is actualized by a person who is fully aware and who fully intends
an act. The person, under perfect voluntariness, is fully convinced of his action including
its consequences. A politician who, in his right mind, engages in graft and corruption is
considered to be acting with perfect voluntariness.
b. Imperfect Voluntariness is seen in a person who acts without the full awareness of his
action or without fully intending the act. A drunken person who, acting irrationally, jumps
from a ten-storey building is said to be exhibiting an imperfect voluntariness.
c. Conditional Voluntariness is manifested by a person who is forced by circumstances
beyond his control to perform an action which he would not do under normal condition. A
freshman college student who is forced by his parents to enroll in a course which is
against his will is showing a conditional voluntariness.
d. Simple Voluntariness is exhibited by a person doing an act willfull regardless of whether
he likes to do it or not. It can either be positive or negative It is a positive simple
voluntariness when the act requires the performance Of a acts such as: Studying one's
lesson; participating in class discussions; engaging i sports, and so on. It is a negative
simple voluntariness when the act does n require the performance of an act. For
instances: Remaining silent or choosing be alone; deciding not to go to a drinking spree;
avoiding to take illegal drugs; and so on.
37
NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY
11 DISTINGUISHING HUMAN ACT FROM ACT OF MAN
INSTRUCTION: Can you tell which items below are Human Acts and which are Acts of Man?
Check the column Human Act if the item is a Human Act, and check the column Act of Man if it is
an Act of Man.
ACTS HUMAN ACT ACT OF MAN

1. Studying a lesson in Ethics
2. Fulfilling a promise
3. Cooking an unusual menu
4. Chewing a piece of gum
5. Committing adultery
5.Yawning
6. Playing basketball
7. Jogging
8. Praying
9. Driving a car
10. Taking a bath
11. Avoiding to cheat
12. Planning to get absent in class
13. Helping a beggar
14. Sweeping the floor
15. Playing computer game
16. Brushing one's teeth
17. Solving a Logic problem
18. Palpitation of the heart
19. Sneezing
20. Drinking San Miguel Light
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NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY
12 Moral, Amoral, Immoral
INSTRUCTION: Determine wether the following items are either Moral, Amoral, or Immoral acts.
Check the column that corresponds to your answer.
ACTS MORAL IMMORAL ORAL

Telling the truth
Plotting to murder an enemy
Committing abortion
Praying before and after meals
Eating a juicy hotdog
Defending a stranger
Refusing to pay a debt
Drinking a glass full of water
Fabricating a story
Making a false accusation
Disobeying a rightful owner
Washing clothes
Laughing
Spontaneous abortion
Explain mathematical solutions
Bullying a classmate
Caring for the sick
Saving a drowning child
Using illegal drugs
Coveting another wife
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NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY
13 QUOTATIONS FOR REFLECTION
INSTRUCTION: Choose one quotation and write down what the quotation means to you. You can
write in Filipino, in English or in your local language.
1. "Inability to tell good from evil is the greatest worry of man's life" (Cicero).
2. "A cynic is a man who knows the price of everything and the value of nothing" (Oscar Wilde).
3. "He cannot long be good that knows not why he is good" (Richard Crew).
4. "All wickedness is weakness" (John Milton).
5. "It is not an easy task to be good" (Aristotle).
6. "Be sure you are right, then go ahead" (David Crocket).
7. "Do not talk about what a good man is but be one" (Marcus Aurelius).
8. "Intrinsic persona/ value - the foundation of ethical value - starts when our individua/ life journeys
begin. It ends only with the cessation of our existence." — John F. Kavanaugh S.J., Who Count as
Persons? Human Identity and the Ethics of Killing
9. "We stand at a crossroads. Do we choose 'the will to power' or 'the will to humanity,' or perhaps a
new configuration of both: the power of humanity?" — Yasmine Sherif, The Case for Humanity: An
Quotation No.: _____
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NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY
14 HUMAN ACT AS BASIS OF ETHICAL RESPONSIBILITY
INSTRUCTION: Come up with a reflection on human act as basis of ethical responsibility.
Ethics as a study of human acts A human act is free, deliberate, willful, conscious,
reasonable, and voluntary which is not based from an act of man which is involuntary, non-
deliberate, not willful, unconscious, unreasonable and involuntary. Examples of human acts are
intentional killing, aborting a fetus plotting to cheat, and so on while acts of man can be snoring
while sleeping, mannerism, blinking of the eye, palpitation of the heart, digestive process of food in
the stomach, and so on. Thus, only human acts are bases of ethical responsibility.
41
Part 3
The Moral Agent
A. Moral Courage
It is expected that by the end of Part 3A,

1. Identify problems that confronts moral courage;
2. Differentiate knowing and actually executing a good moral
decision;
3. Explain how the virtuous man deals with his problems;
4. Describe what a morally courageous man is; and
5. Discuss how a virtuous man acts on problems.
42
1. Moral Courage: The Virtue of Courage
Courage is a product of the will but it is first a product of a virtuous man. There is a need to go
back in time and understand the thoughts of the ancient philosophers, particularly Plato and
Aristotle. First is on the conception of virtue then courage. Both philosophers understood that
courage is a virtuous act. Aristotle, however, exemplified the idea of courage in his Nicomachean
Ethics. The focus of this discussion is the question about one’s character. He begins by asking “what
is a good man?” A question that is still being asked today. Aristotle had answered “ An activity of the
soul with conformity with virtue” As such, to understand ethics we must understand what makes a
virtuous person. Aristotle would focus on particular virtues like self-control, truthfulness, courage and
others. Of course these ideas are not unique in his philosophy, Socrates and Plato, and other
ancient philosophers also approached ethics by asking: “What traits of character makes one a good
person?” they would then be preoccupied with answering the question of virtue. To begin with, let us
read on Plato's Laches:
The dialogue moves from the issue whether it is good to teach young man the "art of fighting
in armor" (181c) to the related issue of deciding in what way "the gilt of virtue" may be taught to
young men in order to improve their minds (190b). Socrates gets the interlocutors to agree that to
decide the issue one must first know the nature of virtue; they also agree that since determining the
nature of a part of virtue would be easier than determining the nature of virtue as a whole, and
courage is both a part of virtue and allegedly inculcated in young men by the art of fighting in armor,
the discussion will center on the nature of courage (190c-d).
2. The Definition of Courage

a. Laches first defines virtue vis-a-vis courage:
First definition: courage consists in remaining at one's post and fighting the enemy (190e).
**Socrates' objections: at times courageous soldiers do not stand their post but withdraw to
attack later, as the Spartans at Platea(191c); More importantly, the task requires the
determination of the nature of courage, that is of what all the different manifestations of
courage (in battle, at sea, in politics, in sickness, in poverty, etc.) have in common (191d).
Second definition: courage is a sort of endurance of the soul (192c).

**Socrates' objection: courage is a noble and advantageous quality; but foolish endurance is
evil and hurtful; hence the definition is too wide (192d).
NOTE: The point here is that mere daring or, worse, foolhardiness is not courage
Third definition: Courage is a wise endurance of the soul (192d).

**Socrates' objection: Wise at what? A qualification is needed because one who perseveres
reasonably as a businessman, as a physician, as a soldier or even as a diver is not, just by
that, courageous (192a-193c).
43
NOTE: the point is that the businessman who is bullish about the market because he knows
more than I do may seem courageous to me, but he's merely clever at his job.
b. Nicias' definition: courage is the knowledge of what inspires fear or confidence in war, or anything
(195a).
** Laches' objections: the physician, the artisan, the husbandman knows what to fear and
what not to fear in their respective arts; and yet, this does not make them courageous.
**Nicias' reply: the knowledge needed for courage is not the specific knowledge of any of the
arts but a knowledge of what's good and bad in general. For example, what's to be feared
from a medical point of view, like death, can at times be a good. (195c)... on the other hand,
wild animals are often called courageous, and yet they have no knowledge of good and bad
(197a).
**Nicias' reply: People are wrong in calling them courageous; there's a difference between
rashness and courage. A courageous action is also a wise action (197b).
NOTE: then, as Nicias allows, courage is an excellence only a few can have.
**Socrates' objection: Knowledge has no temporal modality: the same, science (e.g.,
medicine, husbandry or military art) has knowledge of the same things, be it the past, present
or future (198d). Hence, the knowledge involved in courage is not only about future goods
and evils, but also present and past (199b). So, a courageous man knows all good and evil
and knows how to deal with it, and consequently lacks no virtue. But then courage turns out
to be the whole of virtue, while it was agreed that it is only a part of it (199d-e).
NOTE: Socrates' argument, such as it is, is rushed and far from being clean However, Nicias
has no reply, and the dialogue ends in seeming aporia. However, it points to Plato's' idea of
the unity of virtue: one cannot have courage without having the other virtues as well. Hence,
courage cannot serve evil goals.
The dialogue in Laches provided a grounding on how to understand courage as it relates to

virtue. It is through Plato that courage and virtue is a puzzle that must be solved. Aristotle would now
elucidate further the idea of courage in his discussion from Nichomachean Ethics (book 3:6-6)
Aristotle defines courage as a mean between fear and confidence. In his definition, courage
deals with two emotions, although more with fear than with confidence. He sees that there are many
evils we fear, and indeed some (e.g., disgrace) ought to be feared. However, courage is primarily
concerned with the most overwhelming of evils, death, and in the noblest of circumstances, in battle.
44
This shows that Aristotle's notion of courage is much more restricted than Socrates'. For him,
the brave man does not fear death from sickness or at sea; however, he dislikes it because it does
not allow the display of prowess and it isn't noble. Such deaths are, one might say, beneath the
excellent man. So is suicide in order to escape sickness, poverty or unrequited love because the
brave endures death when it is noble, not to fly from evil.
By analogy, both feelings of fear and confidence can be excessive in two directions:
One might fear what shouldn't be feared, a noble death or, perhaps, poverty and
ON FEAR disease. If so, then one is a coward, or one might fear too little or not at all. If so,
then one is fearless, a "sort of madman or insensible person.”
ON One might have too much confidence, and thus be reckless or one might also
CONFIDENCE have too little confidence and be too ready to despair. One might call this timidity.
By contrast, the brave man faces and fears:
 the right things (e.g., wounds or death)

 for the right motive (a noble end, e.g., the defense of country, or friends)
ON
 in the right way and
COURAGE
 at the right time (i.e., as a wise man would) and
 feels confidence under the corresponding conditions.
Since courage involves facing death and wounds, which a happy man fears because his life is
worth living, its exercise is not pleasant, except insofar as it achieves its goal (e.g., the preservation
of country).
Aristotle distinguishes between true courage and five types of "so-called" courage:
1. The "courage" of the citizen-soldier, who faces danger because he is ashamed of the reproach of
his peers and wants to win honor. Aristotle considers this as the closest to true courage because
it involves virtue in the form of the desire to avoid shame and to obtain what's noble (honor).
However, if the soldier acts courageously because he's afraid of the sanctions of the law then he
is farther away from courage because its motive is not the desire for what's noble.
2. The "courage" of the professional, e.g. a mercenary, who, knowing the dangers, e.g., of war,
seems courageous to those who tend to overestimate them. However, when danger is really
great, professional soldiers turn cowards, fearing death more than disgrace. The issue seems to
be that the mercenary acts merely from prudential reasons.
45
3. The "courage" of one who acts in the grips of passion, without deliberation, for the wrong
reasons, without choosing the mean, and without seeing the dangers ahead, like a donkey who's
hungry; but he is merely aggressive, not brave. For although brave men are passionate,
nevertheless they choose courageous acts (in part) for honor's sake, knowing the perils which lie
ahead. The issue seems to be that merely passionate people don't act from rational principles.
4. The “courage" of confident people who seem brave only because of previous success or
because in altered mental states (e.g., drunk) are overconfident. However, when things go badly,
they run away, while the brave man stands.
5. The "courage" of people who are just misinformed about the dangers.
“The courageous man withstands and fears those things which are necessary to
fear and withstand on account of right reason, and how and when it is necessary [to
fear or withstand] them, and likewise in the case of being bold.”
(Aristotle, 1116b17-19,8)
46
NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY
15 MORAL COURAGE
INSTRUCTION: Answer the following questions briefly.
Virtue ethics has much to command to the extent that morality tell us how to live. It also tells
us what kind of people we should be, not merely what we should do. Certainly, the virtuous man is
better than the merely strong willed one, However, there are some problems:
I. Who can be considered as virtuous people, considering that we are in a multicultural society?
(identify 1 per member)
2. How do I act courageously in particular cases, i.e. when (1) family/or any loved one/s are in-
volved and when (2) strangers are involved?
Family/loved one/s: Stranger:
3. Aristotle would tell us to do what the virtuous does. What would you say about acts that bring
about evils in the world, e.g., abortion, euthanasia, etc.? Would you have the courage to challenge
these acts? If YES, what would you do? If NO, why?
47
NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY
16 DOING WITH COURAGE
INSTRUCTION: Answer the following questions briefly.
1. Differentiate knowing and actually executing a good moral decision.
2. Explain why the morally courageous man should do what he ought to do.
3. Individual reflection sessions in class on a most recent personal dilemma: How did I decide
and what did I actually do during my most important moral experience in the past year?
48
Part 3
The Moral Agent
B. Reason and Impartiality, Feelings, and Moral
Decision-Making

1. Define reason and impartiality;
2. Explain why reason and impartiality are minimum requirement
of morality through a case analysis;
3. Capture and analyze feelings in one’s personal moral
experience;
4. Compare reasonable and emotional responses; and
5. Analyze a real-life case with the use of seven steps.
49
1.Reasons and Impartiality: Minimum requirement of
Morality
Acting courageously would also imply acting reasonably and impartially. Most of the time we
assume that the word impartiality must denote a positive, unitary concept, presumably a concept
closely linked with, if not identical to, morality. This, however, is simply not the case. Rather, there
are various sorts of behavior that may be described as 'impartial,' and some of these obviously have
little or nothing to do with morality.
A person who chooses an accountant on the basis of her friends' recommendations may be
entirely impartial between the various candidates (members of the pool of local accountants) with
respect to their gender, their age, or the school where they went. Yet if her choice is motivated solely
by rational self-interested considerations then it is clear that the impartiality she manifests is in no
way a form of moral impartiality.
To take a more extreme case, consider a serial killer who chooses his victims on the basis of
their resemblance to a celebrity. The killer may be impartial with respect to his victims' occupations,
religious beliefs, and so forth, but it would be absurd to regard this as a form of moral impartiality.
The question is on impartiality as a basis for moral reasoning.
Requirements of Impartiality. Almost every important theory of morality includes the idea of
impartiality. The basic idea is that each individual's interests are equally important; from within the
moral point of view, there are no privileged persons. Therefore, each of us must acknowledge that
other people, welfare is just as important as our own. At the same time, the requirement of
impartiality rules out any scheme that treats the members of particular groups as somehow morally
inferior, as Blacks, Jews, and others have been treated.
The requirement of impartiality is closely connected with the point that moral judgment, must
bé backed by good reasons. Consider the position of a white racist, for example, who holds that it is
right for the best jobs in the society to be reserved for the white people. He is happy with the
situation in which the major corporation executives, government officials, and so on are white. While
blacks are limited mostly to menial jobs; and he supports the social arrangements by which this
situation is maintained. Now we can ask for reasons; we can ask why this is thought to be right. Are
they inherently brighter or more industrious? Do they care more about themselves and their
families? Are they capable of benefiting more from the availability of such positions? In each case,
the answers seem tc be NO; and if there is no good reason for treating people differently,
discrimination is unacceptably arbitrary.
50
The requirement for impartiality, then, is at bottom nothing more than a proscription against
arbitrariness in dealing with people. It is a rule that forbids us from treating one person differently
from another when there is no good reason to do so. But if this explains what is wrong with racism, it
also explains why, in some special kinds of cases, it is not racist to treat people differently. Suppose
a film director was making a movie about the life of Martin Luther King, Jr. The director would have
good reasons for ruling out Tom Cruise for the starring role. Such casting would make no sense.
Because there would be good reason for it, the director's "discrimination" would not be arbitrary and
so would not be open to criticism.
“Viewing persons from an impartial point of view need not imply that we
view them equally, in every sense of the word; and it certainly does not
imply that everyone must receive equal treatment.”
2. FeeIing as Instinctive and Trained Response to Moral

Dilemmas
Feelings are often a sign of moral seriousness and so may be admired. But they can also be
an impediment to discovering the truth: When we feel strongly about an issue, it is tempting to
assume that we just know what the truth must be, without even having to consider the argument on
the other side. Unfortunately, however, we cannot rely on our feelings, no matter how powerful they
may be. Our feelings may be irrational: they maybe products of selfishness, prejudice or cultural
conditions. Moreover, different people's feelings often tell them opposite things.
Thus, if we want to know the truth we want to be guided as much as possible by the argument
that can be given for opposing views. Morality is, first and foremost, a matter of consulting reason.
The moraly right thing to do, in any circumstance, is there are best reasons for doing.
This is not a narrow point about a small range of moral views; it is a general requirement of
logic that must be accepted by everyone regardless of their position on any particular moral issue.
The fundamental point simply. Suppose someone says that you ought to do thus-and-so (or that
doing thus-and-so would be wrong), You may legitimately ask why you should do it (or why it would
be wrong), and if no good reason can be given, you may reject the advice as arbitrary or unfounded.
51
In this way, moral judgments are different from expressions of personal taste. If someone says "l like
coffee?” he does not need to have a reason— he is merely stating a fact about himself, and nothing
more. There is no such thing as "rationally defending” one's like or dislike of coffee, and so there is
about it. So long as he is accurately reporting tastes, what he says must be true. There is no
implication that anyone else should feel the same way; if else in the world hates coffee, it does not
matter. However, if someone says something is morally wrong, he does need reasons, and if his
reasons are sound, other people must acknowledge their force. If he has no good reason for what
he says, he is just making noise and nobody should pay him attention.
3. Moral Decision-Making: Seven Steps

1. Gather the facts
• Gather and clarify the facts of the case in question
• Do not rush judgments: "alam ko no," -nadaanan ko na,"magandang kutob"
• What do we know and need to know?
2. Who are the stakeholders?
• What are the positions being taken by every stakeholder regarding the situation?
• How are they affected?
• What are the stakes for them? What are their interests?
3. Articulate the values involved
• Why am I bothered / concerned?
• What are the principles and moral values that are not apparent but are central to the
stakeholders?
• Listing down the values to see a hierarchy
4. List the alternatives
• Brainstorm and be realistic
• Think creatively
• Make a matrix: alternative--values--consequences
5. Compare the alternatives with the principles
• Identify alternatives that are reflective of the values that are important to you
• Being aware of your development as a person
6. Weigh the consequences
• Identify positive and negative consequences (beneficial vs. detrimental)
7. Make a decision
• Deliberation cannot go on forever
• There are no easy solutions
• Decision should reflect one's values
52
NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY
17 REASONABLE AND IMPARTIALITY
INSTRUCTION: Provide what is being asked.
1. What were your responses to moral dilemmas?
2. Differentiate responses based on reason and those based on feelings.
53
Part 3
The Moral Agent
C. Reason and Impartiality, Feelings, and Moral
Decision-Making

1. Discuss what is culture;
2. Derive aspects of personal behavior from culture;
3. Analyze cultural relativism;
4. Recognize differences in moral behavior of different cultures;
5. Contrast the strengths and weaknesses of cultural relativism;
and
6. Distinguish the advantages of recognizing the differences, and
54
1. Culture and Its Role in Moral Behavior: The Role of
Culture in Shaping Moral Behavior
CULTURE
"It is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities
and habits acquired by man as a member of society, "
Tylor, E. (Spenceroatey, 2012)
For centuries, culture has been defined in so many ways, But anthropologists, scientists,
thinkers and experts could not create and agree on one universal definition of culture, Studies and
discussions about it are impressively mushrooming and increasingly becoming controversial
everywhere, Thus, it would be safer to first typify culture into two: material and formal.
Types of Culture:
1. Formal Culture points to all the abstract, non-physical, spiritual, mental, immaterial, invisible
elements such as knowledge, philosophy, beliefs, ideas, morals, laws, customs, values,
emotions, assumptions, systems, orientations.
2. Material Culture refers to all the physical, corporeal, solid, spatial, sensible, temporal, actual,
observable (visible and audible) and tangible objects such as the artifacts, actions or behaviors,
arts, buildings, technology, music, "popular" (television, movies, mass media, social media, fads,
digital gadgets), costumes, architectures, food, utensils, designs, dances, smell, means of
transportation, tools and inventions. As a vehicle or expression, Material Culture is shaped by
Formal Culture in the same way as the Material Culture (e.g. popular culture) may also shape
Formal Culture (e.g. new radical religious sects).
The two types are interrelated co-principles. Their being intertwined makes an overlap that
makes it difficult to create a universal meaning of culture. This is manifested in Oatey's (2012)
distinction of the three fundamental levels at which culture manifests itself: (a) observable artifacts,
(b) values, and (c) basic underlying assumptions. They could also be categorized as the individual
culture, organizational culture and structural culture. Following the Western or deductive process
since culture is a foreign concept, the three levels of culture are discussed from the structural to the
individual.
The first level (INDIVIDUAL), the analysis of the Eskimo's moral behavior (under Material
Culture) — "lending his wife to a guest for a night" is visible and easily described as distasteful but
hard to decipher or interpret especially the underlying good or right reasons why it is done and being
preserved.
55
Following Oatey's (2012) second level in Figure 1, to analyze this Eskimo's moral behaviour, it
is important to study the values (under both Material and Formal Culture) that govern such behavior.
But the espoused value such as hospitality (Rachels, 2003) of "lending a wife to a guest for a night"
is hard to observe directly. So when the Eskimos say that such moral behavior is part of their
hospitality, it is interesting to analyze why hospitality is the reason for such behavior, what they
ideally would like hospitality to be, and what are often thei rationalizations for "lending of wife to a
guest for a night." Or could it be that th value of hospitality is just the biased understanding of non-
Eskimo observers. The value of hospitality is becoming the acceptable value to some Eskimos and
outsiders. Nevertheless, the underlying espoused value of hospitality for the "lending of wife to a
guest for a night" remains unknown.
INDIVIDUAL ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURAL
ARTIFACTS & CREATION VALUES BASIC ASSUMPTION

Visible and audible Competence (Philosophy-Belief)
On Relationship to Environment
Behavior patterns Integrity
On Human Dignity & Rights
Technology Service On Nature of Human Activity
Music Responsibility On Society and Politics
Tools Humility On Nature of Reality
On Time and Space
Art Gratitude
Taken for Granted, Invisible,

Value but not often Deciphered Greater Level of Awareness
Preconscious
MATERIAL CULTURE FORMAL CULTURE
"To really understand a culture and to ascertain more completely the group's values and overt
behavior, it is imperative to inquire into the underlying assumptions, which are typically unconscious
but which actually determine how group members perceive, think and feel" (Oetey, 2012).
Assumptions (under Formal Culture) are the philosophies and beliefs about what things really are or
their conceptions of what is good and right (morality). They are learned and transformed values that
lead to moral behaviors. To explain such moral behavior then is to consider their assumptions on
marriage, sex and life as a whole. To Rachels (2003), this could be traced from their assumptions:
that men could marry more than one wife, that men can have sex regularly with other men's wives,
and that they have less regard to human life.
56
But, as a value of hospitality leads to the behavior of "lending of wife to a guest for a night,"
and as the "lending of wife to a guest for a night" begins to answer disagreements or
condemnations, the value of hospitality gradually is transformed into an underlying assumption and
the three original assumptions ate increasingly taken for granted, The taken-for-granted
assumptions are so because they are less or non-debatable. There is a possibility to just be
Silent about it because it can cause disorder and more troubles among them. Besides, they are
more concerned with other challenges of life.
According to Oatey's (2012): "they can be brought back to awareness only through a kind of
focused inquiry."
2. The Role of Moral Behavior in Creating a

Culture
It is not hidden to the consciousness of everyone that as culture shapes moral behaviors,
moral behaviors simultaneously creates culture. Culture and moral behaviors are inseparable of
which a culture could be found in moral behavior. Just as the moral behaviors happen in or even
create and enhance a culture. This follows the eastern or inductive process whereby the individual
leads to the structural. This is best expressed by the author below:
“All that I am, all that I have, all that I do… All are products of my culture. I am and live in a
culture, which eventually becomes me, my very person. I cannot escape from my culture. It
determines my every personal behavior, which simultaneously reveals the kind of my
culture.”
3. Cultural Relativism: Its Strengths and Weaknesses

Cultural Relativism refers to the understanding or belief that everything should be judged only
according to their own respective culture because there is no superior or inferior culture all cultures
are unique with their own strengths and weaknesses, benefits and detriments. NO culture is above
the other.
STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
It recognizes cultural and human difference. It fails to accept that not all beliefs and cultural or social
practices are equally admirable.
It promotes respect and tolerance to diversity or cultural- It leads to mediocrity, moral indifference and moral
sensitivity and uniqueness. progress.
It produces a peaceful and harmonious society despite mass It promotes social anarchy because each culture claims
migration and differences. and stands for “a true culture”
57
It rejects moral absolutism, imperialism and superior It upholds democracy, consensus, and fairness to other
ideologies. ideologies.
It recognizes the natural sociality, conformity and It seems culture has the soul influence on human life and
interdependency among peoples. morality.
It strengthens personal responsibility: each is fully It weakens social responsibility as if humans cannot do
responsible or his own moral actions and beliefs. anything to change culture.
It advocates true multiculturalism and adjustments for IT leads to deterioration or corruption of moral values,
changing factors in society. institutions and societies.
It promotes humility and acceptance of limitation or It promotes skepticism and atheism.

probability of things.
It recognizes that language is not neutral because culture It discourages common languages for unity and common
determines language. standards to judge moral beliefs or actions.
It supports non-judgmental attitude that foster dialogue, It makes the job of ethics as purely descriptive. (non-
cooperation and learning. prescriptive), thus, ineffective.
It allows one culture solve its own moral problems and grown It rejects any interference by one culture in the morality
naturally in its morality. of one another.
It accepts other ethical theories that can bring a good life. It fails to determine other ethical theories that can bring
a good life.
4.Non-tenabiIity of Cultural Relativism in Ethics:

The Asian-Filipino Way
While recognizing the strengths of Cultural Relativism for loosening stringent and absolute
attitudes and opening conservative minds toward others, it is very critical to respond to the
weaknesses of Cultural Relativism. Acknowledging strengths should all the more encourage
courageous solutions to the weaknesses of Cultural Relativism. These weaknesses could be
answered by ethical theories.
Because of globalization that somehow ironically opened and vastly exposed cultural diversity,
people have recognized cultural variations over time, periods, between individuals, organizations,
structures, countries and continents. Cultures are seen to reflect the moral and ethical standards
and beliefs that determines decision, actions and interactions.
58
In China, South Korea, and other parts of Asia, dog meat is considered a delicacy, and
people sometimes kill dogs to eat them (Dunlop, 2008). As one observer provocatively
asked about eating dog meat, "For a Westerner, eating it can feel a little strange, but is it
morally different from eating, say, pork? The dogs brought to table in China are not peo-
ple's pets, but are raised as food, like pigs. And pigs, of course, are also intelligent and
friendly" (Dunlop, 2008). Should we accept the practice of eating dog meat on its own
terms? Is it any worse than eating pork or slaughtering cattle in order to eat beef? If an
Asian immigrant killed and ate a dog in the United States, should that person be arrested
for engaging in a practice the person grew up with?
(Retrieved from https://doi.org/1 0.24926/8668.2401 )
Moral practices are basically peculiar to a a society and society changes, its culture and
practices also changes.
Using changing culture as a basis for decisions and actions is not enough and quite
dangerous. The need for enduring belief and values as bases can bring, more convincing and strong
actins. Though humans have different languages, they can use their capacity for language to create
a globalizing language that all children can learn and use to study other cultures.
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NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY
18 MORAL BEHAVIOR IN CULTURES
INSTRUCTION: Identify a moral behavior under your individual culture and through a creative
graphic organizer, show the process on how it determines or is determined by values
(organizational culture) and the basic assumptions (structural culture)
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NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY
19 DANGERS OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM
INSTRUCTION: Considering your values and beliefs on abortion and birth control. What are your
ideas on Bullough & Bullough (1977) study? If you are to apply Cultural Relativism, then what could
be its dangers or disadvantages?
"Despite the controversy surrounding abortion today, it was very common in the ancient
world. Much later, medieval theologians generally felt that abortion was not murder if it occurred
within the first several weeks after conception. This distinction was eliminated in 1869, when Pope
Pius IX declared abortion at any time to be murder. In the United States, abortion was not illegal
until 1828, when New York state banned it to protect women from unskilled abortionists, and most
other states followed suit by the end of the century. However, the sheer number of unsafe, illegal
abortions over the next several decades helped fuel a demand for repeal of abortion laws that in
turn helped lead to the Roe v. Wade Supreme Court decision in 1973 that generally legalized
abortion during the first two trimesters." (https://doi.org/10.24926/8668.2401)
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Part 4
Ethical Frameworks

1. Explain quotations on morality;
2. Describe a moral experience;
3. Enumerate the levels of morality, characteristics of human acts
and bases of moral responsibility;
4. Discuss the foundation of morality;
5. Differentiate human acts from acts of man; and
6. Create an example for each of the three levels of moral dilemma
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1. Virtue Ethics: ARISTOTELIAN
Virtue: The Mean of Two Vices
Intellectual Virtue: Virtue = (Greek) Arete
Soul = (Greek) Psyche
Knowing: Practical (Phronesis) = "Knowing what to do"

Philosophical (Sophia)
Virtuous Person: Phronimos
Right measurement: sesotes (mean)
Moral Virtues: Acting or doing what is right Character or Good

Habit
Moral Virtue: (Bk. Il, 1106B36-1107a2)
ARISTOTLE (384-323 BC)

Aristotle was one of the Plato's students, undoubtedly the most prominent. It will be seen then
that in the early period of his teaching and writing, Aristotle was a faithful Platonist. However, as he
matured, he developed his own system of thought quite different from that of his former teacher. As
he was supposed to have said, "Much as I love Plato, my teacher, the truth I love more.”
MORALITY AS TECHNE, NOT EPISTEME

Regarding ethics, Aristotle was of the belief that it is not a science (episteme) dealing with
absolute and eternal truths, but rather an art (techne), the art of living one's life well. As art,
therefore, ethics does not proceed by deduction from first principles, nor does it lead to first
principles by induction. Rather, for Aristotle, ethics is characterized by a sort of comparative method,
a dialectic, as he would put it, comparing different opinions regarding the good and the bad, and
coming up with a set of prudential directives of limited generality regarding how to live and conduct
one's life. It is for this reason that Aristotle's ethics stands independently of his First Philosophy or
Metaphysics.
Hence sifting through the different moral opinions of Greek tradition, Aristotle set about
inquiring about man, about his life goals and ends, and the conditions needed for the attainment of
these goals and ends.
Thus, Aristotle would ask, what is the good? He would find that the good is the end of any
being, that toward which a being tends. Regarding man, however there seems to be a problem,
since Aristotle noticed that there is a whole variety of ends that men actually envisage and set store
by. All men seek happiness surely, but some men seek happiness for pleasure others in wealth, and
still others in power.
The point of Aristotle’s query, however, was not what man seeks at the moment, but what true
end is. Does man perhaps seek some kind of ultimate end even as he goes successively after each
of those particular ends, an end beyond which there would be no other, insofar as it would constitute
man’s ultimate fulfillment and true happiness?
ERGON OF MAN
In the quest for such an ultimate end, Telos: Eudaimonia (Happiness)

Aristotle shifted to a new concept, more objec- Criteria of telos:
a. attainable
tive perhaps than that of happiness, namely,
b. self-sufficient
ergon, meaning the proper function or purpose. c. final
Thus, the question now is, what then is the er-
Ergon: reason-function of a person
gon of man, by which man would attain the pur-
Structure of the soul:
pose and fulfillment of his being? a. Irrational (vegetative; appetitive/animalistic)
b. Rational Faculties (moral; intellectual)
In search of the ergon of man, Aristotle asks, what is man? Man is a being composed of soul
and body, as taught by Plato. The soul is that part of the composite which animates and commands,
the body is the part which is subordinate to the soul, as the tool is to the artisan, or as the slave of
the master.
The soul has two main parts, the rational and irrational. The rational soul, completely
independent of the body, is further subdivided into the speculative intellect, pure thought or
intellection (theoretike dianoia) and the practical intellect (prakticon dianoetikon), ordained toward
action and thus that which determines the means appropriate for the intended end.
The irrational soul, closely united with the body, is subdivided into the vegetable part,
characterized by activities of nutrition, growth and reproduction, and the desiring part, further
subdivided into three levels- the unruly and irrational sense desires and covetousness (epithumia),
the spontaneous impulses (thumos), which may partly be subject to the dictates of reason, and the
desires and wishes (boulesis), completely under the dictates of reason, having for its object
something stable and perceived to be good.
We can see clearly in this early period of Aristotle the influence of Plato's dualism of body and
soul. Hence, the essence of man is the soul. Nonetheless, for Aristotle, the fundamental activity of
the soul is the reason or logos, quite different from Plato's soul oriented toward the Good. Reason or
Logos, as we have seen previously, is a fundamental concept of ancient Greek tradition, signifying
some sort of all-encompassing, self-instituting, self-governing principle and order prevailing over all
reality. Hence, for Aristotle, to say that man is rational would mean that man in some special way
participates in this all. encompassing logos, such that he would have within him the capacity for self-
instituting, self-governing immanent activity.
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Thus, unlike the lower beings, whose activities are all transitive, initiated from without and
terminating in some end or other external to the individual, (To wit, animal behavior is triggered by
some external stimulus or other and culminates in some purpose and beyond the individual, such
as the perpetuation of the species.), man as reason is capable of activity such as the act of
intellection and the act of virtue. For Aristotle, these are self-initiated and self-motivated acts, which
lead toward ends or result that remain within, thus, immanent to the individual man.
If the reason is that which is specific of man, Aristotle argues, then the ergon or purpose of
man could not be anything else but the fulfillment of reason itself, the immanent activity of reason
brought to its fullest extent. For Aristotle, this would mean two things- on the higher level the act of
Contemplation, the activity of speculative reason, and on the lower level a life of moral virtue within
the context of the polis or communal life, which would be the proper activity of practical reason.
SPECULATIVE INTELLECT
The speculative intellect (theoretike dianoia), for Aristotle, has several capabilities. It is
capable of intuition of the most fundamental principles (nous). On the other hand, it is also capable
of science (episteme), demonstration and derivation of conclusions from first fundamental
principles. But the highest capability of the speculative intellect, Aristotle calls philosophia or at
times sophia to signify its highest degree. This signifies, in general, the possession of the most
fundamental principles as well as their elaborations and derivations. But, at its maximum degree,
such a perfect science would mean the contemplation of th e most sublime beings, including the
eternal heavenly bodies, which is Greek tradition were considered divine, but most especially, the
contemplation of the most sublime of all beings, God Himself.
For Aristotle, however, God does not mean exactly the God of Abraham and of Isaac.
Rather, being the most perfect of beings, Aristotle's God is considered to be pure act with no
further potency. He would be Pure Reason, Pure Thought that knows no one but Himself; He
would then be in potency for that external entity and would, therefore, be imperfect. The
Aristotelian God, therefore, is neither a providential nor a creator God. But He would be the
ultimate final cause of all things. Being the most sublime of all beings, he is that towards whom all
other beings would tend. In this sense, for Aristotle, He woul d be the First Motor or Prime Mover.
Contemplation for Aristotle, it will be noted, does not signify the encounter with something or
someone outside of the speculative intellect itself. Rather, it would mean engaging one's self in the
most immanent activity one is capable of, where the theoretical intellect is involved with dialogue
with itself, thereby approximating the eternal activity of Aristotle's God, Noesis noeseos, “Pure
Intellect intellecting Itself." As an approximation of God's own proper activity, the theoretical
intellect's act of contemplation would constitute man's sovereign end and happiness.
65
It should be noted that at some point Aristotle came to wonder whether such a sublime
capacity of man for contemplation did not perhaps indicate that there must be within man something
entirely other than his soul-body composite, something utterly divine and immortal, which Aristotle
would refer to as the neus or mind. Nevertheless, he would remain in doubt whether this divine
element in man signified perhaps immorality for the individual man or whether this neus represented
a kind of ray or reflection of the Pure Act, something like a diamond bit broken off from the mother-
stone, that at the moment of man's death would be reintegrated back into the Godhead from where it
originally came.
PRACTICAL REASON
The ergon of man on the lower level would be the life of moral virtue within the communal life
or the polis, which would be the proper activity of the practical reason (praktikon dianoetikon). Virtue,
for Aristotle, connotes, first of all, action under the control of reason has control of the individual's
desires and passions, following the rule of the "just middle" (mesotes), neither deficient nor
excessive. For example, the virtue of courage would consist of an activity that is neither
pusillanimous nor reckless, but remaining steadfast and firm in the face Of danger, thereby
exhibiting the nobility and excellence of the human spirit or logos.
Secondly, virtue would connote a disposition or habitual state acquired by way of constant
repetition, such that the doing of the virtuous act, after repeated practice, becomes a matter of habit
for the individual. According to Aristotle, any act done only after a long agonizing moment of doubt is
a sure indication that the individual has not acquired mastery over his unruly desires and passions.
He has not required virtue.
Thirdly, a virtuous act is one which proceeds from the right intention, meaning to say that the
action is done for its own sake and not for some extraneous motive outside of the action itself.
Hence, in the case of friendship, for example, which is an important virtue for Aristotle, the intended
goal should be the human relationship itself, mutual good will binding two or more people, each
appreciating and affirming the other for his own sake, and not for some extraneous purpose such as
to curry favor, or to acquire some gain or advantage from the other.
VIRTUE AS SOCIAL NOT MERELY INDIVIDUAL HABIT
Furthermore, for Aristotle, moral virtue should not be understood merely in terms of the
individual man. Rather, the polis or communal life in its essence is the very milieu of the moral
virtues. Hence, the virtue of temperance signifies, in the concrete, the sense of discipline, hard work,
and judicious husbanding of the various resources by the workers of the economic organization
providing for th e basic needs of the community, thereby enabling it to attain material self-sufficiency.
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Courage is the virtue of the military arm of the community, assuring th e defense of the
community against any external threat, thereby guaranteeing its survival. Practical wisdom
(phronesis), justice (todikaion), equitableness (epieikeia), and common sense (gnome) are properly
the virtues of the statesman, in charge of the polis, that assure the overall governance, system Of
reward and punishment, distribution of goods, and the harmony and peace of the community.
Friendship would be the virtue of all members of the community ,reciprocally bearing goodwill and
love toward one another in the communion of fellow human beings, which indeed is the very
essence of the communal life would be what would the polis. Finally, the stability of the shared
communal life would be what would make possible its transmission to the succeeding generations
through Aristotle referred to as education, thereby assuring the continuance of shared communal life
of man as a historically self-perpetuating immanent communal existence, ultimate end and fulfillment
of practical reason.
Hence, the ergon of man on the lower level is not simply moral virtues tout court, but, more
precisely, the polis, the communal life which in its essence is the concrete life of moral virtues, the
self-perpetuating shared communal life transmitted down from generation to generation, assuring
the continuance of rational human existence. Now, we may understand more fully what Aristotle
means when he says that man is a social or political being, and that outside of the pale of the
communal life, man will have to be a demi-god or else he descends to the level of the beast. We
understand also that he does not mean that the end or ergon man is some sort of super-entity over
and above man. Rather, the polis in its very essence is the shared communal life itself, the shared
rational activity immanent in every individual and has the good of every individual as its proper end.
NOTE:
• An act that has no virtue is automatic amoral.
• Virtue ethics: intentions = means = ends.
• Any act that is deceitful is NOT virtuous.
• Virtue ethics does not consider "just war" as virtuous.
• Habit is the perseverance to the achievement of human excellence.
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NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY
20 VIRTUE ETHICS CASE ANALYSIS
INSTRUCTION: Read and analyze each of the situations. Discuss what would virtue ethics say?
MANILA, Philippines— He would have been 46 by now, but a trip to buy pizza — and an encounter
with Rolito Go — ended all possibilities for this La Salle college student. Eldon Maguan, then a 25-
year-old engineering student, died after Go shot him in the head in 1991. Go went to jail for this and
on Wednesday, August 15, eventually went missing. Who would have thought the shooting incident
would happen on July 2, 1991? Maguan was just driving his car along Wilson St in San Juan when
he encountered Go.
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2. Virtue Ethics: NATURAL LAW
NATURAL VERSUS UNNATURAL ACTS
THOMAS AQUINAS (1224-1274)
Thomas Aquinas was the most prominent theologian and philosopher of the Middle Ages.
Philosophically, his achievement lies mainly in the manner he Was able to master Aristotle's thought
and philosophy, which posed what was perceived to be a serious challenge to Medieval Christianity
about the time of Aquinas.
Aristotle's works have been lost in the Western world since probably the Fall of Rome in the
latter part of the 5th Century A.D. but were gradually rediscovered by the second half of the 12th
Century mainly through contact with the Arab world.
Aristotle's philosophical system consisted basically of a treatise on logic, a theory of the

physical world, a philosophy of man, a moral and political theory, an aesthetic theory, and as he
himself entitled it, a "First Philosophy" or metaphysics.
Aristotle's thought thus formed a complete and elegant rational system, totally pagan in its
origin and tenor, and therefore initially frowned upon by. Church authorities. It was thought to be a
serious threat to a Christian thought and wisdom, which admittedly, placed side by side with
Aristotle's elegant system, tended to suffer in comparison, in terms of rigor and rationality.
In response to the crisis of the time, Aquinas took it upon himself to study patiently Aristotle's
works. Going through Aristotle's texts with the help of one of his Dominican brothers, since he
himself did not read Greek, Aquinas soon saw the genius in this thinker. Gaining mastery over the
whole Aristotelian thought, Aquinas concluded that Aristotle's philosophy was fundamentally sound
and valid, and thus decided to adopt the Greek's whole philosophical mind and spirit, except that he
felt it needed to be complemented with elements of Platonic and Neo-platonic though to render the
whole thought system reconcilable with the Christian inspiration.
In the end, Aquinas came up with his own system, neither simplify Aristotelian nor Platonic,
yet supple enough to serve for his age and thereafter as the conceptual framework for
communicating Christian revelation and wisdom to the world.
In particular, Aquinas adopted for his whole philosophical and ethical conceptual framework
Aristotle's First Philosophy or Metaphysics, complemented with borrowings from Platonic and Neo-
platonic doctrine, in particular, the sense of interiority and depth of the human soul oriented toward
the Good, and that sense the total dependence of man upon the Good in the doctrine on
Participation.
69
Let us consider then at least the main lines of Aristotle's Metaphysics in order to understand
what Aquinas saw in it to serve as a framework for his ethical theory.
ARISTOTLE'S FIRST PHILOSOPHY
According to Aristotle, First Philosophy, which was later on called by the compliers of his texts
as "Metaphysics" (meaning that which comes after Physics), is the study of being as being, of things
insofar as they are (to on, be on). Aristotle. thus, disputes his former teacher Plato's contention that
the real true beings are the forms or ideas.
On the contrary, Aristotle holds, those are mere abstractions. The real beings are the
concrete individual substances (ousia) of this world, namely, minerals like fire, air water and earth,
living substances or plants, beings of sense or animals, and beings of reason or man.
It may be good to note that for Aristotle language serves as a sufficient indicator of how things
are in reality. Thus, linguistically, we see a subject of the preposition to which predicates are
attributed. For example, this man is intelligent. He is fat. He is my brother.
Corresponding to the linguistic subject, in reality, it would be the substance, a being or entity
which subsists by itself, persisting in existence through all the variations of predicates or attributes,
which, in turn, refer in reality to different accidental features such as quality, quantity and relation.
Hence, a man could gain in weight over the Christmas break, or acquire a tan after a vacation in
Boracay, or change his relationship with a woman from a being her suitor to being her husband, but
through all these shifts of attributes or accidents, he would remain to be the same identical
substance or man.
Reality means a primarily individual substance, which subsists by itself Underlying all the
accidental features. It exists as a concrete particular this or that (tode ti), not something general or
universal (katho/ou), Such as beauty or goodness or the ideal man, the way Plato seems to have
thought. A substance is an individual concrete being with its own internal unity, thus, with its own
power existence, to which inhere the other modes of being or accidents, such as quality, quantity,
and relation.
The task of First Philosophy then is to study the fundamental principles and causes of such
individual concrete substances-minerals, plants, animals, the human being. To this end, Aristotle
develops his theory of the four causes— Matter (hyle), Form (morphe), Final end or fulfillment
(telos), and Efficient (aitia). Aristotle had already dealt with these four causes in his work on Physics.
However, in that work, he was simply trying to explain motion in the world. Here, his purpose is to
address himself to the question of how an individual concrete substance comes to exist in this or
that particular manner.
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Aristotle approaches the topic by way of the perennial question of the Greeks, namely, the
question of change. Individual substances obviously undergo change (kinesis, metabole, genesis).
Individual substances change superficially or accidentally, as we have already seen. But they also
undergo a deeper kind of change, a substantial change, when men, for example, are overtaken by
death and turns from what was before human to what is now mere dust or mineral.
For such deep change to occur, Aristotle theorizes, the individual substance must be
composed of two different principles, namely, Form (morphe), a principle of Act (energeia), by virtue
of which the individual substance is either mineral, plant, animal or man, and Matter (hyle), the
principle of Potency or possibility (dunamis), which signifies some kind of amorphous stuff serving as
a matrix of possibilities.
TELOS
As has already been seen, the composite of Form and Matter is what constitutes the
substance in its concrete individual existence either as this man, that animal, that plant, this
particular pile of minerals. Now, according to Aristotle, as the specific composite of form and matter,
this concrete individual substance would be the source of certain typical activities depending upon
its specific form, leading to the substance's specific end or fulfillment. Here we see Aristotle's fourth
cause, the Final cause (telos).
The specific activities of minerals would be, in the case of air and fire, the tendency to move
upward where their goal must reside, and, for the case of water and earth, to move downward where
their own goal would lie. For plants, the typical activities would be that of nutrition, growth, and
reproduction, leading to what must be their goal or telos, the propagation and the maintenance of
the species.
With regard to animals, the typical activities would be sensation, sense pleasure, sense
memory and imagination, capacity to move about, and certain instinctive tendencies of attraction
and repulsion. Such typical activities would tend toward the goal or fulfillment in the realm of sense
cognition and sense pleasure.
Finally, with regard to man, who for Aristotle is a being of reason, his typical activities would
be those of the speculative and the practical reason. Hence the activities of practical and theoretical
reason should lead to the telos and fulfillment of man-the life of moral virtue within the polis, whereby
reason takes control of man's bodily inclinations and tendencies resulting in a communal life of moral
virtue, as was seen in the chapter of Aristotle, and, on the higher level, that which for Aristotle would
constitute the utmost fulfillment and end of man, highest activity of theoretical reason, that of the
activity of contemplation.
In general, Aquinas felt that Aristotle's metaphysics of four causes could provide a good
conceptual framework for his own philosophy and ethics. We will not be looking, however, at the
whole of Aquinas's thought system, but only his moral theory.
71
AQUINAS' MORAL PHILOSOPHY
Aquinas adopted the four causes of Aristotle in conceptualizing man. Hence, following
Aristotle, man would be composed of a rational (logos) form (morphe) and matter (hyle), which
would constitute the very nature of man as rational being, thus, rational human nature shared by all
human beings, placing them on a level of dignity superior to all other beings in the world.
Furthermore, this rational being, composite of form and matters, tends of its very nature toward a
final end, or telos. On the other hand, this composite of rational form and matter looks back to an
efficient cause (aitia), as it source and origin.
Nevertheless, Aquinas felt that Aristotle did not go far enough with his final end for man. As
was already seen, the telos of man for Aristotle would be a good life here on earth, a life of moral
virtue within the polis and, now and then, on the higher level, intense moments of contemplation. For
this reason, Aquinas found it necessary to borrow from Plato the idea of man as soul or pure spirit of
its very nature seeking the Good in other world, thereby placing the human telos in God. Likewise,
Aquinas found that Aristotle's Efficient cause for man did not go back far enough. So, Aquinas found
it again necessary to borrow from Plato, this time his notion of participation, whereby man and the
whole temporal world are viewed as having originated from the Good. In this manner, Aquinas was
able to push back Aristotle's Efficient cause all the way to God, as Creator, Who would then be both
Final cause and Efficient cause of man.
CONSCIENCE CREATOR GOD

PLATO Soul seeking the God Participation
ARISTOTLE Rational Form and Matter Efficient cause
Tending toward the Telos
The Natural Law
By way of explanation of this matrix, Aquinas's whole moral theory is anchored on two
fundamental Christian notions-Conscience or synderesis and Creator God. Hence, Aquinas's moral
theory, briefly put, could be stated as follows: Follow your conscience, because, first, it is what
leads you to your telos, and second, because you owe -it to God, Who is both your Creator and your
telos.
CONSCIENCE
For Aquinas, Conscience, or synderesis, is man's Practical reason oriented ultimately to his
telos, God. Elaborating on this point, Aquinas borrows Plato's notion that man is essentially a soul or
pure spirit relentlessly seeking the Good that can only be found not in the things of this world but in
the world beyond. In other words, for Plato, as a man goes through his life in this world, he is in fact
constantly in search of ultimate satisfaction and fulfillment. Yet, seeking fulfillment in things physical
and sensuous, then, in more spiritual matters such as poetry and the sciences and in social and
political institutions, man finds himself somehow guided to move on since the final fulfillment and
satisfaction what he has been searching for lies not in the things of this ever-changing, fleeting
world, but only in the Good that resides in the other world.
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Hence, by virtue of Plato's notion of orientation of man toward the Good, Aquinas saw that
man has within himself a definite norm by which he could determine whether what he is doing is
good or bad. To the extent that his act would be in line with the soul's orientation toward the Good,
man would know that his act is good. On the other hand, -if the act goes clearly contrary to this
orientation of the soul toward the Good, then man would know the act is bad.
More formally then, Conscience or Practical reason, Aquinas argues, has within itself the
fundamental principles of morality-Good must be pursued. Evil must be avoided. Hence, in our
action, we must take care to follow this deep orientation of our soul toward the Good. We should not
go against it.
Aquinas appreciated this notion of Plato, man as soul relentlessly seeking the Good. In lent
Conscience that sense of depth and interiority, and the sense of being obligated to the Good. And it
provided Conscience the fundamental principles of morality-Good must be done. Evil must be
avoided.
NATURAL LAW
Nonetheless, Aquinas felt that what is further needed would be more specific moral principles
than those two fundamental ones – “Do Good. Avoid Evil."
Divine Law. a law that comes from God

Moral Law. a way to understand the divine law through the laws of nature,
natural law and human law
Aquinas borrowed from Aristotle his metaphysical structure of man, namely, man as
composition of rational form and matter oriented toward its fulfillment, or telos. In effect, what
Aquinas did was to take his own notion of Conscience as Practical reason oriented to God and
embed it in Aristotle's metaphysical structure of man as composition of rational form and matter
tending toward its specific telos. In so doing, Aquinas then was able to draw from the very nature of
man, as constituted by his rational form and matter, more specific moral principles.
NATURAL LAW
Purpose: what is your natural purpose
Essence: what it is (your natural purpose)
Conscience or Practical reason, reflecting upon its own human nature as oriented toward its
fulfillment, or telos, is now able to derive more concrete laws of morality regarding the very nature of
man, such as (a) regarding the respect and protection of human life, (b) the importance of marriage
and the family, (c) the needed of man for communal life, or the polis, and all that is necessary for its
maintenance, and (d) the need of man to search for truth and meaning, which for Aquinas eventually
leads to the search for God.
Given that these laws are derived directly from the nature of man, Aquinas considered them
as the Natural Law. By the same token, Aquinas felt that these moral laws would be clearly
knowable through conscience to any human being, in any culture or nation, since they proceed from
the very essence and nature of any man or woman.
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Given that these laws are derived directly from the nature of man, Aquinas considered them
as the Natural Law. By the same token, Aquinas felt that these moral laws would be clearly
knowable through conscience to any human being, in any culture or nation, since they proceed from
the very essence and nature of any man or woman.
TWO TYPES OF HUMAN LAW

Canon law. Divine revealed law (based on bible)
Civil law. Based on constitution
Hence, to follow one's conscience would mean to follow that natural inclination of one's soul
toward the direction of the Good, which every human being experiences in the innermost depth of
his/her being. More specifically, however, to follow one's conscience would mean to follow the
Natural Law, regarding the respect for human life, the importance of marriage and the family, thus,
the love and fidelity between husband and wife, and the generosity in the bringing forth and caring
for new life, the promotion of communal life and all that it requires, such as peace and order, and
just laws, and finally, the relentless search for truth and meaning, which eventually for Aquinas leads
to the search for God.
PARTICIPATION
With regard to the other part of Aquinas's moral theory, the Creator G he again borrows from
Plato, this time Plato's doctrine of participation, nam that everything in this world is transient and
imperfect because they are all m copies and emanations from the Original over in the other world,
namely, t Good, the Ground and Source of everything that exists. Aquinas found that Plat
participation aptly captures that sense of utmost dependence of man in his v being upon God his
Creator, who brought him to being from nothing.
EFFICIENT CAUSE
Nonetheless, Aquinas found something lacking in Plato's notion of participation, particularly

as it had evolved in Neo-Platonism, which tended to consider everything as pure emanation and
extension of the Good, thus verging toward a form of pantheism. To correct this tendency, Aquinas
found it necessary to go to Aristotle, borrowing from him his notion of efficient cause which, as
source and origin of the substance that h undergone change, must be itself an individual substance
distinct from tt substance-effect, and would then be the ground and source of the substance effect's
change from mere potency to act or reality.
MORAL THEORY
One must follow Conscience, and thus, the Natural Law, since not only do they lead to
the telos, or the fulfillment of one's rational nature, but also signify the trace of the Divine
in man, of the One Who brought be bought Creator and Final End.
It is in this sense perhaps that Aquinas, speaking of the Natural Law, thus, of
conscience, says, "nothing but a trace of divine light in us"
(nihil aliud sit quam impression divini luminis in nobis).
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NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
ACTIVITY
21 NATURAL LAW CASE ANALYSIS
INSTRUCTION: Read and Analyze each of the situations. Discuss what would Natural Law say?
I was 16 when I found out I was pregnant. I was scared, but deep down inside of me I felt a sense
of happiness and hope. My parents and my boyfriend's parents all wanted me to have an abortion.
Nobody supported me, and nobody asked me what I wanted to do. I felt as if I had no control or say
in what happened.
I resisted all the way to the clinic. I cried in the waiting room for almost six hours telling my parents
how I did not want to have an abortion. My mom kept telling them to give me more drugs, and my
dad kept telling me I had no choice, that this was not up to me.
Over a year later I still cry every day. It has caused me so many emotional and mental problems. I
have an eating disorder, depression, and now a drinking problem and fear of intimacy. I long for a
child, and nothing will ever replace the baby that I had. NOTHING!
If you think that you are pregnant and truly feel in your heart that you want to keep your baby, do
not let ANYBODY, not your partner or even your parents, force or convince you that you should get
an abortion. Abortions are not right, and you will not be quite right ever again if you get one. I know
I never will be. (http://www.teenbreaks.com/pregancy/jen-abortion-story.com)
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3. Deontological Ethics: KANTIAN
CATEGORICAL VERSUS HYPOTHETICAL IMPERATIVES
Emmanuel Kant believed that there was a supreme principle of morality, and he referred to it
as The Categorical Imperative which focuses on moral duties.
Imperative is a command. For example, "Pay your taxes!" is an imperative, as are "Stop
kicking me!" and "Don't kill animals!"
Hypothetical Imperatives: These imperatives command conditionally on your having a

relevant desire, e.g., "If you want to go to medical school, study biology in college." If you don't want
to go to medical school, this command doesn't apply to you. Another example, your father says, "if
you are hungry, then go eat something!" — if you aren't hungry, then you are free to ignore the
command. Hypothetical Imperative: Not Kantian
Categorical Imperatives: These command unconditionally, e.g., "Don't cheat on your taxes."
Even if you want to cheat and doing so would serve your interests, you may not cheat. As such,
morality and categorical imperatives are intertwined in the sense that morality must be based on the
categorical imperative because morality is such that you are commanded by it, and is such that you
cannot opt out of it or claim that it does not apply to you. Thus, Kantian Ethics focuses on the
intention wherein intention is one's will that should be a good will vis-å-vis must be a good intention.
This then presupposes that everybody has good intentions because goodwill is our duty.
Conditions of Universability of an Act:

All the conditions must be affirmed, no exceptions
.
KANT'S REASONING
First: A moral choice must be a rational decision since morality involves what is necessary for us to
do, and only rational considerations are necessary. For example, there is nothing necessary about
my selfish inclination to obtain material wealth. At the same time, when we hear the moral
command "Do not steal!" we recognize an element of necessity insofar as this command applies to
everyone. Further, when we assess that anything in life is "necessary," such as the truth of
mathematical formulas, we are making a rational assessment, and this applies to morality as well.
Second: Moral choices our rational motive must be in the form of a principle since human reason
operates by issuing principles. Our reason gives us universal and necessary principles of
mathematics, principles of logic, and, in this case, a principle of morality.
Third: The principle must be in the form of a command or imperative since morality involves
commands, such as "Do not steal!"
General Formulation of the Categorical Imperative:

“Act only on that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should
become a universal law.”
Formula of the Law of Nature:

“Act as if the maxim of your action were to become through your will a
universal law of nature.”
Consider this specific action: I will steal my neighbor's lawnmower. The guiding maxim behind
the action "1 will steal my neighbor's lawnmower is to gain material wealth." Reflecting on the maxim
what would it be like if such act was a universal rule that everyone followed, such as "Everyone may
steal his or her neighbor's lawnmower to gain material wealth." If the universal rule is reasonable,
then l accept the action as moral; if unreasonable, I reject the action as immoral. It is almost like
asking "What would happen if everyone did this?"
FOUR MAIN TYPES OF MORAL DUTIES
1. Suppose I borrow money from you promising to return it later, but I know full well that I will not
return it. The intended maxim or guiding principle behind my action is this: "Whenever I believe
myself short of money, I will borrow money and promise to pay it back, though I know that this
will never be done." Kant then explains that a contradiction arises once I view this maxim as a
universal rule. Specifically, if such deceit were followed universally, then the whole institution of
promising would be undermined and I could not make my promise to begin with. So, on the one
hand, I state "l promise such and such" yet, on the other, once universalized the practice of
promise keeping itself would be non-existent.
2. It is wrong for me to kill myself when misfortunes Push me to the point of despair. The maxim of
this action is "From self-love I make it my principle to shorten my life if its continuance threatens
more evil than it promises pleasure." But a law of nature of this sort would be contradictory. The
selflove principle inclines me to preserve my life, but according to this maxim, it also inclines me
to end my life.
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3. I must develop my talents rather than let them waste away. The maxim of the contrary action
might be something like "l will let my talents decay and devote my life to idleness." Kant
concedes that this maxim by itself is not contradictory since in theory everyone could become an
idle slug. However, the contradiction emerges when I willfully assert this maxim while at the same
time acknowledging my inherent rational obligation to develop my talents.
4. It is wrong to be uncharitable. The maxim of this action might be "l will not help someone in
need." Similar to the last example, a contradiction arises when I willfully assert this maxim while
at the same time acknowledging my inherent rational obligation to receive charity when I am in
need.
Formula of the End in Itself:

"Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own
person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at
the same time as an end."
GOOD WILL
The reason humans have inherent value or good will, according to Kant, is because, unlike
animals, we have the ability to rise above our brute instincts and to freely make crucial decisions in
shaping our lives and the world around us. Everything else in the world is driven by purely
mechanistic forces, but we are different with our ability to make free choices. This freedom of the will
is a feature from our human reason, and it confers on us an inherent dignity that is valuable in and of
itself. We have a moral responsibility, then, to treat people in ways that reflect their inherent value,
and not to reduce people to mere objects of instrumental value. So, when I treat someone as an
end, I respect her inherent value; and when I treat someone as a means, I see her as having only
instrumental value.
Kant explains that there is both a negative and positive component to this formula. The
negative component is that we should avoid treating people as a mere means. But this tells us only
to abstain from using people as instruments, which is a bare minimum obligation. The positive
component is that we should undertake to treat people as an end in themselves. This tells us to
actively assist or support others in retaining their dignity. It is not enough simply to avoid abusing
people; we must go a step further and help them, especially wh en misfortune strikes them.
Formula of Autonomy:
"So act that your will can regard itself at the same time as making universal
law through its maxims."
The focus of this formula is the authority that rests within our human will to productively shape
the world around us when following reason. As we act, we should consider whether our intended
maxims are worthy of our status as shapers of the world.
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Formula of the Kingdom of Ends:
“So act as if you were through your maxims a law-making member of a
kingdom of ends.”
The point here is that the moral fate of all people hangs together. We saw that Kant thinks of
human beings as ends in themselves, and so, collectively, we are a "kingdom of ends" or, more
simply, a moral community. As I act, I should consider whether my actions contribute to or detract
from the moral community. Specifically, I should consider whether the intended maxim of my action
could productively function as a universal rule in the moral community.
MAIN POINTS OF KANT'S THEORY:

• Motives behind true moral choices are not those of selfish inclination but
instead those of a rational duty conforming to the categorical imperative.
• Hypothetical imperatives have the form "If you want something, then you
must do some act" ; the categorical imperative mandates, "You must do
some act."
• The general formula of the categorical imperative has us consider whether
the intended maxim of our action would be reasonable as a universal law.
• Specific formulations of the categorical imperative focus on a particular
feature of human rationality, such as the absence of contradiction, free
choice, and inherent dignity.
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NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY
22 KANT AND RIGHTS
INSTRUCTION: Using Kantian Ethics, answer the questions asked.
1. Why is legal not moral?
2. What is the difference between legal right and moral right?
3. How is Kant's principle of Categorical Imperative: "Act only on that maxim by which you can at
the same time will that it should become a universal law" applied to a moral case?
4. What are the Kantian Ethics' strengths and weaknesses?
5. If you have to choose between a legal but not moral and moral but not legal decision, what would
you choose. Explain your answer with your own example.
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4. UTlLlTARlANlSM
PLEASURE AND HAPPINESS
"Utilitarianism or the Greatest Happiness Principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as
the end to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By
happiness is intended pleasure and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain and the privation of
pleasure." To put it simply, it is the promotion of pleasure and the prevention of pain.
FUNDAMENTAL TENETS OF UTILITARIANISM
The purpose of morality is to make the world a better place. Morality is about producing good
consequences, not having good intentions. We should do whatever will bring the most benefit to all
of humanity.
UTILITARIANISM AND MORALITY
The utilitarian has a very simple answer to the question of why morality exists at all: The
purpose of morality is to guide people's actions in such a way as to produce a better world. Always
act in the way that will produce the greatest overall amount of good in the world. The emphasis is
clearly on consequences, not intentions.
JEREMY BENTHAM (1748-1832)

Bentham believed that we should try to increase the overall amount of pleasure in the world.
Further, he believes in the idea that an act should always consider what will benefit the majority. He
then proposed the felicific calculus where he provided measurement of how we can achieve
happiness.
BASES OF MEASUREMENT OF PLEASURE
Intensity: How strong is it?

Duration: How long it lasts?
Probability: How certain is it?
Proximity: Immediacy of the pleasure to be derived from the action.
Fecundity: Will it lead to further pleasure?
Purity: How free from pain is it?
Extent: The number of people bound to be affected by the act.
With this measurement, it was stated that pleasure must be considered over pain. If an act will
produce pain, it should be avoided or if not minimized. One has to increase pleasure and avoid pain.
JOHN STUART MILL (1806-1873)

Bentham's godson and believed that happiness which are higher forms should be the
standard of utility. "Man's end is not mere pleasure and absence of pain." He made a clear definition
of what happiness is by defining higher and lower pleasures.
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Higher and Lower Pleasures. Mill argues that by "happiness" he means pleasure—both
intellectual and sensual. However, we have a sense of dignity that has us prefer intellectual
pleasures over sensual ones. The difference of man from an animal is his sense of consciousness of
his acts that enables him act with dignity. As Mill said, "It is better to be a human being dissatisfied
than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied." Examples of intellectual
pleasures are pleasures derived when we are with our friends and families, developing our
knowledge, praying to God, appreciating beauty and kindness to others.
To further explain the utilitarianism of Mill using the example of the kidnapped victim, the man
must not be sacrificed for the benefit of the other civilians. In Mill's Utilitarianism, a person has to
understand that sacrificing one for the benefit of the majority is an immoral act. One man's
happiness is as important as the happiness of a hundred or vice versa. No one has no right to
deprived one person of his happiness using the justification that it is for the greater good or depriving
majority of individuals of their happiness for the benefit of one or few individuals. Mill (1962) said:
"Utilitarians who have cultivated their moral feelings, but not their sympathies, nor their artistic
perceptions, do fall into this mistake; and so do all other moralists under the same conditions."
As for John Stuart Mill, he believes that in pursuit of happiness, one must take into
consideration all individuals. For him, the end goal of man must not only about mere sensual
pleasures but higher forms of happiness.
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NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY
23 UTILITARIANISM
INSTRUCTION: Discuss what is being asked.
1. What is Utilitarianism?
2. Explain the happiness principle: "UtiIitarianism or the Greatest Happiness Principle, holds that
actions are right in proportion as the end to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the
reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure and the absence of pain; by unhappiness,
pain and the privation of pleasure."
3. Critique Utilitarian Ethics by giving its strengths and weaknesses.
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NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY
24 SELF-DEFENSE
INSTRUCTION: Read and analyze the situation, what a utilitarian would say? Apply the utilitarian
principles to support your claims.
Mercy can be a liability, even for the well-trained, Mary (not her real name), a competitive
kickboxer, was assaulted out of nowhere by a homeless man who spat Fritos in her face and then
lunged at her, To her credit, she reacted instantly, punching and kicking him with full force. The
man fell to the ground, apparently hurt badly. Unfortunately, what she did next almost got her killed.
Mary leaned over him to make sure he wasn't seriously injured, Suddenly, he leapt up, struck I her
face, and started pummeling her, She recovered and again fought back, only I to be suddenly
pulled off him by the authorities, At first, they thought he was the I victim because he was covered
in blood. In actuality, his first strike at her face had been with a concealed punch knife, and it had
pierced her nasal cavity between the eye and the nose. The blood had poured out of her onto him.
Mary was lucky to survive. After much reconstructive surgery, she eventually healed.
(http://attackproof.com/three-stories-of-self-defense-failure.html)
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5. DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE
JUSTICE AS FAIRNESS
The basic description of Justice is "To give what is DUE". This means that as
human beings we should be fair. Being fair (fairness) presupposes that there
is something unequal. For example, social status (rich and poor). Fairness
means allowing the poor to cope in a society.
Classical Utilitarianism was criticized for failing to account for the values of justice and
fairness. Can the complications we have introduced help?
One criticism had to do with punishment. We can imagine cases in which it promotes the
general welfare to frame an innocent person. This is blatantly unjust yet taking the principle of utility
as our ultimate standard, it is hard to explain why it is wrong because utilitarianism treats individuals
as means rather than as ends.
If a policy of treating people as they deserve is justified by the general utilitarian standard, this
may permit a somewhat different view of punishment than utilitarian's have customarily have taken.
In punishing someone, we are treating him differently from the way we treat others — punishment
involves a failure of impartiality. But this is justified, on our account, by the person's own past deeds.
It is a response to what he has done. That is why it is not right to frame an innocent person; the
innocent person has not done anything to deserve being singled out for such treatment.
The theory of punishment, however, is only one part of the subject of justice. Questions of
justice arise every time a person is treated differently from another. Suppose an employer must
choose which of the two employees to promote, when she can promote only one of them. The first
candidate has worked hard for the company, taking on extra work when it was needed, giving up her
vacation to help out, and so on. The second candidate, on the other hand, has always done only the
minimum required of him. Obviously, the two employees will be treated very differently: one will get
the promotion; the other will not.
Justice sets the MAXIMAL Standard

-The arrangement of social institutions that is morally best.
Insofar as fairness is concerned, a persons' voluntary actions can justify departures from the
basic policy of "equal treatment" but nothing else can. This goes against a common view of the
matter. Often, people think it is right for individuals to be rewarded for physical beauty, superior
intelligence, or other native endowments. (In practice, people often get better jobs and a greater
share of life's good things just because they were born with greater natural gifts.) But on reflection,
this does not seem right. People do not deserve their native endowments; they have them only as a
result of what John Rawls has called "the natural lottery."
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Suppose the first employee in our example was passed over for the promotion, despite her
hard work, because the second employee had some native talent that was more useful in the new
position. Even if the employer could justify this decision in terms of the company's needs, the first
employee would rightly feel. That there is something unfair going on. She has worked, yet he is now
getting the promotion, and the benefits that go with it, because of something he did nothing to merit.
That is not fair. A just society, according to our conception, would be one in which people may
improve their positions through work (with the opportunity for work available to everyone), but they
would not enjoy superior positions simply because they were born lucky.
Basic Structure of a Society:

• Aims to describe a just arrangement of the major political and social
institutions of a liberal society.
• Distributes the main benefits and burdens of social life.
• Affects the lives of citizens.
• Is the source of basic right opportunity for work and specially Morality.
GUIDING IDEAS OF JUSTICE AS FAIRNESS
1. Negative Thesis: When we are born differently, some are rich; some are poor. Everyone is born
in an unfair situation (which we don't deserve). As such, inequality should not be the basis of
service.
2. Positive Thesis: Equality based reciprocity, unless unequal distribution would be to everyone's
advantage. In effect, equity would be based on the needs of an individual.
PRINCIPLES OF JUSTICE AS FAIRNESS
1. Each person has the same indefectible claim to a fully adequate scheme of equal basic liberties.
Thus, the government should be the first to move for justice and fairness.
2. Social and economic inequalities are to satisfy two conditions:
a. Should be attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of
opportunity; and
b. They are to be the greatest benefit of the least-advantaged members of the society (the
difference principle).
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NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY
25 DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE AS FAIRNESS
INSTRUCTION: Discuss what is being asked.
1. What is distributive justice?
2. How is justice as fairness applied in a society?
3. Elaborate on the principle: "Each person has the same indefectible claim to a fully adequate
scheme of equal basic liberties."
4. Critique Justice as Fairness by giving its strengths and weaknesses.
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NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY
26 JUSTICE AS FAIRNESS
INSTRUCTION: Study the second principle: :Social and economic inequalities are to satisfy two
conditions:
a) Should be attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair and equal oppor-
tunity for all; and
b) They are to be for the greatest benefit of the least-advantaged members of the society (the differ-
ence principle). Is this principle being applied in the Philippines? How? Use concrete examples to
support your stand.
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Part 5
Ethics through Thick and Thin, and Ethics and
Religion

1. Identify the moral challenges of globalization;
2. Discuss how to solve ethical concerns in taxation;
3. Compare responses to shared moral dilemmas of baby boomers
and millennials; and
4. Understand the principles of ethical behavior in modern sociality
at the level of the person, society, and in the interaction with
the environment and other shared resources.
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The Challenges of Pluralism and Fundamentalism:
THE SEARCH FOR UNIVERSAL VALUES
Globalization is derived from the word globalize, which refers to the
emergence of an international network of economic systems. ***
GLOBALIZATION AND ITS ETHICAL CHALLENGES
The world we live today is called "Global" since our world or globe is literally one planet and
we live in this planet earth. There is a worldwide clamor of unity among all people and unified
territories. Because everything is interconnected, there is now a shift of everything in the way we do
things. Nowadays, there exists pluralistic concepts and practices.
For instance, there is a modification of physical work of rural farming to automatic robotic
machines. There is now a transition use of bullet trains for faster transport from ordinary automobile;
and, there is an ease in communication just by mere use of human touch and sight.
In a similar way, the way we perceive and practice what we believe to be right and avoid what
could be wrong are also affected by social changes and economic trends, which has now become
global. Globalization then poses challenges to the way people think, live, and exercise freedom of
choice. In short, it poses challenges to ethics.
ETHICAL CHALLENGES OF GLOBALIZATION
Globalization has positive and negative effects yet it poses a lot of ethical considerations. It is
important to be socially aware of these issues, problems, or considerations so that we can be
involved in the promotion of common good, act fairly in social relationship, do justice to everyone,
promote ethical responsibility, and so attain the common good. We now ethically assess some of the
challenges of globalization.
Globalization deepened poverty due to unequal distribution of resources: It is ethical for

countries to work hand in hand to collectively work in emancipating people from extreme poverty.
Corporate responsibility of business entities and governments must help in the promotion of equity
and equal opportunities.
In globalization, there is rapid growth and development of nations: Ethics demands social
accountability and universal appeal to reason where there should be no abuse of power from
countries to another by disrespecting territorial integrity. Respect for international laws must always
be abided with reason.
Exploitation of women and children, workers, and age-old citizens: Ethics demands respect
for traditional wisdom where empathy is a priority. Care for age old-citizens, women, and children
must be upheld by providing them shelter, protection and equal access to opportunities in life, the
exercise of freedom, and pursuit to happiness.
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Branding of products are prioritized thus can create unequal business opportunities and
discourage fair competition: It cannot be avoided that advertisement of products is a free enterprise;
nonetheless, use of such products must be evaluated through its quality, longevity, elegance,
aesthetical value, and not only through their brand names. Nowadays, faking of brand or copying is
rampant. Buyers and consumers must ethically choose and scrutinize well in order to give value on
that which is of quality products.
There is the evidence of outsourcing of information and thus affect mutual relations of
nations: Since interconnection is global in nature, cybercrime, cyberbullying, hacking of data can
happen anytime; yet, ethics mandate governments of nations to protect themselves by legislating
laws to minimize if not stop possibilities of cybercrimes abuse through wire-tapping.
In trade versus aid, there is the tendency of other nations to provide aid that can be
hazardous to other nations i.e., military exercises in a strategic location for power control while
disrespecting territorial integrity, dumping chemical wastes or dumping of medicines. The ethics on
principle of universality demands that exercise of freedom be guarded and cannot be used to
infiltrate ideologies.
In globalization, recognition is highly prioritized where the monopoly of business engagement
is always possible; i.e., Macdonald-ization: Ethical egoism teaches that individually, we need to
choose that which helps us achieve our best interest in life. Healthy foods or processed foods can
be hazardous to one's health and life, it is then imperative that each person must have to care for
his/her health.
Globalization is characterized by fast and furious ways of communication and thus it is
facilitated with ease and comfort: By remote controls, disks, chips, networking for people become
accessible and easily organized; however, ethics also challenges individuals to careful of any
possible scam on networking and fake organizations motivated with greed and profit only.
Economic integration and free trade conditions have produced an unstoppable movement
towards economic globalization. Most economists applaud the trend, pointing to the modernization
and growing wealth that has resulted. But many countries have been forgotten or have even been
harmed by globalization. It is a positive thing and it benefits a country who, for example, specializes
in a certain product and then exchange that good with other countries; but, it can create
discrimination and leaving other countries into reliance on economically advanced countries. Ethics
of distributive justice demands that the economy should not be monopolized by few nations instead
of collaborative effort to sustainable global economy and increase of fair competition in the global
market.
In globalization, equality and inequality among peoples become evident particularly in income
distribution. Experts suggest that the increased trade has reduced income inequality among skilled
and semi-skilled workers. It has increased the inequality among such workers and this is because
manufactured exports raise demand and wages for workers with only limited skills and education.
But the effect, it is the opposite since the service and technology industries pay top wages to highly
skilled workers but have little use for semiskilled labor. Overall, it can be said that globalization
appears to have deepened inequalities in the international distribution of income.
In terms of global accountability, ethics poses a challenge to all peoples to take care of
mother earth: Protection of countries to be attacked by terrorists to vulnerable countries stricken by
complex ideological problems and political instability had been a global issue for decades. Global
ethic demands that we respect rights to life, property, and well-being
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The world is shrinking since across the globe, there is an impending need to care for the
environment: Economic recession happens everywhere even the most stable nation. Global
warming is felt and thus climate change happened everywhere and thus air, water, lands are being
polluted every minute or deforestation had become systemic. Scarcity of raw materials is evident
worldwide and so environmentalist, ecologists, political leaders, and religious gurus, clamor for a
macro level of addressing the global problem on scarcity, consumerism, and the domineering
imposition of human needs over nature.
The principal cause and effect of globalization is international trade, which has expanded
substantially. A growing trade has often been followed by higher economic growth. On the other
hand, there is the unemployment effect. While growing trade has generally created more jobs, the
parallel growth in competition has forced many companies to fire their workers in order to cut costs,
boost efficiency and increase profits. Especially some less-developed countries had to deal with this
negative effect. Hence, ethics demand to cater to the welfare of skill-based workers, OFWs with just
compensation and fair treatment. Discrimination, human trafficking, unfair treatment should be
stopped globally.
Also, there is the globalization of culture: Indigenous cultures are slowly fading because of the
universalization of language to be used by all. Adaptation and promotion of one's identity regress
among millennials due to historical gap with traditional tongues used by older generations. Thus, the
regress of cultural recognition poses a hermeneutic of appreciation and usages of various languages
in diverse cultural contexts.
It is evident that there exists in society the monopoly of power and capitalistic
engagement. Suburban areas where built establishments are controlled by few business tycoons
and corporations that cater to maximizing the use of capital or fund availability such as
acondominium. Some of these establishments such as e.g., casinos, prostitution dens can be
aesthetically designed but can lead to the corruption of morals and traditional values of respect,
family-orientation, human dignity and the common good.
92
NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY
27 Moral Challenges of Globalization
INSTRUCTION: Using SWOT analysis, identify and write the strengths (5), weaknesses (5), oppor-
tunities (5), and threats (5) of globalization.
OPPORTUNITIES THREATS
93
NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY
28 USE AND IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY
INSTRUCTION: Answer the following items.
Come up with your personal ethical principle and proper attitudes on the use of technology,
Write a brief personal ethical opinion or comment regarding the possible negative impact of
technology.
APPLICATIONS OF DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE THROUGH TAXATION
When we speak of taxation, we talk about distributive justice and fairness. The reason why
taxation exists is not simply because we are bounded by law instead we expect that in return, we
have social benefits, medical care, and better transportation and communication facilities. Taxation
then is a fair share of contributing to the betterment of society as a social obligation of every citizen
to the government.
Taxation is a social contract of every individual citizen, an honest commitment to good and
honest governance. For instance, it is a moral obligation to pay tax to the government so that we can
enjoy legal benefits that we can rightly claim.
On the other hand, the government has its legal obligation to provide every individual just and
rightful benefit. For instance, we must enjoy public parks that should be aesthetically designed for
public use; public utility vehicles should be provided and should cater the public needs; social
services to be upgraded; free education for all and access to public information and communication;
fair business engagement, equal opportunities, and free exercise of individual interests.
It is fair to pay tax whatever is the status of one's enterprise so that professional,
businessmen, farmer, movie actor, a governor, a president, or a wage-earner government employee
must pay tax to the government. When the government enforces payment of tax to a rich person, it
is fair and must be enforced to a poor man also. It never the fault of the rich person to get rich and
never the fault of the poor person to be poor; nevertheless, if the poor person is not to pay tax while
the rich person does, it becomes unfair.
In some instances, the poor person blames the rich person of his poverty and thus use that a
justification not to pay tax, which is unfair too. It is also a fact in some instances that the rich person
evades paying tax because the amount is high, which would mean a loss for him. In such a case, it
is also unfair for society. The principle of "give what is due" is applied to the rich, the poor, or the
middle man which indicates equal access to opportunity with equal access to burden and
responsibility, all for the sake of the common good.
95
NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY
29 CASE ANALYSIS ON TAXATION
INSTRUCTION: Choose 1 situation. Discuss and give solution.
1. Mr. Ambo is a taxi driver with a huge family having seven children. He earned an av-
erage of at least P400.00 daily. It is not even enough to feed his family, and especially that there
many bills to pay including tuition fees and allowances for his children. Is it still right to tax him?
2. Don Juan is a business man who owns a well-known restaurant with an asset of at
most P95 million. He also has another 10 hectares of agricultural land and uses the land properly
where he operates poultry and hog raising with a possible asset amounting to P15 million. Would
it be justified not to declare his asset of P15 million to the Bureau of Internal Revenue, in order to
avoid paying taxes? He says, "anyway, the government is taking much tax from my restaurant."
3. Let's assume that Jane works for Company XYZ. Her salary is PhP75,000 per year.
At the end of the year, Company XYZ will send a report to BIR reporting that it paid Jane
PhP75,000 that year. When Jane fills out the Form to calculate her income tax owed, she computed
PhP65,OOO in earned income. What should Jane do?
4. Let's assume that Donna has a big tomato garden in the backyard. Bill, her next door
neighbor, is a hairdresser. Donna and Bill have an arrangement whereby Bill comes over to cut
Donna's hair in return for two crates of tomatoes. This is bartering, and even though no cash
changes hands, the BIR requires Donna to report the value of the services she receives as taxable
income and it requires Bill to report the value of the tomatoes as taxable income. Is it really neces-
sary that they report their transactions knowing that they are neighbors?
96
ETHICAL CHALLENGES AND RESPONSES OF FILLINIALS TO GLOBALIZATION
Fillinials is derived from the words Filipino and Millennials which refer to the
generation of Filipino Millennials born in the beginning of the 21 st century.
The word "millennials" indicates a person reaching young adulthood around the year 2000.
When we say "Fillinials," we coin the terms "Filipino" and "Millennials" thus "Fillinials" or Filipino
Millennials.
There are no precise dates of births for Fillinials to be identified or when it ends.
Demographers and researchers typically use the early 1980s as starting birth years and use the
mid1990s to the early 2000s as final birth years.
It becomes a common knowledge that millennials have attributes and traits such as confidence
and tolerance. They have strong sense of entitlement and narcissism based on personality. They
are known to be the "Generation Me." (J. Twenge, 2006) because they are "civic-minded" individuals
with a strong sense of community both local and global (Strauss & Howe, 2014).
Some research groups say that millennials decreased from philosophy of life as compared to
older generation and that they are somewhat more upbeat than older adults though they are the first
in the modern era to have higher levels of student loan debt and unemployment (Few Research
Center, 2014).
Millennials, who are digitally native, generally enjoy living and working in
urban areas.
Ethics challenges young people to be independently minded individuals. When Fillinials seem
to give value on their passion and interests, take risk in discover new ideas, want to travel to a lot, or
to engage in spontaneous yet changing focus on their careers, then it is a show of personal
conquest. It maintains the principle of respect to individual's preference in life.
To differentiate the millenials from the fillinials, a table of on their traits is shown below:
COMMON TRAITS OF MILLENNIALS TRAITS OF FILLINIALS

• Passion matters: Millennials find happiness in the search • Filipino Millennials are an entrepreneurial generation where
for passion and meaning; they are innovative and creative in business enterprises;
• Risk takers: Millennials have high degree of confidence
and can take risk courageously • Filipino Millennials tend to be concerned with the environ-
ment especially that they are affected by climate change,
• Work-life alignment: Millennials align their life passion with natural calamities and disasters;
their career interests
• Thinking in terms of mission: The Millennials seek to build • Filipino Millennials consider raising a family very essential
their work and passions in blocks with clear objective over despite social changes and cultural differences.
an understood timeframe.
• Allowing a new perspective to change their focus: If the
Millennials learn something new and they are strongly in-
terested, they chase it.
• Spontaneous persons: The Millennials seek rewarding
experiences over potential consequences.
• Millennials are world travelers.
(Study of the University of the Far East)
97
NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY
30 TRAITS OF FILLINIALS
INSTRUCTION: Answer the Following
A. State two traits of fillinials. Identify at least two problems in each quality that are being experi-
enced by todays communities.
TRAITS OF FILLINIALS PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED
B. Provide the strengths and weakness of the three traits of fillinials in relation to filinnials' quest of
becoming good or ethical.
TRAITS OF FILLINIALS STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES

1. Filipino Millennials are an
entrepreneurial generation where
they are innovative and creative in
business enterprises;
2. Filipino Millennials tend to be
concerned with the environment
especially that they are affected by
climate change, natural calamities
and disasters;
3. Filipino Millennials consider
raising a family very essential
despite social changes and cultural
differences.
98
NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY
31 CHALLENGES OF FILLINIALS
INSTRUCTION: Give your insights on the following questions
1. What are issues that cause moral friction between Millenials/Filinnials and their
parents?
2. How should we resolve moral friction between Millenials/ Filinnilas and their
parents?
99
NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY
32 GLOBALIZATION: MILLENIALS VS. BABY BOOMERS
INSTRUCTION: Answer the following.
A. Construct a plan for coping with the most urgent challenges of globalization.
CHALLENGES OF GLOBALIZATION
B. Compare responses to shared moral dilemmas of baby boomers and millennials.
BABY BOOMERS MILLENIALS
100
THE CHALLENGES OF RELIGION TO ETHICS
Let us read first some facts about religious orientations of millennials then contextualize in the
Philippines our understanding regarding the challenges of religion to ethical discernment.
In the United States, Millennials are the least likely to be religious. There is a trend towards
irreligion that has been increasing since the 1940s. 29 percent of Americans born between 1983 and
1994 are irreligious, as opposed to 21 percent born between 1963 and 1981, 15 percent born
between 1948 and 1962 and only 7 percent born before 1948.
A 2005 study looked at 1,385 people aged 18 to 25 and found that more than half of those in
the study said that they pray regularly before a meal. One-third said that they discussed religion with
friends, attended religious services, and read religious material weekly. Twenty-three percent of
those studied did not identify themselves as religious practitioners.
A Global Ethic Perspective

• Christianity recognizes Christ as the foundation: center and criterion.
• Jews and Muslims in faith in one God of Abraham .
• Religious and non-religious the global ethic as duty and a hope.
A Pew Research Center study Millennials shows that of those between 18—29 years old, only
3% of these emerging adults self-identified as "atheists" and only 4% self-identified as "agnostics".
Overall, 25% of Millennials are "Nones" and 75% are religiously affiliated.
Over half of Millennials polled in the United Kingdom in 2013 said they had "no religion nor
attended a place of worship", other than for a wedding or a funeral. 25% said they "believe in a
God", while 19% believed in a "spiritual greater power" and 38% said they did not believe in God nor
any other "greater spiritual power." The poll also found 41% thought religion was "the cause of evil"
in the world more often than good.
Philippines is the only Christian nation in Asia. As well-known of that identity with 81%
Catholics, the high rate of influence by religious belief help most people to cope with economic and
environmental situations. It is not uncommon for Filipinos to be resilient and courageous and
optimistic, despite the fact that they are stricken mostly by natural calamities and economic
turbulence.
In Philippine society, the challenges of integrating belief influenced by religion with ethical
responsibility need to continue and to be promoted. The millennials are not necessarily opposed to
the Church or the State.
With globalization as a fact and a process, and is always happening, interconnecting almost
everything, millennials cope with challenges of life. The millennials are capable of preserving
essential community values such as deep respect on religious teachings such as dignity, integrity,
honesty, cooperating to community affairs, deep spirituality, and being prayerful. They belong to a
generation of strong open-mindedness and innovativeness.
101
Believing in millennials, a priest once said: "When we allow young people to pray together,
they will pray earnestly." We have seen these already when Popes of the Catholic Church (Pope
John Paull Il in 1994, Pope Francis in 2016) visited the Philippines.
Ethics becomes global that is why Hans Kung (1996) would offer a "Global ethic" where
everyone is given the chance to integrate common understanding of world religions. Let us have a
glimpse at the global impact of a global ethic. According to Hans Kung, there is no peace in the
world without dialogue among nations, but there is no peace among nations if there is no dialogue
among world religions.
No peace among the nations without peace among the religions.
No peace among the religions without dialogue between religions
No dialogue between the religions without investigation of the foundations of

the religions.
(Hans Kung, Religious situation of our Time, 1996)
102
NAME: ____________________________________________ SCHEDULE: ______________________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________________________ DATE: ___________________________
ACTIVITY
33 ETHICS AND RELIGION
INSTRUCTION: Provide a concise answer to what is being asked.
1. Differentiate ethics from religion.
2. Identify two (2) roles of religion in our globalized world.
3. Provide five proofs that religion can help a person become moral and explain how.
PROOFS EXPLANATION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
103
Evaluation of the Course
1. What lesson or activity did I enjoy the most? Why?
2. What is the most important lesson which I can apply in my daily life?
3. What are the three insights/discoveries that I learned?
4. What topics do I find least important?
5. What possible topics should have been included?
104
References
Books
Agapay, Ramon B. (1991) Ethics and the Filipino: A manual on morals for Students and educa-
tors. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc., 1991.
Andre,Claire and Manuel Velasquez (Fall 1987). Issues in ethics: Vol. 1 Noel, Markkula Center for
Applied Ethics.
Audi, Robert. (2000). Philosophy: A Brief Guide to Undergraduates. The American Philosophical
Association.
Callicott, J. Baird. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Catechism of the Catholic Church (CCC). (1994) Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines
(CBCP).
Domingo, R., Marzan, R. (2019). Ethics: Worktext Manual for College Students. Baguio City:
Kadena Press—Asia Foundation Inc.
Friedman, Thomas. (2000). The /exus and the olive tree: Understadning globalization. 1 st Edi-
tion. New York: Anchor Books.
Fieser, J., & Norman, L. (2002). A Historica/ Introduction to Philosophy. New York: Oxford Univer-
sity Press.
Gensler, Harry J. (1998). Ethics: A contemporary introduction. New York: Routledge.
Gualdo, et al. (2012). Ethics and contemporary moral issues. Revised Edition. Quezon City:
Mutya Publishing.
Kaplan, J. D, Ed. (1958). The pocket Aristotle. New York: Washington Square
Mill, J. S. (2001). Utilitarianism. Ontario: Batoche Books.
_____. (1962). Utilitarianism. In W. S. Jones, "Approaches to Ethics" (p. 352). New York: McGraw
-Hill Book Company.
Monternayor, Felix. Ethics: The philosophy of life. (1994). Navotas: National Book Store
Navran, Frank (1998) Ethics. Resource Center's Principal consu Itant Jackson, Wayne. Christian
Courier: Archives. October 26, 1998.
Pasco, M.O,D, Suarez, V.F and Rodriguez, A.M.G. (2018). Ethics. Quezon City: C&E Publishing,
Inc.
Petrick, Joseph A and John F. Quinn. (1997) Management ethics: Integrity at work. California:
sage Publications, Inc., 1997)) pp. 89-91.
105
References
Rachels, James (2003). The Elements of Moral Philosophy. 4th Edition. Boston-McGraw Hill.
Reyes, Ramon (1989) Ground and Norm of Morality. Ethics for College Students. Ateneo de Ma-
nila University Press.
Reyes, Ramon Castillo. (2003). The moral dimension: Essays in honoring Ramon
Reyes, Ramon Castillo. (2003). The Moral Dimensions: Essys in honoring Ramon Castillo Reyes:
Relations between ethics and religious beliefs." Edited by Nemesio S. Quet S.J., Oscar G.
Bulaong, Jr. and Michael Ner A. Mariano (pp. 107-1 12). Quezon City: Office of Research
and Publications, Ateneo de Manila University.
Velasquez, Manuel. (2005). Philosophy: Text with readings. "Ethics." 9th Edition. Australia: Thom-
son and Wadsworth.
Electronic
Baybay, A. (2011 Rape cases prevalent: 'Shameful crimes' against children up in Mt Province.
NORTHERN PHILIPPINE TIMES. Retrieved from http://northphi Iti
mes.blogspot.com/2011 /1 1 /rape-cases-prevalent-shamefulcrimes.html.
Campbell, W. Keith. (2013). "The narcissism epidemic." Interview by Steve Paikin, The agenda
with Steve Paikin, July 221, 2013. https://youtu.bel/lvLkaWc7Tk.
De Paromita. http://thegoodproject.org/considering-the-influence-of-culture-on-
motality/.Considering the Influence of Culture on Morality. Retrieved from
"Filipino American Mellenials." Makilala TV, October 4, 2014. https://youtu.be/H2rvFs164kk8.
Elizabeth Anscombe (1920-2001). Kantian Ethics. http://www.csus.edu/indiv/g/gaskilld/ethics/
kantian%20ethics.htmAnscombe (1920-2001 KANTIAN ETHICS.
Epstein, Mikhail (2014) Philosophical Feelings.
https://philosophynow.org/issues/1 01 /Philosophical_Feelings.
Fieser, James THE CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE.https://www.utm.edu/staff/jfieser/class/300/
categorical.htm(2017)
Gorospe, http://www.thefilipinomind.com/2008/01/our-filipino-norm-0f-morality-V. SJ. The Filipino
Norm of Morality.revisited.html
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McLeod, K. Retrieved from https://classroom.synonym.com/cultural-influence-onmorals-
12087678. html.
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107

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SCHOOL OF

2. THE ROLE OF MORAL BEHAVIOR IN SHAPING CULTURE 57

1. GLOBALIZATION AND ITS ETHICAL CHALLENGES 90

Course Code: GETHCS1 Course Title: Ethics

Requirement of the Course:

1. Differentiate between moral and non moral problems

WEEK 1 WEEK 2 WEEK 3 WEEK 4 WEEK 5 WEEK 6

MODULE NO. I III C

MODULE NO. II III A, III B

It is expected that by the end of Part 1,

Other desirable descriptions of Philosophy:

The best (man) is like water.

1. Empiricism (a posteriori) knowledge by use of senses and expe-

BASIC PERSPECTIVES IN ETHICS

1. Absolutist. either one's action is right or wrong; good or evil

BASIC THEMES IN ETHICS

1. Virtue Ethics (Aristotelian Ethics). focuses on how to live a virtuous life.

ACTIVITY Theoretical Assessment

STEP PROCESSES OF SUCCESSFUL READING

ACTIVITY Theoretical Assessment

ACTIVITY Theoretical Assessment

It is expected that by the end of Part 2A,

Contemporary life or human endeavor today integrate the moral experience of

2. Moral VS Non-Moral Standards

Ethics is said to be a "science" insofar as it is a body of systematized knowledge arranged

As a philosophical science, ethics is not a technical course or a laboratory study. Devoid of

There are various ways of defining and discussing Ethics:

Ethics is important because of the following reasons:

MORAL STANDARDS NON-MORAL STANDARDS

It is expected that by the end of Part 2B,

1. Explain quotations on morality;

"Amoral" in dictionaries is sometimes defined with reference to value-free situations (neither

Three Levels of Moral Dilemma:

3. Three Levels of Morality

Brief description of my experience of a moral

INTENTION MEANS END

It is expected that by the end of Part 2C,

As elaborated by ethicists, human acts are characterized by the following:

ETHICS HUMAN ACTS

2. Essential Elements of Human Act

ACTS HUMAN ACT ACT OF MAN

ACTS MORAL IMMORAL ORAL

Quotation No.: _____

It is expected that by the end of Part 3A,

2. The Definition of Courage

Second definition: courage is a sort of endurance of the soul (192c).

Third definition: Courage is a wise endurance of the soul (192d).

The dialogue in Laches provided a grounding on how to understand courage as it relates to

By contrast, the brave man faces and fears:

 the right things (e.g., wounds or death)

Family/loved one/s: Stranger:

1. Differentiate knowing and actually executing a good moral decision.

It is expected that by the end of Part 3B,

2. FeeIing as Instinctive and Trained Response to Moral

3. Moral Decision-Making: Seven Steps

1. What were your responses to moral dilemmas?

2. Differentiate responses based on reason and those based on feelings.

It is expected that by the end of Part 3B,

INDIVIDUAL ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURAL

ARTIFACTS & CREATION VALUES BASIC ASSUMPTION

Taken for Granted, Invisible,

MATERIAL CULTURE FORMAL CULTURE

2. The Role of Moral Behavior in Creating a