UTS Prelim To Midterm

2 [UNDERSTANDING THE SELF]
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction of Understanding the Self
LESSON 1 Social, Environment, and other Life Factors
Know thyself.
-Socrates
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the chapter, the students are expected to:
➢ determine the different factors that contribute to one’s being;

➢ evaluate the impact of these factors through self-appraisal; and
➢ synthesize the influence of the factors of the self through a group assessment.
AN OVERVIEW OF SELF/IDENTITY
a. Nature vs. Nurture
Nature – factor influencing the development of self in by genetic inheritance and other biological factors.
Nurture - external factors influencing self- development such as life experiences and learning.
b. Identity vs Self
Identity – it distinguishes or compares one from another.
Self – refers to the total characteristics or qualities of a person both known and unknown to others but known to
oneself.
A comprehensive definition that underscores the distinctions and overlap between self and identity was given by
Oyserman, Elmore, and Smith (2019):
Identities are traits and characteristics, social relations, roles, and social group memberships that define
who one is. Identities can be focused on the past – what used to be true of one, the present – what is true of
now, or the future – the person one expects or wishes to become, the person one feels obligated to try to become,
or the person one fears one may become; together, identities make up one’s self-concept variously described
as what comes to mind when one thinks of oneself.
c. Dimensionalities of the Self/Identity
Social factor – refers to the influences of significant people in one’s life which primarily starts with the family.
Personality – the individual patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving.
Environmental factor – it includes the physical and communal elements present in everyday surroundings, and
are invariably dealt with by individuals in a specific geographic region or area.
Hereditary factor – heredity is a biological process by which certain traits and characteristics are passed from
one generation to another.
Person-volition factor – it refers to the inclination of a person to form and construct a specific identity that will set
him apart from others. Such factor emanates from within the mentality of an individual, brought about by the
aggregated social-life experiences.
Instructor: LADYLEE T. WASIT (BLOCK: A, B, & C)

Messenger Account: Ladylee Wasit
LESSON 2 What Philosophy Says about the Self
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the chapter, the students are expected to:
➢ discuss the different philosophical standpoints about the self;

➢ explain how philosophical models have transformed from classical to contemporary times;
➢ synthesize and evaluate the different perspectives of self; and
➢ analyze the relevance of various philosophical standpoints to your sense of self.
PHILOSOPHY OF THE SELF

- Philosophy is often called the mother of all disciplines simply because all fields of study began as
philosophical discourses.
- SELF is defines as “a unified being, essentially connected to consciousness, awareness, and agency (or,
at least, with the faculty of rational choice).”
Three Great “Golden Age” Greek Philosophers:
1. Socrates - “Know thyself” is a guiding principle by him that he imparted to his students. He believed that
the real self is not the physical body, but rather the psyche (or soul). He further posited that the
appearance of the body is inferior to its functions.
2. Plato – he suggested that the self is fundamentally an intellectual entity whose nature exists independent
from the physical world. He then bifurcated the truth or reality into two: the ontos (ideal), the ultimate
reality which tends to be permanent and spiritual, and the phenomena which refers to the manifestation
of the ideal. He emphasized the separation of the ideal and phenomenal existence or being.
3. Aristotle – he called the ideal as essence and the phenomena as matter and emphasized that the two
co-exist and are co-dependent; the essence provides meaning and purpose to the matter, and the matter
provides substance and solidity to essence.
Philosophy of Self defined in two distinct lens:

Empiricism – there is no such thing as innate knowledge; instead, knowledge is derived from experience –
either perceived with the five senses or processed with the brain.
Rationalism – there is innate knowledge; however there are different sources of innate knowledge. It explains
self from the standpoint of what is ideal and true, and rooted in what is felt by the sense or body.
Rationalism Empiricism
The primary and most superior source of knowledge The only source of genuine knowledge about the
about reality is reason. world is sense experience.
Sense experience is an unreliable and inadequate Reason is an unreliable and inadequate route to
route to knowledge. knowledge unless it is grounded in the solid bedrock
of sense experience.
The fundamental truths about the world can be There is no such thing as innate knowledge
known a priori: either innate or self-evident to our because knowledge is derived from experience. The
minds. mind before experience is a tabula rasa, a blank
slate.
Summarized Philosophical Standpoints:

Philosopher Orientation Philosophy Description
Classical Antiquity
Socrates Idealism Socratic • Knowledge is the personification of
Philosophy good while ignorance is that of evil.
• Self-knowledge is the ultimate virtue.
As the ultimate virtue, it will lead to
ultimate happiness.
Philosopher Orientation Philosophy Description

Plato Idealism Dualism and • Moral virtue is rooted in the intellect
Idealism and leads to happiness.
• Wisdom and knowledge lead to virtue
which will lead to happiness.
Aristotle Empiricist Aristotelian • I deal is found inside the phenomena
Philosophy and the universals inside the
particulars.
• Ideals are ESSENCE and phenomena
is MATTER.
• Matter has no form. Essence has no
mass.
• Matter and essence need each other.
Middle Ages
St. Augustine Platonism Neoplatonism • All knowledge leads to GOD.
• Only the pure in heart can see God.
• Love of God, faith in Him, and
understanding of His Gospel will
ultimately lead to happiness.
Renaissance
Rene Descartes Rationalist Mind-Body • “I think, therefore I am.”
Dualism • The mind and soul can exist without
the body.
• Establishing the distinction of soul from
the body can make people believe in
the afterlife and the soul’s immortality.
John Locke Empiricist Skeptical • All knowledge passes through the
Philosophy senses.
• Separate ideas can be joined in the
mind.
• There is no self, only a bundle of
perceptions.
Immanuel Kant Rationalist/Empiricist Metaphysics of • Reason is the final authority of
the Self morality.
• There is inner self and outer self.
• The inner self includes rational
reasoning and psychological state.
• The outer self includes the body and
physical mind, where representation
occurs.
Modern Times
Gilbert Ryle Empiricist The Concept of • I act therefore, I am.”
Mind • The mind is not the seat of self. It is not
a separate, parallel thing to our
physical body.
• The mind is a category mistake,
brought about by habitual use. The
only way it can affect the other is
through the external world.
Patricia Empiricist Neurophilosophy • A fully matured neuroscience will
Churchland eliminate the need for beliefs since
“they are not real.”
• The physical brain gives us a sense of
self.
Maurice Existentialist Phenomenology • Both empiricism and intellectualism
Merleau-Ponty of Perception are flawed in nature.
Empiricist • “We are our bodies.”

• Our bodily experiences do not detach

the subject/object, mind/body,
rational/irrational.
LESSON 3 WHAT SCIENCE SAYS ABOUT THE SELF
OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
➢ define and explain the different scientific standpoints about the self;
➢ synthesize and evaluate these perspectives of self; and
➢ come up with a comprehensive definition of self according to scientific point of view.
SCIENTIFIC PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF
a. Biological/Physiological Science
- From a biological perspective, scientist and doctors explain how genes from both parents contribute to
the characteristics of their offspring through genetics.
- Neurophylosophy is concern with the association of the brain and the mind. In order to understand the
workings of the human mind, people must first understand the brain, its functions, and wave activity.
- Psychoneuroimmunology describes the shaping of the self as similar to how the human immune
system functions. The human body is made up of nucleotides, the composition of which makes up the
DNA. In the context of the immune system, the human bodies “reject” harmful foreign matter and builds
up on the existing molecules, leading to a healthy bodily system. However, at times, foreign matter that
enters one’s system can be helpful to body maintenance and thus becomes a permanent fixture within
the body.
b. Social Sciences
- It is concern with human functioning in the context of society and social institutions.
- Psychology, defined as the study of human behavior, sees the self as a theoretical construct
o Self-awareness describes the consciousness of individuals about their strengths, weaknesses,
potentials, as well as the underlying factors that contribute to such aspects of the self.
o Self-concept is a description of how one looks like, sounds like, and behaves like. It is an implicit
personality theory that one holds towards oneself.
o Psychoanalysis – according to psychoanalysts, our behaviour is triggered largely by powerful
forces within our personalities of which we are not aware. These hidden forces, shaped by
childhood experiences, play an important role in energizing and directing our everyday behaviour.
a. Structure of mind – by Sigmund Freud
Conscious – the first level of awareness. It consists of thoughts, feelings, and actions of which people
are aware. Example is drinking water because you feel thirsty.
Preconscious – the second level of awareness. It consists of mental activities of which people can
become aware if they closely attend to them. Example is the memory of your first kiss, you are not

thinking of it all the time but, if it is asked, you are able to remember it, so thus with what you eat
during breakfast.
Unconscious – the third level of awareness. It consists of the mental activities beneath people’s
normal awareness. Most bad or traumatic memories are pushed into this part of our mind. Example
are the memories of being abused during childhood and you cannot remember it.
- To Freud, the mind is like an iceberg. Only a small portion, the conscious level is apparent, while
the vast mass of the unconscious lurks beneath the surface.
b. Structure of Personality: ID, EGO, and SUPEREGO (by Sigmund Freud)
ID – the primitive, unconscious part of the personality that houses the basic drives. It is the source of
a person’s instinctual energy, which is either sexual or aggressive. It works through the pleasure
principle; that is, it tries to maximize immediate gratification through the satisfaction of raw impulses.
It is the only part of the personality present at birth.
SUPEREGO – it serves as the mind’s “police force” in charge of values and morals learned from
parents and from society. It corresponds roughly to our common notion of conscience. It is the inner
voice of “should” and “should nots”. It also includes the ego ideal, an individual’s view of the kind of
person he or she should strive to become.
EGO – the conscious and rational aspect of our minds that resolves the conflict between ID and
SUPEREGO. The ego must choose actions that gratifies the id’s impulse but without violating one’s
moral principles or incurring undesirable consequences; that is according to reality.
Comparison of Freud’s Three Systems of Personality

ID EGO SUPEREGO
Represents biological aspect Represents psychological Represents societal aspect

aspect
Unconscious
Conscious and preconscious Conscious, preconscious, and
unconscious
Pleasure
Reality Morality
Seek pleasure and avoid pain
Adapt to reality; know true and Represent right and wrong
Immediate gratification false
Safety and compromise Perfection
Unconsciousness:
1. Dreams
2. Slips of the tongue and forgetting a familiar name.
3. Posthypnotic suggestions
4. Material derived from free association techniques
5. Material derived from projective techniques
6. The symbolic contents of psychotic symptoms
Consciousness
- A person who is conscious is aware of the environment. However, consciousness also refers to inner
awareness (knowledge of your own thoughts, feelings, and memories).
Cycles of Everyday Consciousness
Morning person – an individual whose peak of alertness is as soon as he is awaken. This person may
experience a period of mental lethargy in the afternoon, this low point of wakefulness is regained when the
individual rest or take a siesta. Alertness increases for a time and fade again in the evening.
Night person – alertness is at its peak in the evening.
1. Daydreaming – mild form of consciousness alteration wherein attention is shifted away from the external
situation to focus internally on memories, expectations, and desires.
2. Fantasy – one form of daydreaming. Imagining unrealistic, unlikely, or impossible experiences.
Circadian Rhythms – bodily patterns that repeat approximately every 24 hours. The normal circadian rhythms
can be disrupted by air travel, mixed shift work, and other disturbances in your sleep-wake habits.
A. The Main Events of Sleep
Rapid eye movements (REM) – about 90 minutes during the sleep at night beneath our closed eyelids. The
indicator of the mental activity we call dreaming.
Sleep paralysis – other voluntary muscles are immobile or paralyzed to keep us from acting out our dreams.
Non-REM (NREM) – the interim periods, without rapid eye movements. Sleep walking and sleep talking occur
during this period.
The Sleep Cycle
Stage 1 – light sleep, you drift in and out of sleep and you are easy to wake up
Stage 2 – still in light sleep but the body is preparing for deep sleep and the heart rate slows down
Stage 3 – deep sleep and extremely slow brain waves, hard to wake up
Stage 4 – deep sleep guiding to 5th stage
Stage 5 – REM sleep
REM rebound – spending much more time in REM sleep than usual because of its deprived substantial part
from the other night
Function of Sleep – to conserve and restore energy and to help the brain flush out the day’s accumulation of
unwanted and useless information
Function of Dreams – to guard sleep (by disguising disruptive thoughts with symbols) and to serve as source
of wish fulfilment
➢ Freud believed that interpreting dreams can help people to understand themselves better, and so dream
analysis has become a central feature of psychoanalytic therapy.
➢ According to him, dreams operate on two levels of meaning:
a. Manifest content – refers to the dream’s superficial meaning: the story line of the dream. This
is just the disguise for the latent content.
b. Latent content – the dream’s real, but hidden meaning.
o Behaviorism maintains the study of behavior should be made from an observable and
measurable perspective. It largely attributes behavior to environment conditioning
• Operant conditioning describes learning in which a voluntary response is

strengthened or weakened, depending on its positive or negative consequences.
The term “operant” means that the organism operates on its environment to
produce some desirable result.
o Social Cognitive Theory considers behavior as a function of the environment and internal
attributes.
• Observational learning which they define as learning through observing the
behavior of another person called a model. By observing and imitating models we
learn all kinds of social behaviors. According to Bandura, observational learning
takes place in four steps:
1. Paying attention and perceiving the most critical features of another
person’s behavior;
2. Remembering the behavior;
3. Reproducing the action; and
4. Being motivated to learn and carry out the behavior.
However, not all behaviors that we witness is learned or carried out. One crucial factor that determines whether
we later imitate a model is the consequences of the model’s behavior.

THREE KINDS OF ANXIETY

1. Reality – Fear of danger from external world.
2. Neurotic Anxiety - the fear that the instincts will get out of hand and cause one to do something for
which one will be punished.
3. Moral Anxiety – the fear of one’s own conscience.
EGO-DEFENSE MECHANISMS
– These are unconscious strategies that people use to reduce anxiety by concealing the source from themselves
and others. It prevents the ego from being overwhelmed.
1. REGRESSION – people behave as if they were at an earlier stage of development. (example: thumb
sucking)
2. DENIAL – the person simply refuses to accept or acknowledge an anxiety-producing piece of information.
(Example: a man whose wife died in an accident last month, while on a business trip, thinks that his wife
is still on business trip that’s why she is not at home.)
3. REACTION-FORMATION – over compensation or reversal formation. Doing the opposite of what you
truly desire. (Example: A man who is attracted to his step-mother, will either show too much care/love to
all step-mothers or he will express hatred to all step-mothers.)
4. PROJECTION – unconsciously making another person or circumstances responsible for one’s
unacceptable thought or actions. (Example: A man who is having an affair with other woman keeps on
blaming his wife or girlfriend that she is cheating on him.)
5. DISPLACEMENT – a transfer into another situation of an emotion in a previous situation where in
expression would not have been socially acceptable. (An employee who was reprimanded by his/her
boss during work time went home and released his/her anger by kicking their dog and shouting to his/her
family.)
6. RATIONALIZATION – attributing acceptable motive to thoughts, feelings, or behaviors, which really have
unrecognized motives. (A man who physically abuses his wife justifies his behaviour by saying that his
wife is irresponsible and deserves the beating.)
7. SUBLIMATION – the substitution of unacceptable instinctual drives into socially acceptable expressions.
(A man/woman who feels a great sexual arousal would choose to go out for a walk or jog than to
masturbate and indulge his/her sexual thoughts.)
8. REPRESSION – an involuntary, automatic banishment of unacceptable ideas and impulses into the
unconscious. (A woman cannot remember that she was raped during her childhood but, there are time
when she dreams about a girl being raped.)
9. IDENTIFICATION – the unconscious, wishful adoption (internalization) of the personality/character, or
identity of another individual, generally possessing attributes which the subject envies or admires. (a child
developing the behaviour of his/her parents)
10. COMPENSATION – conscious or conscious attempt to balance a real or imagined deficiency in one area
by developing other personal qualities to hide weakness. (a student who has poor academic grades
excels in extra-curricular activities)
11. CONVERSION – unconscious transferring of an emotional problem into a physical symptoms or outlet.
(a students who is afraid or very nervous to present in front of his/her classmates experiences a feeling
of discomfort/pain in his/her stomach.)
12. INTELLECTUALIZATION – the overuse of intellectual concepts and words to avoid effective experience
or expression of feelings. (after their divorce, the woman focused on her career and she even accepted
more responsibilities)
13. FIXATION - the arrest of maturation at an earlier level of psychosexual development. (a child who is not
satisfied with his/her oral needs may develop a smoking and drinking habit)
14. SUBSTITUTION – replacement of unattainable therapy or unacceptable activity into one which is
attainable and acceptable therapy assuring possibility of success. (a student who dreams to join the NBA
became a basketball coach in school.)
15. DISSOCIATION – the unconscious separation of painful feelings and emotions from unacceptable idea,
situation or object. (a man who is unhappy with his career is often caught by his superior daydreaming
during working hours)
16. FANTASY – use of imagination or daydreaming.(Imagining how will you spend your money won by lottery
to avoid thinking about your financial problems)

o Humanistic perspective draws its assumptions from the observed criticisms of

psychoanalysis and behaviorism. It believes that every individual has the ability to reach
self-actualization and transcendence, and each person is inherently good or possesses
something that is good.
According to Maslow’s theory, a long-unfulfilled “deficiency” need, such as a need for love or esteem, can
produce maladjustment, while freedom from such needs allows the person to pursue interests that promote
growth and fulfilment of one’s potential.
Hierarchy of Needs by Maslow
SELF
ACTUALIZATION
NEEDS
AESTHETIC NEEDS
COGNITIVE NEEDS
ESTEEM NEEDS
BELONGINGNESS NEEDS
SAFETY NEEDS
PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS
1. Physiological needs – food, water, sleep, and sex

2. Safety and Security needs – shelter, money, work, clothes
3. Love and belongingness needs– love, acceptance, affection from the people around
4. Self-esteem needs- appraisal, affirmations, trust, self-confidence
5. Cognitive needs – knowledge
6. Aesthetic needs – peace, beauty, luxury
7. Self-actualization needs – actualization, self-understanding, connection to supreme being (God)
The higher needs in the hierarchy only come into focus when the lower needs in the pyramid are satisfied.
Once an individual has moved upwards to the next level, needs in the lower level will no longer be prioritized.
If a lower set of needs is not being met, the individual temporarily reprioritize his/her needs by focusing on
the unfulfilled needs, but does not permanently regress to the lower needs.
o Sociology is the study of the collective behavior of people within society and focuses on
social problems encountered by individuals. It does not see a person on his or her own,
but rather, the impact of social institutions and relationships within society on one’s
thoughts, feelings, and behavior. It provides tools for understanding the human experience
and society. Specific domains of study within sociology includes family, crime, religion,
poverty, education, and the like.

THE SELF AS A PRODUCT OF MODERN SOCIETY AMONG OTHERS

With modernization, the self becomes a “delocalized” self which is free to seek its own identity; defining
religion, theological tradition; free customary constraints hence, deviating from the traditional way of life. Stability
of one’s self-identity is no longer based on pre-given traditional broad definition of self.
Clifford Geertz (1973) believes that the struggle for one’s individuality is only possible in modern society
where lingo-theological traditions are gradually replaced by rational and scientific calculations; and the intimate
personal affiliations are replaced by exceedingly impersonal associations brought about by urbanized way of life.
Modernization or the destruction of the traditional way of life “delocalizes” the self. This poses certain problem
as:
➢ The newfound freedom threatens the very authenticity of the self (e.g. love)
➢ Alienation (Marx) – human beings haunted by the very images they have created
➢ Objectification of the body (e.g. medical practice)
➢ Dehumanization of the self
POST-MODERN VIEW OF THE SELF
Self is a narrative, a text written and rewritten. Self in the post modernity is complicated by the electronic
mediated virtual interaction of cyber self, such as change in appearance. The self is digitalized. It is seen in
websites or social media – Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, etc.
➢ Information technology dislocates the self thus, self is “digitalized” in cyberspace.

➢ Global migration produces multicultural identities
➢ Post-modern selves are “pluralized” selves.
THE LOOKING-GLASS SELF: OUR SENSE OF SELF IS AFFECTED BY OTHER’S VIEWS OF US
Self-Image
1. We imagine how others see us.
2. We imagine how others must evaluate us base on what we observe of us.
3. We develop feelings about ourselves based on our impressions of their evaluations and their
observations.
We are not being influenced by the opinion of others but instead we are being influenced by what we imagine
the opinions of other people to be.
If we are labeled and evaluated by others, then self-labeling may occur, which happens when we adopt
others’ labels explicitly into our self-concept. The effects of this self-labeling on our self-esteem appear to depend
very much on the nature of the labels. Labels used in relation to diagnosis of psychological disorders can be
detrimental to people who then internalize them. Those who self-label may come to experience internalized
prejudice, which occurs when individuals turn prejudice directed forward them by others onto themselves.
Internalized prejudice has been found to predict more negative self-concept and poorer psychological
adjustments in members of various groups, including sexual minorities and racial minorities (Szymanski & Obiri,
2011).

o Anthropology is the study of human beings and their ancestors through time and space
and in relation to physical character, environmental and social relations, and culture. It
focuses on the evolution of individuals and their societies, as well as specific cultural tools
embedded within generations.
ENCULTURATION
This refers to the transmission of culture from one generation to another.
COMPONENTS OF CULTURE
1. MATERIAL CULTURE
Material culture consists of human technology, all the things that people make and use. This is the
physical manifestation of culture itself. Material culture changes overtime.
Examples:
➢ Goods we buy
➢ Products we use
➢ Everything we see around us
2. NON-MATERIAL CULTURE
This refers to the intangible human beliefs, values, norms, and symbols. These non-material culture helps
shape our perspective of the society, of ourselves, and even of the material world. Non-material culture may or
may not change depending on the influence of outside factors in the society, and the changes that societal values
go through.
Example: Same sex marriage
THE SELF EMBEDDED IN CULTURE
Developmental psychologist Catherine Raeff (2010), believed that culture can influence how we view
relationships, personality traits, achievements, and expressing emotions.
1. Relationships. Culture influences how we enter into and maintain relationships.

2. Personality. Culture influences whether and how we value traits like self-esteem, humility, politeness,
assertiveness as well as how we perceive hardship or how we feel about relying on others.
3. Achievement. Culture influences how we define success and whether we value certain types of individual
and group achievements.
4. Expressing emotions. Culture influences what will affect us emotionally, as well as how we express
ourself, such as showing our feelings in public or keeping it private.
THE SELF IN THE WESTERN AND ORIENTAL THOUGHT
INDIVIDUALISTIC VS. COLLECTIVIST
It is important to emphasize that self-construction is a form of cultural activity. in order to understand how
these societies, differ in their attempt to understand the self, we will look first in the concept of individualism and
collectivism. As Traindis (2011) explained, this individualism-collectivism syndrome could be the most
noteworthy difference among cultures.
The Western mindset is that of individualism while Easterners or Orientals are known as to be more
collectivists.
In the individualistic societies, the self is a separate entity in the community who decides based on his
own logic, sans the influence of the communal group to his decisions. The self here concentrates on self-
actualization not minding the expectations of the social group where the self is a part of it.
CARL ROGER’S THEORY ON SELF-CONCEPT
According to Carl Rogers, the self or our self-concepts is an organized, consistent set of perceptions of
beliefs about oneself. These perceptions and beliefs that comprise our self-concept are called self-schemas.
Self-schemas are formed by numerous factors that we may be aware or unaware of, some of which are past
experience, personality traits, abilities, physical features, values, goals, social roles, or observations and
feedbacks from others.
He also asserted that we have two selves: (1) ideal and (2) real self. Ideal self is the self that we want to
be, the idealized version of ourselves and how we should become. The real self is who we actually are, how I
see ourselves, and it is also our actual self.
UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD AND CONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARDS
Unconditional Positive Regard

Parents, significant others accept and loves the person for what he or she is. Positive regard is not
withdrawn if the person does something wrong or makes mistakes.
The consequences of unconditional positive regard are that the person feels free to try things out and
make mistakes, even though this may lead to getting worse at times.

Conditional Positive Regard
Positive regard, praise and approval depend upon the child, for example, behaving in ways that the
parents think correct.
Hence, the child is not loved for the person he or she is, but on condition that he or she behaves only in
ways approved by the parents.
Signs of Healthy Self-esteem Signs of Low Self-esteem

Psychological resilience defensiveness
High motivation Highly sensitive to criticism
Openness to criticism Mistrust in self
Openness to challenges Victim mentality
Openness to learning Inability to set boundaries
Accepting incompetence Highly dependent on others
Peaceful conflict resolution Constant negative thinking about yourself and life
Healthy self- love Avoiding challenges
Enhanced mental health Trying to be perfect
Pro social behavior Blaming yourself
Whether we feel it or not, we have to understand and accept that we are very capable to help ourselves
and attain the ideal self that we intend to become. Ideal does not always have to mean perfect. Life may be
imperfect but we can work with that and use it to our advantage. We need to decide and choose to stop
comparing ourselves with other people especially to those we see on social media.
We need to continue investing and valuing ourselves by learning something relevant every day.
We have the ability to improve ourselves. No matter what happened in the past, no matter what is
happening now, we can do something, no matter how little, to contribute to the future we hope to have. It might
not turn out exactly the way we planned it to be but it will be a great and awesome. Just hang in there. Continue
persevering and keeping the faith.
o Political Science, is concerned with the participation of individuals in establishing a

government and making political choices. It is not particular about political affiliations but
rather, the factors involved in how one arrives at his or her political choices and behavior.
In studying the self, one’s participation in government, ideologies, and advocacies are
seen as significant contributors to his or her selfhood.
o Economics describes and analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of

goods and services. The manufacture and consumption of goods, the state of finances
and purchasing power, and their equitable distribution to society shape the self. Economic
activities affect people’s value systems and sense of self.

CHAPTER II
UNFOLDING THE BIOLOGICAL SELF
Lesson 1 THE PHYSICAL SELF

➢ discuss the concepts of heredity and maturation;

➢ identify biological and environmental factors that impact the physical self; and
➢ analyze and evaluate issues associated with physical well-being.
THE BIOLOGICAL BLUEPRINT

Heredity is defined as the transmission of traits from parents to offspring. The traits are made up of specific
information embedded within one’s gene, the basic unit of heredity.
The manifestation of particular traits can be attributed to the concepts of:
Genotype – refers to the specific information embedded within one’s genes; not all genotypes translate to an
observed physical traits. It can be determined through blood testing.
Phenotype – is the physical expression of a particular trait. It can be directly observed
Achieving Physical Well-being
1. Healthy eating
2. Embracing a healthy lifestyle
3. Maintaining proper hygiene
4. Being confident
Body Image and Beauty
Body image refers to the person’s perception of the level of attractiveness of his/her body or it can be
somebody’s own perception of his or he own body looks. It may also be our sense of how people view or bodies.
In this case, body image can be seen as both internal (personal) and external (social). One’s perception
of his or her body elicits either pleasing/satisfying or unpleasing/unsatisfying feelings. Body image lies at the
heart of adolescence and it is the mental representation of one’s own body, which is a very important aspect of
identity.
Along with the body image is the concept of beauty. Beauty is of two types:
Inner beauty which refers to the inner qualities of the person and the
External beauty which refers to the physical characteristics of the person. External beauty focuses on the
physical features of the body commonly defines as “a combination of qualities, which includes shape, color, or
form that pleases the aesthetic sense, especially the sight.
What Did Psychology Discover about Beauty?
Research found that a person who is perceived as attractive makes more money than a person of below-
average looks. In politics, voters who are not actively engaged in social and political issues choose candidates
based on “looks” 90% of the time.
These study results can be attributed to a cognitive bias called the “halo effect.” A cognitive bias is an
error in reasoning, evaluating, remembering, or any other mental process that is often a result of holding on to
one’s preferences and beliefs regardless of the contrary information. The halo effect (also known as the physical
attractiveness stereotype and the “what is beautiful is good” principle) refers to the tendency of people to rate
attractive individuals more favorably for their personality traits or characteristics as compared to those who are
less attractive.
Cultural Standards of Beauty
Defining beauty can be a very daunting task. As culture decides the norms of society, its concept of what
is beautiful is similarly invoked from a cultural perspective. Different cultures have different standards of beauty.
1. Beauty means being fat – 19th century in Africa

2. The Long Neck People - For the Pa Dong tribe, who live along the Thai/Burmese border.
3. Scarification and Lip Plate - Karo girls in southern Ethiopia.
4. Lip Plate - The Mursi women are famous for their wooden lip plates
5. Tooth Filling - Balinese
6. Small feet - In China
Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD)
Those who are suffering from BDD are so obsessed about their appearance, thus think about their flaws,
real or not, incessantly and uncontrollably. Those who are diagnosed with this disorder are very much
preoccupied by a perceived by a physical flaw that is either absent or so trivial that only the one suffering from it
sees it as a problem, being so much distressed about it, that daily routines are affected (Wilhelm, 2006).
Eating Disorders
➢ Anorexia Nervosa. This is a serious mental illness where people are of low weight due to limiting their
energy take as well as restricting the amount of food eaten, they may also do lots of exercise to get rid
of food eaten.
➢ Bulimia Nervosa. An eating disorder in which a large quantity of food is eaten in a short period of time
often followed by feelings of guilt or shame.
➢ Binge Eating Disorder. A serious eating disorder in which you frequently consume unusually large
amount of food and feel unable to stop eating.
Body Shaming. This is the act of criticizing yourself or others because some aspect of physical appearance has
resulted in the loss of self-confidence of those who have been thin-shamed or fat-shamed.
Body Image Disturbance (BID). This is the attitudinal component which refers to how we think and feel about
the size/shape of our body, which if not correctly processed, will result to self-dissatisfaction.
The Filtered Self

People post their physically appealing self and more than not, they use filter application. Unfiltered photos
were disregarded.
Celebrating Beauty in Diversity
➢ Embracing our physical selves entails affirming each other regardless of our skin color, stature, and body
mass index.
➢ We should celebrate the authentic us.
➢ Being positive about how we look can definitely work miracles. We are deemed as the masterpiece of
the Creator of the universe, carefully, precisely, and worthily created.
➢ The significance of self-acceptance is necessary in embracing our physical selves because this the only
way we can live in peace and at peace with ourselves.
Body and Fashion
➢ The media, advertisements, and society are so powerful that they can make girls stop eating so they can
look like a model, or make boys go to gym to lift weights so they can be as attractive as Hollywood actors.
➢ However, the meaning of beauty in terms of the body is quite relative, and it changes over time. During
the Renaissance, beautiful women are larger. In Arab culture, girls who are too thin are not sought out
by men for marriage.

Lesson 2 THE SEXUAL SELF

➢ discuss and elaborate concepts associated with the sexual self, including sex and gender;
➢ identify factors that contribute to one’s sexual development; and
➢ analyze and evaluate issues associated with physical well-being.
Development of Secondary Sex Characteristics
Puberty marks the start of sexual development in an individual. Physical changes start and as an
individual continues to adolescence, these changes are highlighted as sex hormones, undergoing physical
changes, and producing feelings that are sexual in nature. Since sex is usually a taboo subject, most adolescents
are confused with these feelings: how to handle them, who to ask about these sexual feeling and what is
considered normal and inappropriate sexual responses. The best way to understand these is to learn about
human sexuality to get to know one’s own body and responses and establish his/her sexual self.
PUBERTY SPURTS IN WOMEN PUBERTY SPURTS IN MEN

budding breasts growth of scrotum and testes
growth of pubic hair change in voice
growth spurt lengthening of the penis
first menstrual period (menarche) growth of pubic hair
growth of underarm hair growth spurt
change in body shape change in body shape
growth of underarm and facial hair
Sexual Development
Sexual development is a lifelong process that starts at the moment of conception (Tsiaras, 2006). People
are all a little different from each other, so it makes sense that they don’t all develop in the same way. Sexual
development can be predicted as part of the human development but not everyone is expected to have the same
pattern of change or the same pacing.
Psychosexual Stages of Development
According to Sigmund Freud, personality develops throughout a series of stages during childhood. The
sequence explains how experiences and difficulties during a particular childhood stage may predict specific sorts
of idiosyncrasies in adult personality.
Oral stage – in this stage the baby’s mouth is the focal point of pleasure. During this stage, the child will suck,
mouth, and bite anything that will fit into their mouths. This suggests that is the primary site of a kind of sexual
pleasure. If infants were either overly indulged or frustrated in their search for oral gratification, they might
become fixated at this stage. Fixation means that an adult shows personality traits characteristic of an earlier
stage development due to unresolved conflict during the period.
Anal stage – the emphasis is toilet training. Anal region is the major source of pleasure. The child gets the
pleasure from retention and expulsion of feces. If fixation occurs, the adults might show unusual rigidity,
orderliness, punctuality – or extreme disorderliness or sloppiness.
Phallic stage – the point of interest is the genitals and the pleasure derived from fondling them. The children
focus their attention to the genitals, the differences between male and female anatomy become more salient.
During this stage, children may experience the following:
❖ Oedipus complex – male child begins to develop sexual interest to the mother, starts to see his father as
rival, and harbors wish to kill the father.

❖ Electra complex – girls develop sexual interest to her father and sees her mother as rival.
❖ Castration anxiety – fear of a boy that his father will cut his penis.
❖ Penis envy – girls think that there is missing on their body parts, and that is the penis.
Latency stage – children develop physically, but sexual urges are inactive. Sexual urges, fears, and frustrations
are suppressed; much of the children’s energy is channeled into social or achievement-related activities.
Genital stage – this period extends until death. During this stage, the sexuality, fears, and repressed feelings of
earlier stages are once again exhibited. Over the course of this stage, the adolescent becomes independent and
learns to deal with members of the opposite sex in socially and sexually mature ways. Many unresolved conflicts
and repressed urges affect behavior during this stage.
Erogenous Zones
Being aware of the erogenous zones or sexually stimulating zones for both sexes seem to be interesting
or award when discussed in class. But this is definitely relevant and beneficial not only for sexual excitement but
also for protection against sexual violence.
When the erogenous zones are touched, there is an expected automatic sensation. However, the quality
of the sensation depends on who and how the zones are being touched (Evans, 2015). Below is the table
showing the erogenous zones of males and females:
EROGENOUS ZONES (Haller, 2013)

Men and women ranked the most arousing of each of their body parts on a scale of 1 (lowest) – 10 (highest)
MALES FEMALES
Mouth/Lips (7.30%) Mouth/Lips (7.91%)
Back of the Neck (4. 51%) Back of the Neck (6.20%)
Nipples (4.89%) Nipples (7.35%)
Pubic Hairline (4. 80%) Lower Back (4.35%)
Scrotum (6.50%) Ears (5.06%)
Ears (4.30%) Nape of the Neck (7.71%)
Perineum (4.89%) Breast (7.35%)
Inner Thigh (5.84%) Inner Thigh (6.70%)
Penis (9.00%) Vagina (8.40%)
Clitoris (9.17%)
Note:
Bear in mind though that what feels great for one person does not mean others will like it, too. It depends on how
the brain interprets what is happening with the given part of the body influences a person’s sexual response as well. Even
if a particular part of the body is packed with sensory nerve receptors, stimulation of this part may feel unpleasant if a person
had a negative experience or he/she has a negative idea about that given part of the body.
Erogenous zones are usually discussed in magazines, on the net, and casual conversations mostly in
relation to pleasurable sex by consenting adults. Unfortunately, horrible, sex does not always happen with
consent and it is not always pleasurable, safe and healthy.
Though far from being a pleasant topic, we all need to be aware of the importance of how to take care of
ourselves, protect ourselves, our loved ones, and the young children from the reality that we are still working on
eradicating sexual violence.

Sexual Violence
Sexual violence is defined by WHO (2012) as any sexual act, attempt to obtain a sexual act, unwanted
sexual comments or advance, or acts to traffic, or otherwise directed, against a person’s sexuality using coercion,
by any person regardless of their relationship to the victim, in any setting, including but not limited to home and
work.
Below are the nine (9) forms and contexts of sexual violence happening around the world as listed by
WHO.
➢ Rape (within the marriage and dating relationships, by strangers or during armed conflict
➢ Sexual abuse (molestation of children)
➢ Forced abortion
➢ Unwanted sexual advances or sexual harassment including demanding sex in return for favors
➢ Forced marriage of cohabitation including the marriage of children
➢ Violence acts against the sexual integrity of women: female genital mutilation and obligatory inspections
for virginity
➢ Sexual abuse of physically disabled people
➢ Denial of the right to use contraception or to adopt other measures to protect against sexually transmitted
diseases
➢ Forced prostitution and trafficking of people for the purpose of sexual exploitation
Diversity of Sexual Orientation
We will always have our own personal stand, belief, and preferences and it is just logical to expect others
to have their own. Being able to respect diversity, can help in effective, ethical, rational, and professional
communication.
Sexual Orientation refers to our social preferences towards males, females or both. Most of us already
have awareness of the existence of diverse sexual behaviors due to a person’s sexual preference. We may not
be able to fully understand but we have to give respect.
The following are the types of sexual orientations:
❖ Homosexual (gay/lesbian) – sexually attracted to members of the same sex
❖ Bisexual – sexually attracted to people of both sexes
❖ Heterosexual (straight) – sexually attracted to members of the same sex
❖ Pansexual/Omnisexual – can be sexually attracted to any sex or gender identity
❖ Asexual – not sexually attracted to any sex or gender
Gender Identity is one’s concept of being male, female or both, or neither and is entirely determined by
socialization, not biological factors (Kin, 2014).
The following are the types of gender identities:
❖ LGBTQ+
L stands for lesbian. These are females who are exclusively attracted to women.
G stands for gay. This can refer to males who are exclusively attracted to any other males.
B stands for bisexual or someone who is sexually/romantically attracted to both men and women.
T or Trans/Transgender is an umbrella term for people who do not identify with the gender assigned to
them at birth. Trans woman is an identity label adapted by male to female trans people to signify that
they identify themselves as women. A trans man is an identity label adapted by female to male trans
people to signify that they identify themselves as men.

Q stands for queer. It is a useful term for those who are questioning their identities and are unsure about
using more specific terms, or those who simply do not wish to label themselves and prefer to use a
broader umbrella term.
+ The plus is there to signify that many identities are not explicitly represented by the letters. This includes
but not limited to intersex or people who are born with a mix of male and female biological traits that can
make it hard for doctors to assign them as male or female sex; and asexual or a person who is not
interested in or does not desire sexual activity.
❖ Cisgender – gender identity is consistent with the sex they were assigned at birth
❖ Agender – people who do not identify with any gender
Understanding The Human Sexual Response
Sexual Response Cycle – the sexual response cycle refers to the sequence of physical and emotional
occurrences when the person is participating in a sexually stimulating activity, such as intercourse and
masturbation.
Biological factors such as the presence of androgens, estrogens and progesterone, prime people for sex.
People’s sexual responses follow a regular patter consisting of four phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm and
resolution. Sexual motivation, often referred to as libido, is a person’s overall sexual drive or desire for sexual
activity. This is motivated by biological, psychological, and social factors. In most mammals, sex hormones
control the ability to engage in sexual behaviors. However, sex hormones do not directly regulate the ability to
copulate in humans. Social factors such as work and family also have an impact, as do internal psychological
factors like personality and stress.
The Sexual Response Cycle is a model that describes the physiological responses that take place during
sexual activity.
According to William Masters and Virginia Johnson, the cycle consists of four phases:
1. Excitement - arousal, penis erection, vagina lubrication
➢ Muscle tension increases.

➢ Heart rate quickens and breathing is accelerated.
➢ Nipples become hardened or erect.
➢ Blood flow to the genitals increases, resulting in swelling of the woman’s clitoris and labia - minora and erection of
the man’s penis.
➢ Vaginal lubrication begins.
➢ The man’s testicles swell, his scrotum tightens, and he begins secreting a lubricating liquid.
2. Plateau – continuation and heightening of the arousal
➢ The changes begun in phase 1 are intensified.

➢ Breathing, heart rate and blood pressure continue to increase.
➢ Muscle spasm may begin in the feet, face and hands.
➢ Tension in the muscles increases.
3. Orgasm – peak or intense pleasure
➢ This phase is the climax of the sexual response cycle. It is the shortest of the phases and generally lasts only few
seconds.
➢ Involuntary muscle contraction begins.
➢ Blood pressure, heart rate and breathing are at their highest rates, with rapid intake of oxygen.
➢ There is a sudden, forceful release of sexual tension.
➢ In men, rhythmic contractions of the muscles at the base of the penis result in the ejaculation of semen.
4. Resolution – body returns to its normal state
➢ During this phase the body slowly returns to its normal functioning level. The swelled and erected body parts return
to their previous size and color. This phase is marked by a general sense of well-being, intimacy is enhanced and
often, fatigue sets in.
➢ With further sexual stimulation, some women can return to the orgasm phase. This allows them to experience
multiple orgasms. Men on the other hand, need recovery time after orgasm. This is called the refractory period.
How long a man needs a refractory period varies among men and his age.
Sex and the Brain. What Parts Are Involved?
The brain is the largest sex organ controlling the biological urges, mental processes as well as the
emotional and physical responses to sex.
Sex refers to the sexual activity, including specifically sexual intercourse.
Roles of the brain in sexual activity:
1. The brain is responsible for translating the nerve impulses sensed by the skin into pleasurable
sensations.
2. Sexual thoughts and fantasies are theorized to lie in the cerebral cortex, the same area used for
thinking and reasoning.
3. Emotions and feelings are believed to originate in the limbic system.
4. The brain releases hormones considered as the physiological origin of sexual desire.
Roles of hormones in sexual activity:
The hypothalamus is the most important part of the brain for sexual functioning. This small are at the
base of the brain has several groups of nerve-cell bodies that receive input from the limbic system. One reason
the hypothalamus is important in sexual activity is its relation to the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland secretes
the hormones produced in the hypothalamus.
1. Oxytocin – it is also known as “love hormone” and believed to be involve in our desire to maintain close
relationships. It is released during intercourse when orgasm is achieved.
2. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) – it is responsible for ovulation in females. Sexual activity was more
frequent during a woman’s fertile time.
3. Luteinizing hormone (LH) – the LH is crucial in the testes in men and ovaries in women. In men, the LH
stimulates the testes to produce testosterone. In males, testosterone appears to be a major contributing factor
to sexual motivation.
4. Vasopressin – this is involved in the male arousal phase. The increase of vasopressin during erectile
response is believed to be directly associated with increased motivation to engage in sexual behavior.
5. Estrogen and Progesterone – they regulate motivation to engage in sexual behavior for females, with
estrogen increasing motivation and progesterone decreasing it.
Three Stages of Romantic Love
1. Lust – this is the stage which is marked by physical attraction. This phase is driven by the sex hormones
testosterone and estrogen in both men and women.
2. Attraction – this phase when a person actually starts to feel the love. At this stage, person begins to crave
for his/her partner’s presence. He/she feels excitement and energetic as he/she fantasize about the things you
could do together as a couple. Scientists think that three main neurotransmitters are involved in this stage.
a. Norepinephrine – responsible for the extra surge of energy and triggers increased heart rate, loss
of appetite, as well as the desire to sleep. Your body is in a more alert state and is ready for action.
b. Dopamine – associated with motivation and goal-directed behavior. It makes you pursue your object
of affection. It creates a sense of novelty, where the person seems exciting, special, or unique that
you want to tell the world about his/her admirable qualities.
c. Serotonin – thought to cause obsessive thinking. Low levels of serotonin are said to be present in
people with obsessive-compulsive behavior (OCD).
4. Attachment – this is a bond helping the couple to take relationship to advanced levels. It instigates
the feeling of bearing children and falling in love with them wholeheartedly.
How to Maintain Attraction and Attachment?
According to Zamosky (2009), couples need to keep trying something new together – food, movie, travel,
etc. and they have to spend more time with each other and feel each other’s warmth through gentle touch,
hugging, holding of hands, etc.
It is more reassuring to know that even neuroscience emphasizes the importance of commitment,
consistency and effort in a relationship to be able to sustain, revive or restore the chemistry of love.
Sexual Health
The factual information about reproduction is necessary so youth will understand how male and female
systems function and how conception and/or STD infection occur. Adolescents often have inadequate
information about their won and or their partner’s body. Teens need this information so they can make informed
decisions about sexual expression and protect their health.
Sexual Intercourse
Sexual intercourse is one of the most common behaviors among humans. Sexual intercourse is a
behavior that may produce sexual pleasure that often culminates in orgasm in males and in females. Sexual
intercourse may also result in pregnancy and/or STDs.
In programs for youth, discussion of sexual intercourse is often limited to the bare mention of male-female
(penile-vaginal) intercourse.
However, youth need accurate health information about sexual intercourse – vaginal, oral, and anal.
Misconceptions on Having Sex
➢ Having sex makes you matured and an adult.

➢ Something is wrong with an older teen (17-19) who is not having sex.
➢ A girl can’t get pregnant is she is menstruating.
➢ A girl can’t get pregnant if it’s her first time.
➢ You are a virgin as long as you don’t have sexual intercourse – oral sex doesn’t count.
➢ Oral sex is not sex.
Premarital Sex
Is sexual activity practiced by people who are unmarried. It can be any sexual relations a person has
prior to marriage. The alternative terms for premarital sex have been suggested, including non-marital sex (which
overlaps with adultery), youthful sex, adolescent sex, and young-adult sex.
A 2014 Pew study on global morality found that premarital sex was considered particularly unacceptable
in predominantly Muslim nations such as Indonesia, Jordan, Pakistan and Egypt, such having over 90%
disapproval, while people in Western European countries were the most accepting, with Spain, Germany and
France expressing less than 10% disproval.
People who have premarital sex are recommended by health professionals to take precautions to protect
themselves against sexually transmitted infections (STIs) such as HIV/AIDS. There is also a risk of an unplanned
pregnancy in heterosexual relationships.
Factors that Encourage Having Premarital Sex
➢ Having poorly educated parents

➢ Unsupportive family relationships
➢ Lack of parental supervision
➢ Friends who are sexually active
➢ Poor school grades/poor academic performance
➢ Poor spiritual exercises (not hearing mass, lack of church involvement)
➢ Engaged in risky leisure activities

Sexual Disorders/ Paraphilic Disorders
Paraphilic disorders are recurrent, intense, sexually arousing fantasies, urges, or behaviors that are
distressing or disabling and that involves inanimate objects, children and nonconsenting adults, or suffering or
humiliation of oneself od the partner with the potential to cause harm.
Paraphilia Focus of Erotic Interest

Abasiophilia People with impaired mobility
Acrotomophilia People with amputations
Agalmatophilia Statues, mannequins and immobility
Apotemnophilia Having an amputation
Biastophilia Rape of an unconsenting person; consensual rape fantasy
Coprophilia feces
Dendrophilia Trees
Emetophilia vomit
Exhibitionism Exposing one’s genital area to others, with or without consent
Faunoiphilia Watching animals having sex
Fetishism Inanimate objects/ non-genital body parts
Formicophilia Being crawled by insects
Frotteurism Rubbing against a non-consenting person
Gerontophilia Elderly people
Hebephilia Teenagers/ early pubescent children
Kleptophilia Stealing
Lactophilia breastmilk
Macrophilia giants
Masochism Suffering, being beaten, bound or otherwise humiliated
Menophilia menstruation
Mucophilia mucus
Mysophilia Dirtiness, soiled or decaying things
Necrophilia corpses
Nymphomania Too much indulgent to sex for women
Orgy Multiple partners in sex
Pedohilia Prepubescent children
Pictophilia Pornography or erotic art, particularly pictures
Sadism Inflicting pain on others
Satyriasis Too much sex for men
Somnophilia Sleeping or unconscious people
Telephone Scatologia Obscene phone calls, particularly to strangers
Teratophilia Deformed or monstrous people
Transvestism Wearing clothes associated with opposite sex
Trichophilia hair
Troilism/Triolism cuckoldism
Voyeurism Watching others while naked or having sex, generally without their
knowledge
Zoophilia animals
Zoosadism Inflicting pain on or seeing animals in pain
Sexual Dysfunction - refers to a problem occurring during any phase of the sexual response cycle that prevents
the individual or couple from experiencing satisfaction from the sexual activity.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases/Infections
These are also known as Venereal Diseases (VD). They are passed through sexual contact or genital-
through vaginal intercourse, oral sex and anal sex. The term STI evolved from “venereal disease’ to “sexually
transmitted disease”, then “sexually transmitted infection” which has a broader range of meaning: that it can be
passed without disease.

How do people get AIDS/HIV?
1. Bodily fluids
2. Intravenous (IV) Drug Abuse
3. Sexual Intercourse
STDs Caused by Bacteria
1. Chancroid - Chancroid is a highly contagious yet curable sexually transmitted disease (STD) caused by
the bacteria Haemophilus ducreyi. Chancroid causes ulcers, usually of the genitals. Swollen, painful
lymph glands, or inguinal buboes in the groin area are often associated with chancroid. Left untreated,
chancroid may facilitate the transmission of HIV.
2. Gonorrhea - Gonorrhea is an infection caused by a sexually transmitted bacterium that infects both
males and females. Gonorrhea most often affects the urethra, rectum or throat.
3. Chlamydia - Chlamydia is a common sexually transmitted disease. It is caused by bacteria called

Chlamydia trachomatis. It can infect both men and women. Women can get chlamydia in the cervix,
rectum, or throat. Men can get chlamydia in the urethra (inside the penis), rectum, or throat.
4. Syphilis - Syphilis is a bacterial infection usually spread by sexual contact. The disease starts as a
painless sore — typically on your genitals, rectum or mouth. Syphilis spreads from person to person via
skin or mucous membrane contact with these sores. After the initial infection, the syphilis bacteria can
remain inactive (dormant) in your body for decades before becoming active again. Early syphilis can be
cured, sometimes with a single shot (injection) of penicillin. Without treatment, syphilis can severely
damage your heart, brain or other organs, and can be life-threatening. Syphilis can also be passed from
mothers to unborn children.
STDs Caused by Viruses
1. Genital Herpes – this STD causes herpetic sores, which are painful blisters that can break open and
ooze fluid.
2. Genital Warts - Genital warts are fleshy growths that develop around the genitals or anus. They result
from one of the most common sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in the United States.
3. Hepatitis B and D, and infrequently, A, C, E (Hepatitis Viruses, types A-E)
4. HIV - HIV is “Human Immunodeficiency Virus”. HIV is the virus that causes AIDS and it is preventable
and manageable but not curable.
5. AIDS – AIDS is “acquired immunodeficiency syndrome”. Since this is a syndrome, there are several
manifestations of the breakdown in body’s immune system and have developed in people who have been
infected with HIV.
6. Molluscum Contagiosum- is an infection caused by a poxvirus (molluscum contagiosum virus). The

result of the infection is usually a benign, mild skin disease characterized by lesions (growths) that may
appear anywhere on the body.
STD Caused by Protozoan
1. Trichomoniasis - (or “trich”) is a very common sexually transmitted disease (STD). It is caused by
infection with a protozoan parasite called Trichomonas vaginalis. Although symptoms of the disease vary,
most people who have the parasite cannot tell they are infected.
STDs Caused by Fungi
1. Jock Itch - Jock itch (tinea cruris) is a fungal infection that causes a red and itchy rash in warm and moist
areas of the body. The rash often affects the groin and inner thighs and may be shaped like a ring. Jock
itch gets its name because it's common in athletes. It's also common in people who sweat a lot or who
are overweight.

2. Yeast infections - A vaginal yeast infection is a fungal infection that causes irritation, discharge and
intense itchiness of the vagina and the vulva — the tissues at the vaginal opening.
Also called vaginal candidiasis, vaginal yeast infection affects up to 3 out of 4 women at some point in
their lifetimes. Many women experience at least two episodes.
A vaginal yeast infection isn't considered a sexually transmitted infection. But, there's an increased risk
of vaginal yeast infection at the time of first regular sexual activity. There's also some evidence that infections
may be linked to mouth to genital contact (oral-genital sex).
STDs Caused by Parasites
1. Pubic Lice or crabs - Pubic lice, commonly called crabs, are tiny insects found in your genital area.
They are a different type of louse from head lice and body lice. Measuring 1/16 inch (1.6 millimeters) or
less, pubic lice received their nickname because their bodies resemble tiny crabs.
2. Scabies - Scabies is an itchy skin condition caused by a tiny burrowing mite called Sarcoptes scabiei.
Intense itching occurs in the area where the mite burrows. The urge to scratch may be especially strong
at night. Scabies is contagious and can spread quickly through close physical contact in a family, child
care group, school class, nursing home or prison. Because scabies is so contagious, doctors often
recommend treatment for entire families or contact groups.
Preventing Sexually Transmitted Infections
1. Keep a monogamous relationship.

2. Practice abstinence.
3. Be committed.
4. Use caution.
5. Undergo regular medical checkup.
It is important that everyone makes responsible decisions with regard to sexuality and sexual behavior.
Responsible sexual behavior entails the following:
1. Respect for one’s body.

2. Maturity in thoughts and deeds.
3. Being guided by one’s personal beliefs and core values.
4. Being future-oriented.
LESSON 3 COGITO ERGO CONSUME:

CONSUMER CULTURE AND THE MATERIAL SELF
Definition of Terms:
1. Material Self—refers to all the physical elements that reflect who the person is which includes his/her
body, possessions and home. The body is the inner cost part of the material self. The family, home and
clothes also form the person’s material self. Luxury and materialism are by-products of the material self.
2. Materialism—it purports that all that is found in the universe is matter which is the substance of nature.
It suggests that material possession is all that matters most. Success, happiness and the essence of
individual existence are gauged by material prosperity which one has gained in lifetime.
3. Consumerism—defined as everything that is connected to the modern society’s idea that to be happier
and more successful, we have to buy, buy, and buy.
4. Diderot Effect—one of the most commonly experienced phenomena of consumption which suggest that
one innocent purchase can unexpectedly spiral into an endless cycle of complementary consumption.
5. Commodity Fetishism—a rather primitive belief that inanimate objects can be imbued with God-like
powers. It also pertains on how goods are given high monetary value with no regard for the labor that
went into its creation.
6. Conscious Consumption—it is about practicing responsible buying habits.

7. ESR (Economic Self-reliance)—an individual’s ability to garner and hold economic resources in excess
of their basic needs.
8. The Calvinist Principle (John Calvin)—a person’s hard work justifies his/her consumption. It is through
the consumption of material goods that people can truly fulfill God's desires.
The Material Self Hierarchy
1. Body
2. Clothing
3. Family
4. House
5. Other Properties
William James has a special fascination with the importance of clothes to people. He claimed that the old
saying “The human person is composed of three parts: soul, body and clothes” – is more than a joke.
I shop Therefore I am: I Have, Therefore, I am?
In the “I shop therefore I am” trend report we are looking into the world of consumer culture. Shopping
has turned into a lifestyle. At what point does the accumulation of material goods become less fulfilling and more
stressful and overwhelming? People are slowly realizing that the power of consumption is stopping us from
finding true and sincere happiness, and that shopping often works as a substitute for something that we are
missing in life. As a primary consumer, the issue is about what we buy and what we choose to invest in.
Consumption and Production
“Consume” is defined as “use up, to spend wastefully, to destroy” (Gusdorf, 1978). The definition shows
that consumption has a negative connotation. There is, however, a positive side to consumption that is often
neglected.
Behind consumption, there is production. Consumers keep companies alive. These companies pay
people whose earning put food on the table. Such is the pattern of consumption. Thus, it cannot be denied that
consumption is important.
Psychological/Sociological Consumption
For many people these days (with the younger generation as the vulnerable group) happiness seems
attached to buying something. Consumption has become an addiction. Many people have forgotten there is
things in life that can bring true and lasting happiness, such as sending time with family and or friend; to have
“me” time; enjoy nature; to read; etc.
Features of Consumer Culture
1. Consumer culture is a culture of consumption.

2. Consumer culture is the culture of market society.
3. Consumer culture is universal and impersonal.
4. Consumer needs are insatiable and unlimited.
How Do I Decide What to Buy: The Buyer Decision Process (Philip Kotler, 1980)
Normally, a myriad of reasons can trigger their first phase, from hunger as Consumer A’s reason to buy food
to Consumer B seeing the advertisement for a luxury bag as stimuli to buy one of his/her own (Need Arousal).
After the need is identified, both consumers will then conduct their own research, may be into what fast food
chain to best order from or what brand of bag is most recommended (Information Search).
From a list of many possible options, they will now trim to only a few, depending on preference. Maybe for
cash-strapped Consumer A, pricey meals are out of the question, so she might settle with budget-friendly
choices. While for Consumer B, name recall takes precedence over durability/longevity, so he might go with a
more expensive bag (Evaluation Behavior). This then brings us to (Purchase Decision).
During this stage, several factors might come into play for a consumer, seemingly with his/her mind set
already, to have a change of heart. In our example, Consumer A, after deciding for a cheaper meal, suddenly

finds out that the fast food of her choice isn’t the cleanest out there, with flies and cockroaches aplenty. Appalled,
she instead waltzed into the rival chain just across the street, despite knowing its relatively pricier menu.
Consumer B, on the other hand, was not accommodated by the salesclerks in the only store around the
area that sells the bag he plans on buying. Out of curiosity he decides to try out one of the thrift shops lining next
block. To his surprise, he stumbled upon the exact same bag being sold for only half the price.
For hungry Consumer A, cleanliness became the deciding factor and not the price, which earlier guided
her choices. Despite shelling out more cash for a meal than what she anticipated, she was still satisfied. As for
Consumer B, he found out that the bag’s zippers are damaged beyond repair. In the end, he was disappointed.
These are Post-Purchased Feelings. Take note: Kotler’s Buyer Decision Process, especially in the latter
stages, is unstable and ever changing, for factors both tangible and otherwise ultimately affirm or alter the final
decision.
The Calvinist Principle
Throughout his life, the Protestant John Calvin has passionately argued against the Catholic doctrine’s
espousal of asceticism. For him, it is through the consumption of material goods that people can truly fulfill God’s
desires.
But while Calvin is firmly behind the belief that consumption and wealth accumulation are divine acts, he
specified that these must only be done in moderation. To avoid the extremes of either complete material
abstinence or excess, one must play it right down the middle. He also added that a person’s hard work justifies
his/her consumption. Thus, the rich are assumed to be the industrious lot whose wealth is willed by God.
Naturally, the same logic applies to the opposite: the poor do not work as hard, so their social status, and eventual
deprivation of the Divine beneficence (e.g. wealth) are believed to be righteously meted out.
Commodity Fetishism
As a cornerstone sway capitalist society have over people’s material selves, at least from Marx’s
viewpoint, is anthropology refers to as fetishism: a rather primitive belief that inanimate objects can be imbued
with God-like powers. In this context, this can pertain to how certain goods are given high monetary value with
no regard for the labor that went into its creation, thus effectively becoming but fetishized commodities stripped
off their human essence (Fegulla, 2005). The danger here is that many people might then view said products as
if they harbor intrinsic value in and of themselves even without human agency.
Take for example the frenzy over the latest model of iPhone causes. People line up for hours outside
apple stores just to get one of their own, not in appreciation of its labor value but to buy into the Brand’s mythology
and the god-like status the company’s late founder Steve Jobs is anchored.
Role of Mass Media towards Material/Economic self
1. Advertising media-media use in advertising is purposely designed to elicit a change in consumer’s action,
belief and perception
2. Entertainment Media—media can shape who we are as both public and private people. The adage you
are what you consume should apply to media as much it does to food.
3. Online media—the internet has added significantly to media’s ability to influence consumers.
Advertising Appeals
1. Fear. If negative incident or behavior occurs, then there will be vulnerability and severity in the damage.
2. Humor. It is effective in getting attention and keeping it. Humor ties together the product’s features,
consumer’s advantages and other positive feelings and values.
3. Sex. The sex appeals go from unconscious innuendo or nudity to overt sensuality and sexuality. It
increases attention regardless of the actor’s gender in the ad or audience’s gender.
4. Music. It helps capture the attention of audience or listeners. It is linked to emotions, memories an
experience.

5. Rationality. It assumes consumers elaborate a progress of rational thought when making purchase
decisions. The goal of the rational appeal is to provide the information needed by the consumer to help
make decision.
6. Emotion. It is based on three-on-three ideas: consumers ignore most ads; rational appeals go unnoticed
and emotional adverts can capture a viewer’s attention and help to develop an attachment between the
consumer and the brand.
7. Scarcity. It urges consumers to buy a particular product because its limitation.
Materialistic Traits
1. Possessiveness – control or ownership of possessions

2. Non-generosity – unwillingness to share
3. Envy – feeling of hatred or dislike at another’s superiority.
Reasons with Materialism
Material possessions provide several effects on the individual whether it is personal, intellectual or
emotional. Varied motivations agitate the individual to pursue more and a mass of money, gadgets, vehicles,
jewelry and the like regardless of their realistic needs. Consumerism is motivated by the following reasons.
1. It is alleged that material possessions provide individuals with a feeling of security as their money and
property will give them tangible assets.
2. It is alleged that wealth gives them a sense of well-being as they alleged that this material wealth will give
them happiness.
3. It is alleged that material wealth boosts their self-esteem and self-confidence as they believe they
possess those assets that not everybody has.
4. It is alleged that cherished wealth provides an individual with more friends and relationships through
greater interaction.
According to Curtis (2017), cash can have serous bearing on one’s belief for completing the way a person
views himself/herself. The following are evidences behind the idea that money truly can change people.
1. Social and Business Value

Heyman and Ariely (2005) surmised that there are two motivations for completing a task given.
The first is social. By recognizing a task’s social value, a person sees it as a worthy investment of time
and a part of his/her social duty an he/she is usually happy to help out. When money is offered as the
motivation, however, people then start thinking less of the social aspect and more about the business
value.
2. Self-sufficiency and Service

Those who are conscious of money typically strive to be more self-sufficient that those for whom
money isn’t a priority. When given a very difficult and even impossible task, with instructions that help
was available, it was the money related group that seemed the most intent on getting the job done alone,
even when it was not possible to finish the task solo. Money-conscious individuals are more self-sufficient
than others, particularly when money is made the focus.
3. Self-view
The amount one earns could have an effect on how he/she view himself/herself and others. The
wealthiest people are those with the deepest sense of class essentialism – the idea that differences
between classes are based upon identity and genetics, rather than circumstance. Poor people tend to
believe that social class was not related to genes, that essentially, anyone can be rich and anyone can
be poor. Rich people were more likely to believe that wealth was part of the genes and identity, that they
were entitled to wealth based upon their personal circumstances and actions.
4. Ethics
Those who perceive themselves to be in a higher class were the most likely to engage in unethical
behavior, particularly when a symbol of wealth was introduced such as cutting off a pedestrian when in a
luxury car for example. Piff, in his study labelled the behavior, “self-interest maximization”, an idea that
suggest those who have the most money or occupy higher classes are more likely to take “what’s in it for
me?” attitude.
5. Addiction
Many addictions begin because a person gets a positive response from a certain type of behavior.
Whether it’s a happy feeling that one gets from shopping or a thrill that comes from gambling, actively
seeking out that behavior again and again for the same outcome can trigger an addiction. This is called
“behavioral addiction”, a compulsive behavior not motivated by dependency on an addictive substance,
but rather by a process that leads to a seemingly positive outcome.
The Correlates of Materialism
Several variables decorrelated with the concept of materialism which were deduced from studies and
surveys concluded to determine if the effects of materialism to self-conceptualization.
1. Materialism and happiness reportedly do not go well together as it was shown that people who value
possessions and material over more significant life goals are said to be less happy and are more prone
to depression.
2. Materialism and self-esteem show an inverted relationship. The desire for much material possessions
manifests low self-esteem. It only proves that the demand for gadgets and techie possessions are signs
that the individual has a low self-esteem
3. Materialism and financial stability show an inverted relationship as well. Spending does not promote
saving and sharing. Shopaholics are proof to this as they cannot control their desire to spend using their
credit cards for objects that they don’t actually need.
4. Materialism and self-concept proved how insecurity motivates people to work so hard for material
possessions as the same wealth becomes their source of security. Hence, the absence of these objects
means a great degree of emptiness and the feeling of deficiency.
According to Gregoire (2017), materialism makes people unhappy for the following reasons.
1. Consumer culture may be harming individual well-being. Young adults born in this period of affluence
are less happy and are subjected to risk of depression and mental disorder as their well-being is not
positively influence by consumerism. Allegedly those who pursue more wealth and greater material
possessions are less satisfied as they experience less positive emotions.
2. Materialistic values are link to type-A behavior. Those who are highly ambitious are highly competitive
and materialistic. A 2008 study published in the Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology supported the
revelations that type-A qualities include the motivation to acquire much wealth and material possessions
and are highly aggressive as well.
3. Money really can’t buy you happiness. Several studies shown that wealthy people are highly
susceptible to depression. There is no direct correlation between overall well-being, happiness and
wealth. What matters is that basic needs are satisfied.
4. Materialism could ruin relationships. In a research published in the Journal of Couple and Marriage
Therapy involving 17000 couples, it was revealed that those partners who are materialistic showed lower
marital quality compared to those who are less materialistic. Materialistic values result to low quality
relationships and disconnectedness. And since this kind of people are les pro-social and emphatic about
others, they are less happy and contented with life as well as with their relationships.

5. Consumerism is fueled by insecurity. Those who are extremely doubtful of their self-worth are highly
insecure and thus have the tendency to be more materialistic.
IT PAYS TO READ
The Roots of Happiness: An Empirical Analysis
Love and Marriage. Romantic relationships can be stressful, but people consistently rate being in love a one of the
most critical ingredients of happiness. Furthermore, although people complain a lot about their marriages, the evidence
indicates that marital status is a key correlate of happiness. Among both and women, married couple are happier than
people who are single or divorced and this relationship holds around the world widely different cultures. Perhaps people
who are happy tend to have better intimate relationships and more stable marriages, while people who are unhappy
have greater difficulty in finding and keeping mates.
Work. Given the way that people often complain about their jobs, we might not expect work to be a key source of
happiness, but it is. Although less critical than love and marriage, job satisfaction is strongly associated with general
happiness. Studies also show that unemployment has strong negative effects on subjective well-being.
Genetics and Personality. The best predictor of individual’s future happiness is their past happiness. Some people
seem destined to be happy and others unhappy, regardless of their triumphs or setbacks. Several liens of evidence
suggest that happiness does not depend on external circumstances – buying a nice house, getting promoted – as much
as on internal factors, such as one’s outlook in life.
It is included therefore that: first, research on happiness demonstrates that the determinants of subjective well-
being are precisely that subjective. Objective realities are not as important as subjective feelings. In other words, your
health, your wealth, your job, and your age are not influential as how you feel about your health, wealth, job, and age.
Second, when it comes to happiness, everything is relative. In other words, you evaluate what you have relative
to what people around you have.
Third, research on happiness has shown that people are surprisingly bad at predicting what will make them
happy. We assume that we know what is best for us and that we can accurately forecast our emotional reactions to
future events, but scores of studies suggest otherwise.
LESSON 4 ME AND MY FAITH: THE SPIRITUAL SELF
Do not be anxious about anything, but in every situation, by prayer and petition, with thanksgiving, present your requests to God. And the peace
of God, which transcends all understanding, will guard your hearts and your minds in Christ Jesus. Philippians 4:6-7.
Spiritual self is our subjective and most intimate self. It is the aspect of self which develops a certain
level of spirituality which is deemed as man’s way seeking as well as expressing the meaning and purpose of
his life. It speaks of the quality of one’s relationships with God, self, others, institutions and God’s entire creation,
marked by respects forgiveness, generous service and prayer.
Why Spirituality is Important?
Sense of meaningless and lack of purpose in life can be significant factors in causing anxiety, depression,
and phobias; however, there is a growing body of evidence indicating that spiritual practices are associated with
better health and well-being.
Many spiritual traditions encourage participation in a community. Spiritual fellowship can be a source of
social support that may provide a sense of belonging, security and community. Strong relationships have been
proven to increase well-being and bolster life expectancy, which is perhaps why one study found a strong
association between church attendance and improved health, mood and well-being.
Contemplative practices can be broadly understood as a method to develop concentration, deepen
understanding and insight, and cultivates awareness and compassion.
Example of Contemplative Practices
Meditation – mental exercise for the purpose of reaching a heightened level of spiritual awareness. It can induce
feelings of calm and clear-headedness as well as improved concentration and attention.

Prayer – a spiritual communion with God (or an object of worship) as in supplication, thanksgiving, adoration or
confession. Prayers may elicit relaxation response, along with feelings of hope, gratitude and compassion – all
of which have a positive effect on overall well-being.
Yoga – a Hindu spiritual and ascetic discipline. In Hindu theistic philosophy, it teaches the suppression of all
mind and body activity so that the self may realize its distinction from the material world and attain liberation. In
Western, yoga is a system of physical posture, breathing techniques, and sometimes meditation to promote
physical and emotional well-being.
Journaling – another practice that can help an individual be aware of his/her inner life and more connected to
his/her experience and to the world around him/her.
What is Religion?
The English noun religion comes from the Latin verb “religio” meaning to tie or to bind.
Rodney Starks defined religion as a pattern of beliefs concerning the ultimate meaning of life, it assumes
the existence of the supernatural.
Oxford University Press defined religion as the belief in and worship of a superhuman controlling power,
especially a personal God or gods.
Characteristics of religion
➢ Belief in a deity or in a power beyond the individual

➢ The use of sacred stories and religious rituals
➢ A doctrine of salvation
➢ A code of conduct
Functions of Religion
1. Religion serves as a means of social control.

2. It exerts a great influence upon personality development.
3. Religion explains events or situations which are beyond the comprehension of man.
4. It gives man comfort, strength and hope in times of crisis and despair.
5. It serves as an instrument of change.
6. It promotes closeness, love, cooperation, friendliness and helpfulness.
7. It alleviates sufferings from great calamities.
8. It provides a hope for a blissful life after death.
Philosophical Views Regarding the Existence of Deity
1. Atheist – believe that no deity exists

2. Theist – believes that deity or deities exists
3. Agnostics – existence of a deity or deities cannot be disproved or proved
Dimensions of Religion
1. Beliefs – these are generalized system of ideas and values that shape how members of a religious group
come to understand the world around them. These beliefs are taught to followers by religious authorities,
such as priests, imams, or shamen, through formal creeds and doctrines, as well as more informal
lessons learned through stories, songs and myths.

2. Rituals – these are the repeated physical gestures or activities, such as prayers and mantras, used to
reinforced religious teachings, elicit spiritual feelings, and connect worshippers with a higher power. It is
a form of communication which signifies commitment to other members of the group.
Classification of Religion
Religious What/Who is Example

Classification Divine
Polytheism Multiple gods Hinduism,
ancient Greeks
and Romans
Monotheism Single god Judaism, Islam,
Christianity
Atheism No deities Atheism
Buddhism
Taoism
Animism Nonhuman Indigenous
beings (animals, nature worship,
plants, natural Shinto
world)
The Major Religions
1. Judaism
2. Christianity The world’s largest religion is
3. Islam Christianity. To date, it has 2.1
4. Hinduism billion followers worldwide.
5. Buddhism
Judaism encompasses the religion, philosophy and culture of the Jewish people. It is characterized by belief in
one transcendent god who has revealed himself to Abraham, Moses and the Hebrew prophets and by a religious
life in accordance with the scriptures and rabbinic traditions. This sacred text is the Torah. It is the oldest of the
Abrahamic religions and the predecessor of Christianity and Islam.
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion base on the life and teaching of Jesus Christ, who serves
as the focal point of the Christian faith. For Christians, the word of God is written in the Bible.
Islam is the faith of Muslims who worship Allah as the dole deity and believes Muhammad is His prophet. The
holy scripture of Islam is the Koran means submission or surrender to the will of Allah. The root word of
Islam is Salam, meaning “peace”. A Muslim is a person who submits himself to the will of Allah.
The word Hindu originates from the Indian Indus River. There are more than one billion followers of
Hinduism in the world today. Hinduism is not a single religion; rather, it is practiced by many different religious
groups from India. Most of Hinduism’s scared texts were written in Sanskrit in ancient times. The oldest ancient
sacred texts of Hinduism are called the Vedas. Veda means “knowledge”. Hinduism is the world’s oldest religion.
The Hindu practitioners are guided by the Vedic scripture and believe in righteousness, the laws of cause
and effect. And the cycle of birth and death. Central to the faith is a belief in reincarnation and one supreme god
called Brahman who has multiple manifestations as either a god or goddess. Gods and goddess can be spirits,
trees, animals and even planets.
Buddhism refers to the teaching of Gautama Buddha. Buddha, experienced enlightenment at the age of 35,
while sitting under the fig tree. It was in the moment that Buddha was said to be awakened to the truth of the
world or the Dharma. Buddha, an ordinary man, taught his followers how to follow the path to Enlightenment.
Thus, Buddhism does not believe in a divine realm or God as supernatural being, but instead follows the wisdom
of their founder.
What is the difference between the soul and the spirit of man?
Etymology
Old English for soul was sawol that meant the spirit and emotional part of person’s existence. Spirit is
directly from Latin spiritus “a breathing, breath, breath of a god” hence, “inspiration, breath of life”.
Biblical Beliefs
Soul refers to the conscious, the moral and thinking part of a person. The soul is immortal; it will go to
hell, purgatory, or heaven after the person dies.
In Western Culture
Soul can be taken to mean someone’s moral consciousness. Spirit may also refer to ghosts or any other
supernatural beings. It is believed that the souls of people who died with unfinished business wander the earth
until their task is fulfilled.
In Eastern Culture
Soul is part of the person that has dharma. In Hinduism. Dharma is one’s obligation with respect to caste,
social custom, civil law, and sacred law. Dharma incurs karma In Hinduism and Buddhism, karma is the sum of
a person’s actions in this and previous states of existence. The fate of one’s future existence depends on one’s
karma.
Religion, Magic and Witchcraft
According to Edward Tyler, magic is no part of religion for there is no spirit involved.
James Frazer also said that magic is the initial step before it becomes a religion which then will evolve
into science.
Emile Durkheim on the other hand, says that religious rituals involve community, whereas magic
gravitates on the need of an individual only.
Magic – a method that somehow interface with the supernatural and by which people can bring a particular
outcome. It differs with the modern concept of magic that is more of an illusion than something involving the
supernatural.
Witchcraft – commonly understood as “kulam” refers to the idea that certain people have an inborn power to
harness spirits or energies for specific purposes. It is an explanation of events based on the belief that certain
individuals possess an innate psychic power capable of causing harm, including sickness and death. It is closely
related to sorcery. Witchcraft is considered evil.
Finding and Creating Meaning. Two Ways of Discovering the Meaning of Life
The search for the meaning of life can be exasperating experience wherein the answer is not readily
given to us. Some people go through life endlessly seeking for the purpose and reason of their existence. Some
people might not even discover that in their lifetime. This has ever been more apparent than in our search for
our spiritual self, especially since we are talking of something that is more often intangible and difficult to prove.
This is the reason why some people would turn towards religion, or magic or even witchcraft.
According to logotherapy, we can discover the meaning of life in two ways:
1. By creating a work or doing a deed.
2. By experiencing something or encountering someone.

LESSON 5 UNFOLDING THE MENTAL SELF
Cognition, Memory and Intelligence

Cognition
- People are born with innate capabilities that empower them to manage themselves in various settings
and situations.
- It is defined as the complex array mental processes involved in remembering, perceiving, thinking, and
how these processes are employed.
Memory
- It is likened to computer system, where the processes of encoding, storing, and retrieving information
happen continuously.
- Memory functions in three levels:
a. Sensory memory is the level that allows information from external environment to be perceived
by an individual through senses, usually in the form of chemical and physical stimuli, often with
focus and intent.
b. Short-term / working memory is where information is temporarily stored, where information is
simultaneously remembered and is in a readily-available state, typically from 10 to 15 seconds up
to 1 minute. It can store up to 5-9 items, after which information is discarded if there is no
conscious and deliberate effort to retain it.
c. Long-term memory, information stored here is often permanent and allows for repeated retrieval.
Intelligence
- It is referred as an individual’s capacity for understanding, learning, planning, and problem solving with
logic, creativity, and self-awareness.
- It is the process of applying knowledge in the proper context whenever the need arises.
- It showcases the presence of individual differences based on intellect.
Howard Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligences
Intelligence Description
Verbal-linguistic Ability to analyze information and produce output that involves oral and written
language.
Logical-mathematical Ability to understand and answer mathematical equations.
Visual-spatial Ability to analyze graphical information
Musical Ability to produce and make meaning of different types of sound
Naturalistic Ability to identify and distinguish aspects of the natural world
Bodily-kinesthetic Ability to use one’s body to create products or solve problems
Interpersonal Ability to be sensitive of other people’s thoughts and emotions
Intrapersonal Ability for self-introspection
Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic theory of intelligence
Intelligence Alternative Name Description

Componential Analytical Includes abstract thinking and logical reasoning; verbal and
mathematical skills
Experiential Creative Divergent thinking and ability to deal with novel situations
Contextual Practical Being ‘street smart,” ability to apply knowledge to the real world and
shape or choose an environment
- According to this theory, intelligence is a function of how these three aspects are interchangeably used
by the individual and up to what levels they are used. Both the theory of multiple intelligences and the
triarchic theory of intelligence explain the nature of intelligence, and the personal and environmental
factors that shape it.

HUMAN EMOTIONS AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Emotions serve as driving force in how one acts and behaves. It also plays a part in making decisions,
embracing certain lifestyles, and relating to others.
- Every individual is expected to have the capacity to manage his or her emotions.
- Emotional is a biological experience and response, feelings is defined as the mental portrayal of what is
going on in your body when you have an emotion and is the by-product of your brain perceiving and
assigning meaning to the emotion.
Emotional Intelligence
- It is an array of non-cognitive abilities, competencies, and skills that influence one’s ability to succeed in
coping with environmental demands and pressures.
- It includes one’s capacity to regulate emotions and be emotionally aware which is helpful on one’s
emotional and intellectual growth.


UTS Prelim To Midterm

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2 [UNDERSTANDING THE SELF]

LESSON 1 Social, Environment, and other Life Factors

At the end of the chapter, the students are expected to:

➢ determine the different factors that contribute to one’s being;

a. Nature vs. Nurture

Identity – it distinguishes or compares one from another.

c. Dimensionalities of the Self/Identity

Personality – the individual patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving.

Instructor: LADYLEE T. WASIT (BLOCK: A, B, & C)

LESSON 2 What Philosophy Says about the Self

At the end of the chapter, the students are expected to:

➢ discuss the different philosophical standpoints about the self;

PHILOSOPHY OF THE SELF

Three Great “Golden Age” Greek Philosophers:

Philosophy of Self defined in two distinct lens:

Summarized Philosophical Standpoints:

Philosopher Orientation Philosophy Description

Instructor: LADYLEE T. WASIT (BLOCK: A, B, & C)

• Our bodily experiences do not detach

LESSON 3 WHAT SCIENCE SAYS ABOUT THE SELF

a. Structure of mind – by Sigmund Freud

Instructor: LADYLEE T. WASIT (BLOCK: A, B, & C)

b. Structure of Personality: ID, EGO, and SUPEREGO (by Sigmund Freud)

Comparison of Freud’s Three Systems of Personality

Represents biological aspect Represents psychological Represents societal aspect

Safety and compromise Perfection

Cycles of Everyday Consciousness

Night person – alertness is at its peak in the evening.

2. Fantasy – one form of daydreaming. Imagining unrealistic, unlikely, or impossible experiences.

A. The Main Events of Sleep

The Sleep Cycle

• Operant conditioning describes learning in which a voluntary response is

Instructor: LADYLEE T. WASIT (BLOCK: A, B, & C)

THREE KINDS OF ANXIETY

Instructor: LADYLEE T. WASIT (BLOCK: A, B, & C)

o Humanistic perspective draws its assumptions from the observed criticisms of

Hierarchy of Needs by Maslow

1. Physiological needs – food, water, sleep, and sex

Instructor: LADYLEE T. WASIT (BLOCK: A, B, & C)

THE SELF AS A PRODUCT OF MODERN SOCIETY AMONG OTHERS

POST-MODERN VIEW OF THE SELF

➢ Information technology dislocates the self thus, self is “digitalized” in cyberspace.

THE LOOKING-GLASS SELF: OUR SENSE OF SELF IS AFFECTED BY OTHER’S VIEWS OF US

Instructor: LADYLEE T. WASIT (BLOCK: A, B, & C)

Example: Same sex marriage

THE SELF EMBEDDED IN CULTURE

1. Relationships. Culture influences how we enter into and maintain relationships.

THE SELF IN THE WESTERN AND ORIENTAL THOUGHT

INDIVIDUALISTIC VS. COLLECTIVIST

CARL ROGER’S THEORY ON SELF-CONCEPT

UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD AND CONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARDS

Unconditional Positive Regard

Instructor: LADYLEE T. WASIT (BLOCK: A, B, & C)

Conditional Positive Regard

Signs of Healthy Self-esteem Signs of Low Self-esteem

o Political Science, is concerned with the participation of individuals in establishing a

o Economics describes and analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of

Instructor: LADYLEE T. WASIT (BLOCK: A, B, & C)

Lesson 1 THE PHYSICAL SELF

➢ discuss the concepts of heredity and maturation;

THE BIOLOGICAL BLUEPRINT

Body Image and Beauty

What Did Psychology Discover about Beauty?