B.E / B.

TECH DEGREE EXAMINATION NOVEMBER / DECEMBER 2019

QP CODE: 90473

ORO551 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

ANSWER KEY

PART – A

1. What is the difference between renewable and non-renewable sources of energy

• Renewable resources are the resources which can be revived, through the natural process, over time.
• Non - renewable resources are the natural resources which are not going to be replenished, shortly.
Renewable resources do not become extinct easily, and so they are sustainable in nature.

Example: Sunlight, water, wind, woods, forest, are the renewable resources. Petrol, coal,
nuclear energy, natural gas are typical examples of non-renewable resources.
Renewable resources can be used again and again. Non-Renewable resources have a limited supply and
once used cannot be regained.

2. Explain what is solar constant

• The solar constant (GSC) is a flux density measuring mean solar electromagnetic radiation (solar
irradiance) per unit area.
• It is measured on a surface perpendicular to the rays, one astronomical unit (AU) from the Sun (roughly
the distance from the Sun to the Earth).

3. What is solar collector? What are the different types of collectors used
A solar thermal collector collects heat by absorbing sunlight. The term "solar collector" commonly refers to a
device for solar hot water heating
Types of collectors
• Flat plate collector
• Concentrating collector

4. State the usage of various types of concentrating collectors

• The principal types of concentrating collectors include: compound parabolic, parabolic trough, fixed
reflector moving receiver, fixed receiver moving reflector, Fresnel lens, and central receiver.
• A PV concentrating module uses optical elements (Fresnel lens) to increase the amount of sunlight
incident onto a PV cell.

5. When the solar distillation and dryers are used

Direct solar dryers expose the substance to be dehydrated to direct sunlight. Historically, food and clothing was
dried in the sun by using lines, or laying the items on rocks or on top of tents.

6. What is solar cell? What are the uses of solar cells?

A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by
the photovoltaic effect, which is a physical and chemical phenomenon.
Solar cells are used to convert light source from the sun into electrical energy. Solar cells are used in power farms
to provide electricity to large areas. Solar cells used in vehicles like cars, buses etc. helps to save non-renewable
fuel.

7. How winds are formed? State various applications of wind energy.

Wind is moving air and is caused by differences in air pressure within our atmosphere. Air under high pressure
moves toward areas of low pressure. The greater the difference in pressure, the faster the air flows.
 Typically it is used in charging of the batteries which is useful to store energy captured by wind turbines. Water
pumping is the key historical application of the wind energy. Main key competitive area of the wind energy is that
remote off grid power applications.

8. How Bio- gas is obtained? What is the composition of Bio-gas?

Biogas is produced by anaerobic digestion with methanogen or anaerobic organisms, which digest material inside
a closed system, or fermentation of biodegradable materials.
Biogas usually contains from 45 to 70 % methane and from 30 to 45 % carbon dioxide. Depending on the
source, biogas can also contain, e.g., nitrogen, hydrogen sulphide, halogenated compounds and organic silicon
compounds.

9. What is OTEC technology? Which Thermodynamic cycle is used in OTEC?

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) is a process that can produce electricity by using the temperature
difference between deep cold ocean water and warm tropical surface waters
Pure ammonia is mostly used as working medium in OTEC [3]. In the OTEC the principle of Rankine cycle is
used.

10. Which of the disadvantages of the current power generator can be overcome by DEC devices? What are
these DEC devices?
The most obvious drawbacks of TPV devices are their low conversion efficiency and low throughput due
to a large amount of unusable radiation. This can be overcome by DEC devices.
Thermoelectric converters, thermionic generators, photovoltaic cells, magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) systems, and
fuel cells.

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PART – B

11. (A) What is beam, diffuse and global radiation? Which instruments are used for the measurement of these
radiation? Explain working of solar pyranometer for measuring Global radiation in detail.

Direct beam radiation comes in a direct line from the sun. Diffuse radiation is scattered out of the direct beam by
molecules, aerosols, and clouds. The sum of the direct beam, diffuse, and ground-reflected radiation arriving at
the surface is called total or global solar radiation.

MEASUREMENT OF SOLAR RADIATION

There are two important types of instruments to measure solar radiation:

Pyrheliometer

Pyrheliometer is used to measure direct beam radiation at normal incidence. There are different types of
pyrheliometers. According to Duffie and Beckman (2013), Abbot silver disc pyrheliometer and Angstrom
compensation pyrheliometer are important primary standard instruments. Eppley normal incidence pyrheliometer
(NIP) is a common instrument used for practical measurements in the US, and Kipp and Zonen actinometer is widely
used in Europe. Both of these instruments are calibrated against the primary standard methods.
Based on their design, the above listed instruments measure the beam radiation coming from the sun and a small
portion of the sky around the sun. Based on the experimental studies involving various pyrheliometer design, the
contribution of the circumsolar sky to the beam is relatively negligible on a sunny day with clear skies. However, a
hazy sky or a uniform thin cloud cover redistributes the radiation so that contribution of the circumsolar sky to the
measurement may become more significant.
 Pyranometer

Pyranometer is used to measure total hemispherical radiation - beam plus diffuse - on a horizontal surface. If shaded,
a pyranometer measures diffuse radiation. Most of solar resource data come from pyranometers. The total irradiance
(W/m2) measured on a horizontal surface by a pyranometer is expressed as follows:
I tot = I beam cosθ+ I diffuse
where θ is the zenith angle (i.e., angle between the incident ray and the normal to the horizontal instrument plane.
Examples of pyranometers are Eppley 180o or Eppley black-and-white pyranometers in the US and Moll-
Gorczynsky pyranometer in Europe. These instruments are usually calibrated against standard pyrheliometers. There
are pyranometers with thermocouple detectors and with photovoltaic detectors. The detectors ideally should be
independent on the wavelength of the solar spectrum and angle of incidence. Pyranometers are also used to measure
solar radiation on inclined surfaces, which is important for estimating input to collectors. Calibration of pyranometers
depends on the inclination angle, so experimental data are needed to interpret the measurements.
Photoelectric sunshine recorder.
The natural solar radiation is notoriously intermittent and varying in intensity. The most potent radiation that creates
the highest potential for concentration and conversion is the bright sunshine, which has a large beam component. The
duration of the bright sunshine at a locale is measured, for example, by a photoelectric sunshine recorder. The device
has two selenium photovoltaic cells, one of which is shaded, and the other is exposed to the available solar radiation.
When there is no beam radiation, the signal output from both cells is similar, while in bright sunshine, signal
difference between the two cells is maximized. This technique can be used to monitor the bright sunshine hours.
More detailed explanation of how these instruments work and what kind of data are obtained from those
measurements is available in the following Duffie and Beckman (2013) book referred below. Please spend some time
acquiring basic knowledge on solar resource data. For everyone who took EME 810 and is more or less familiar with
this topic, this still may be a useful refresher.

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11.(b). What is the need for studying alternative sources of Energy? What are the different types of New and
Renewable Sources of Energy? What are the advantages and limitations of the use of Renewable Sources of
Energy?
Need for alternative sources of energy

These alternatives are intended to address concerns about fossil fuels, such as its high carbon dioxide emissions, an
important factor in global warming. Marine energy, hydroelectric, wind, geothermal and solar power are
all alternative sources of energy.

Types of New and Renewable Sources of Energy

• There are many forms of renewable energy. Most of these renewable energies depend in one way or
another on sunlight.
• Solar.
• Wind Power.
• Hydroelectric energy.
• Biomass is the term for energy from plants.
• Hydrogen and fuel cells.
• Geothermal power.
• Other forms of energy.
 The Advantages of Renewable Energy

• One major advantage with the use of renewable energy is that as it is renewable it is therefore sustainable and so
will never run out.
• Renewable energy facilities generally require less maintenance than traditional generators. Their fuel being
derived from natural and available resources reduces the costs of operation.
• Even more importantly, renewable energy produces little or no waste products such as carbon dioxide or other
chemical pollutants, so has minimal impact on the environment.
• Renewable energy projects can also bring economic benefits to many regional areas, as most projects are located
away from large urban centers and suburbs of the capital cities. These economic benefits may be from the
increased use of local services as well as tourism.

The Disadvantages of Renewable Energy

• It is easy to recognize the environmental advantages of utilizing the alternative and renewable forms of energy but
we must also be aware of the disadvantages.
• One disadvantage with renewable energy is that it is difficult to generate the quantities of electricity that are as
large as those produced by traditional fossil fuel generators. This may mean that we need to reduce the amount of
energy we use or simply build more energy facilities. It also indicates that the best solution to our energy
problems may be to have a balance of many different power sources.
• Another disadvantage of renewable energy sources is the reliability of supply. Renewable energy often relies on
the weather for its source of power. Hydro generators need rain to fill dams to supply flowing water. Wind
turbines need wind to turn the blades, and solar collectors need clear skies and sunshine to collect heat and make
electricity. When these resources are unavailable so is the capacity to make energy from them. This can be
unpredictable and inconsistent. The current cost of renewable energy technology is also far in excess of traditional
fossil fuel generation. This is because it is a new technology and as such has extremely large capital cost.

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12. (a) Explain the working of Flat plate collector used in Solar water Heating system using Thermosyphon
method with the help of a neat sketch. How the orientation and Angle of Tilt of the flat plate collector is
decided? What are the advantages of Flat plate collector system?
Thermosyphon Solar Water Heaters
• Solar energy is silent, free, renewable and clean.
• The energy emitted by sun, the sun's rays, is made of heat and sunlight. Both can be captured, transformed and
used in your home to heat water.
Working Principle
1. A thermosiphon solar water heater is composed of a tank (accumulator) and a solar collector which is connected
to the tank.
2. The transfer between tank and collector is governed by gravity (hot water density is lower than cold water
density). Instead of a pump, the pressure differential between hot and cold is used as propulsion energy. This is
the “thermosiphon principle”. In order to operate, the collector (heat generator) must be located below the tank
(heat consumer).
3. The heat transfer medium is heated inside the solar collector. The hot liquid in the collector below is lighter than
the cold liquid in the tank above the collector. As soon as the lighter hot liquid rises, gravity circulation starts.
4. Inside the cylinder, the heated medium transfers its heat to the stored DHW and then, once cooled, falls back to
the lowest point in the collector circuit
 The optimum tilt angle is found by searching its value for which the useful energy gained by the collector is a
maximum for a particular day or a specified period.
Advantages of the flat-plate collectors:

• Easy to manufacture.
• Low cost.
• Collect both beam and diffuse radiation.
• Permanently fixed (no sophisticated positioning or tracking equipment is required)
• Little maintenance.
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12 (b). For what applications, concentrating collectors are used? Explain the working of Cylindrical parabolic
Concentrator with the help of a neat sketch. What are the terms “ Tracking and Concentration Ratio” in
concentrator means?
Concentrating collectors Applications:

• For applications such as air conditioning, central power generation, and numerous industrial heat requirements,
flat plate collectors generally cannot provide carrier fluids at temperatures sufficiently elevated to be effective.
Cylindrical Parabolic Concentrating Collector

The cylindrical parabolic collector (CPC) is also referred to a parabolic trough or a Linear parabolic collector is shown on
previews figure 4.29(c). The basic elements making up a conventional collector are the absorber tube located at the focal
axis through which the liquid to be heated flows, the concentric transparent cover, the reflector, and the support structure.
Element and together constitute the receiver, while element and constitute the concentrator.

The collector are available over a wide range of aperture areas from about 1 to 60 cm2 and with widths ranging from 1 to
6m. Concentration ratios range from 10 to 80, and rim 70 to 120, as shown in figure.

The absorber tube is usually made of stainless steel or copper and has a diameter of 2.5 to 5cm. It is coated with a heat
resistant black point and is generally surrounded by a concentric glass cover with an annular gap of 1 or 2cm. In the case
of high performance collectors, the absorber tube is coated with a selective surface and the space between the tube and the
glass cover is evacuated. In some small collectors, the concentric cover is replaced by a glass or plastic sheet covering the
whole aperture area of the collector. Such an arrangement helps in protecting the reflection surface from the weather.

The liquid heated in the collector depends upon the temperature required. Usually organic heat transfer liquids (referred to
as thermic fluids) are used. Because of their low thermal conductivities, these liquids yield low heat transfer coefficients.
Augmentative devices in the form of twisted taps or central plugs (Which create annular passages) are therefore used to
increase the value of the heat transfer fluid.
The reflecting surface is generally curved back silvered glass. It is fixed on light-weight structure usually made of
aluminium sections. The proper design of this supporting structure and of the system for its movement is important, since
it influences the shape and orientation of the reflecting surface. Some of the factors to be considered in designing the
structure are that it should not distort significantly due to its own weight and it should be able to withstand wind loads.

Compared to flat-plate collectors, there are very few manufactures of concentrating collectors all over the world. The
volume of production is also low. In India, many experimental collectors have been built and tested. However ,
commercial manufacture has not yet begun.

Tracking
• The optics in CPV modules accept the direct component of the incoming light and therefore must be oriented
appropriately to maximize the energy collected.
• In low concentration applications a portion of the diffuse light from the sky can also be captured. The tracking
functionality in CPV modules is used to orient the optics such that the incoming light is focused to a photovoltaic
collector.
• CPV modules that concentrate in one dimension must be tracked normal to the Sun in one axis. CPV modules that
concentrate in two dimensions must be tracked normal to the Sun in two axes.
Concentration Ratio

• The solar concentration ratio is an important concept for a focusing solar collector. As mentioned, the energy flux
density is only 800–1000 W/m2.
• Therefore, it is necessary to concentrate light to obtain higher solar collecting temperatures.

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13. (a) In which applications Solar energy storage is required and when it is not required? Explain briefly
various methods of thermal energy storage. List the considerations which determine the selection of
method of storage.
Solar energy storage
• We need a secure, reliable electricity supply 24 hours a day. We also need to make more use of renewable
energy resources, such as solar and wind, to reduce our reliance on non-renewable fossil fuels such as oil
and gas. But, it’s not so easy to just switch over to using solar and wind for all our energy needs. The
clouds pass the sun and the wind gusts fast and slow. This means that solar power and wind power are not
always available when needed.
• The solution to this problem lies in energy storage. By storing the energy generated from solar and wind
power in reliable, powerful batteries, we can have a power supply that is available 24/7: – without costing
the Earth.

Various methods of thermal energy storage

 Considerations which determine the selection of method of storage.
The specific application for which a thermal storage system is to be used determines the method to be adopted. Some
of the considerations which determine the selection of the method of storage and its design are as follows.

• The temperature range over which the storage has to operate.

• The capacity of the storage has a significant effect on the operation of the rest of the system, especially the
collectors. A smaller storage unit operates at a higher mean temperature. This results in a reduced collector
output as compared to a system having a larger storage unit.
• Heat losses from the storage have to be kept to a minimum. Heat losses are of particular importance for long-
term' storage.
• Cost of the storage unit. This includes the initial cost of the storage medium, the containers and insulation, and
the operating cost.
Other considerations include the suitability of materials used for the container, the means adopted for transferring the
heat to and from the storage, and the power requirements for these purposes.

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13(b) What are the applications of solar pond? With the help of neat sketch explain the working and applications
of solar pond. What are the operational problems associated with its operation and maintenance?

Applications of solar pond:

1. Heating and Cooling of Buildings:

Because of the large heat storage capability in the lower convection zone of the solar pond, it has ideal use for
heating even at high latitude stations and for several cloudy days. Many scientists have attempted and sized the solar pond
for a particular required heating load for house heating. Calculations have shown that a solar pond with a 100m diameter
and 1m deep lower convection zone is sufficient to drive either an absorption system or chillier capable of meeting 100
percent of typical cooling load of a 50 house community in Forthworth (USA).

2. Production of Power:

A solar pond can be used to generate electricity by driving a thermo-electric device or an organic Rankine cycle
engine - a turbine powered by evaporating an organic fluid with great promise in those areas where there is sufficient
insolation and terrain, and soil conditions allow for construction and operation of large area solar ponds necessary to
generate meaningful quantities of electrical energy. Even low temperatures heat that is obtained from solar pond can be
converted into electric power. The conversion efficiency is limited due to its low operating temperatures (70-100ºC).
Because of low temperature, the Solar pond power plant (SPPP) requires organic fluid which have low boiling points such
as halo-carbons (like Freons) or hydrocarbons (such as propane).

3. Industrial Process Heat:

Industrial process heat is the thermal energy used directly in the preparation and of treatment of materials and goods
manufactured by industry. Several scientists have determined the economics of solar pond for supply of process heat in
industries. According to them the solar pond can play a significant role supplying the process heat to industries thereby
saving oil, natural gas, electricity, and coal. From the calculations it was concluded that for crop drying and for a paper
industry, for which economics have been determined, the heat from solar pond is highly competitive with oils and natural
gas.

4. Desalination:

The low cost thermal energy can used to desalt or otherwise purify water for drinking or irrigation.
 Multi-flash desalination units along with a solar pond is an attractive proposition for getting distilled water because
the multi-flash desalination plant below 100ºC which can well be achieved by a solar pond. This system will be suitable at
places where portable water is in short supply and brackish water is available. It has been estimated that about 4700
m3/day distilled water can be obtained from a pond of 0.31km2 area with a multi-effort distillation unit. The cost of
distilled water appears to be high for industrialized countries but can be used in developing countries where there is a
shortage of potable water. Moreover this type of desalination plant produces five times more distilled water than the
conventional basin type solar still.

5. Heating animal housing and drying crops on farms:

Low grade heat can be used in many ways on farms, which have enough land for solar ponds. Several small
demonstration ponds in Ohio, Iowa and Illinois have been used to heat green houses and hogbarns.

6. Heat for biomass conversion:

Site built solar could provide heat to convert biomass to alcohol or methane. While no solar ponds have been used
for this purpose, it is an ideal coupling of two renewable-energy technologies.

Working a of solar pond.

A solar pond is, simply, a pool of saltwater which collects and stores solar thermal energy. The saltwater naturally forms a
vertical salinity gradient also known as a "halocline", in which low-salinity water floats on top of high-salinity water. The
layers of salt solutions increase in concentration (and therefore density) with depth. Below a certain depth, the solution
has a uniformly high salt concentration.

When the sun's rays contact the bottom of a shallow pool, they heat the water adjacent to the bottom. When water at the
bottom of the pool is heated, it becomes less dense than the cooler water above it, and convection begins. Solar ponds heat
water by impeding this convection. Salt is added to the water until the lower layers of water become completely saturated.
High-salinity water at the bottom of the pond does not mix readily with the low-salinity water above it, so when the
bottom layer of water is heated, convection occurs separately in the bottom and top layers, with only mild mixing between
the two. This greatly reduces heat loss, and allows for the high-salinity water to get up to 90 °C while maintaining 30 °C
low-salinity water. This hot, salty water can then be pumped away for use in electricity generation, through a turbine or as
a source of thermal energy.

Applications of solar pond.

• Salt production (for enhanced evaporation or purification of salt, that is production of ‘vacuum quality’ salt)
• Aquaculture, using saline or fresh water (to grow, for example, fish or brine shrimp)
• Dairy industry (for example, to preheat feed water to boilers)
• Fruit and vegetable canning industry
• Fruit and vegetable drying
• Grain industry (for grain drying)
• Water supply (for desalination) .

Problems in the operation and maintenance of solar ponds.

A variety of problems are encountered in the operation and maintenance of solar ponds.
These include growth of algae in the upper convective layer, maintenance of pond transparency, gradient zone stability
and gradient zone erosion. Good transparency is essential for pond performance.

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14. a) What is biomass? What are the basic principles of bio conversion and their energy products?
With a help of neat sketch of fixed dome type bio gas plant with a neat sketch. What are the
properties of biogas? What are the advantages and disadvantages of biogas as a fuel.

Biomass:
Biomass is fuel that is developed from organic materials, a renewable and sustainable source of energy used to
create electricity or other forms of power.

➢ Some examples of biomass fuels are:

➢ Scrap lumber
➢ Forest debris
➢ Certain crops
➢ Manure; and
➢ Some types of waste residues.

Basic principles of bio conversion

➢ Direct combustion processes.
➢ Thermo chemical processes.
➢ Biochemical processes.

Fixed-dome plants
The costs of a fixed-dome biogas plant are relatively low. It is simple as no moving parts exist. There are also no
rusting steel parts and hence a long life of the plant (20 years or more) can be expected. The plant is constructed
underground, protecting it from physical damage and saving space. While the underground digester is protected
from low temperatures at night and during cold seasons, sunshine and warm seasons take longer to heat up the
digester. No day/night fluctuations of temperature in the digester positively influence the bacteriological
processes.

The construction of fixed dome plants is labor-intensive, thus creating local employment.
Fixed-dome plants are not easy to build. They should only be built where construction can be supervised by
experienced biogas technicians. Otherwise plants may not be gas-tight (porosity and cracks).

Fixed dome plant

1. Mixing tank with inlet pipe and sand trap.

2. Digester.
3. Compensation and removal tank.
4. Gasholder.
5. Gaspipe.
 6. Entry hatch, with gastight seal.
7. Accumulation of thick sludge.
8. Outlet pipe.
9. Reference level.
10.Supernatant scum, broken up by varying level.

Function
A fixed-dome plant comprises of a closed, dome-shaped digester with an immovable, rigid gas-holder and a
displacement pit, also named ’compensation tank’. The gas is stored in the upper part of the digester. When gas
production commences, the slurry is displaced into the compensating tank. Gas pressure increases with the
volume of gas stored, i.e. with the height difference between the two
slurry levels. If there is little gas in the gasholder, the gas pressure is low.

Digester:
The digesters of fixed-dome plants are usually masonry structures, structures of cement and
ferro-cement exist. Main parameters for the choice of material are:
. Technical suitability (stability, gas- and liquid tightness);
.cost-effectiveness;
· availability in the region and transport costs;
· availability of local skills for working with the particular building material.
Fixed dome plants produce just as much gas as floating-drum plants, if they are gas-tight. However, utilization of
the gas is less effective as the gas pressure fluctuates substantially. Burners and other simple appliances cannot be
set in an optimal way. If the gas is required at constant pressure (e.g., for engines), a gas pressure regulator or a
floating gas-holder is necessary.

The top part of a fixed-dome plant (the gas space) must be gas-tight. Concrete, masonry and cement rendering are
not gas-tight. The gas space must therefore be painted with a gas-tight layer (e.g. ’Water-proofer’, Latex or
synthetic paints). A possibility to reduce the risk of cracking of the gas-holder consists in the construction of a
weak-ring in the masonry of the digester. This "ring" is a flexible joint between the lower (water-proof) and the
upper(gas-proof) part of the hemispherical structure. It prevents cracks that develop due to the hydrostatic
pressure in the lower parts to move into the upper parts of the gas-holder.

properties of biogas:
Biogas is comprised primarily of methane and carbon dioxide. It also contains smaller amounts of hydrogen
sulphide, nitrogen, hydrogen, methylmercaptans and oxygen. Biogas originates from bacteria in the process of
bio-degradation of organic material under anaerobic (without air) conditions.

Advantages of Biogas
Biogas is a green energy source in form of electricity and heat for the local grid. Considerable
environmental advantages - less emission of the greenhouse gasses methane, CO2 and nitrous oxide.
Disadvantages of Biogas
➢ Little Technological Advancement. An unfortunate disadvantage of biogas today is that the systems used
in the production of biogas are not efficient.
➢ Contains Impurities. After refinement and compression, biogas still contains impurities.
➢ Effect of Temperature on Biogas Production

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14. B What are the advantages and disadvantages of wind energy conversion? How wind mills are
classified? What are the basic components of windmills

Advantages of Wind Energy

➢ Wind power is cost-effective.
➢ Wind creates jobs.
➢ Wind enables U.S. industry growth and U.S. competitiveness.
➢ It's a clean fuel source.
➢ Wind is a domestic source of energy.
➢ It's sustainable.
➢ Wind turbines can be built on existing farms or ranches.

Disadvantages of Wind Energy

➢ The Wind Fluctuates. Wind energy has a similar drawback to solar energy in that it is not constant.
➢ Installation is Expensive. Although costs are reducing over time, wind turbines are still expensive.
➢ Wind Turbines Pose A Threat to Wildlife.
➢ Wind Turbines Create Noise Pollution.
➢ They Also Create Visual Pollution

Types of Windmills
▪ Vertical Axis Windmills.
▪ Horizontal Axis Windmills.
▪ Post Mill. ...
▪ Smock Mill. ...
▪ Tower Mills. ...
▪ Fan Mills.

Components of Windmills

Following figure shows typical components of a horizontal axis wind mill.

Rotor:
The portion of the wind turbine that collects energy from the wind is called the rotor. The rotor usually consists of
two or more wooden, fiberglass or metal blades which rotate about an axis (horizontal or vertical) at a rate
determined by the wind speed and the shape of the blades. The blades are attached to the hub, which in turn is
attached to the main shaft.

Drag Design:
Blade designs operate on either the principle of drag or lift. For the drag design, the windliterally pushes the blades
out of the way. Drag powered wind turbines are characterized
by slower rotational speeds and high torque capabilities. They are useful for the pumping,sawing or grinding work.
For example, a farm-type windmill must develop high torque atstart-up in order to pump, or lift, water from a deep
well.

Lift Design:
The lift blade design employs the same principle that enables airplanes, kites and birds to fly. The blade is
essentially an airfoil, or wing. When air flows past the blade, a wind speed and pressure differential is created
between the upper and lower blade surfaces. The pressure at the lower surface is greater and thus acts to "lift" the
blade. When blades are attached to a central axis, like a wind turbine rotor, the lift is translated into rotational
motion. Lift-powered wind turbines have much higher rotational speeds than drag types and therefore well suited
for electricity generation.
Tip Speed Ratio:
The tip-speed is the ratio of the rotational speed of the blade to the wind speed. The larger this ratio, the faster the
rotation of the wind turbine rotor at a given wind speed. Electricity generation requires high rotational speeds. Lift-
type wind turbines have maximum tip-speed ratios of around 10, while drag-type ratios are approximately 1.Given
the high rotational speed requirements of electrical generators, it is clear that the lift-type wind turbine is most
practical for this application.

Generator:
The generator is what converts the turning motion of a wind turbine's blades into electricity. Inside this component,
coils of wire are rotated in a magnetic field to produce electricity. Different generator designs produce either
alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC), and they are available in a large range of output power ratings. The
generator's rating, or size, is dependent on the length of the wind turbine's blades because more energy is captured
by longer blades.
It is important to select the right type of generator to match intended use. Most home and office appliances operate
on 240 volt, 50 cycles AC. Some appliances can operate on either AC or DC, such as light bulbs and resistance
heaters, and many others can be adapted to run on DC. Storage systems using batteries store DC and usually are
configured at voltages of between 12 volts and 120 volts.

Transmission:
The number of revolutions per minute (rpm) of a wind turbine rotor can range between 40 rpm and 400 rpm,
depending on the model and the wind speed. Generators typically require rpm's of 1,200 to 1,800. As a result, most
wind turbines require a gear-box transmission to increase the rotation of the generator to the speeds necessary for
efficient electricity production. Some DC-type wind turbines do not use transmissions. Instead, they have a direct
link between the rotor and generator. These are known as direct drive systems. Without a transmission, wind turbine
complexity and maintenance requirements are reduced, but a much larger generator is required to deliver the same
power output as the AC-type wind turbines.

Tower:
The tower on which a wind turbine is mounted is not just a support structure. It also raises the wind turbine so that
its blades safely clear the ground and so it can reach the stronger winds at higher elevations. Maximum tower height
is optional in most cases, except where zoning restrictions apply. The decision of what height tower to use will be
based on the cost of taller towers versus the value of the increase in energy production resulting from their use.
Studies have shown that the added cost of increasing tower height is often justified by the added power generated
from the stronger winds. Larger wind turbines are usually mounted on towers ranging from 40 to 70 meters tall.
 15. a) What is geothermal energy? What are the various methods of harnessing this energy? What is the
potential of geothermal energy in india?

Geothermal energy:
Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. ... The adjective geothermal originates
from the Greek roots γη (ge), meaning earth, and θερμος (thermos), meaning hot. Earth's internal heat is
thermal energy generated from radioactive decay and continual heat loss from Earth's formation.

Methods of harnessing Geothermal energy

Deep wells, a mile or more deep, can tap reservoirs of steam or very hot water that can be used to drive turbines
which power electricity generators.

There are 3 types of geothermal power plants in use today, and they are:
➢ Dry Steam Plants
➢ Flash Steam Plants
➢ Binary Cycle Plants

Dry steam plants:

Dry Steam Plants which use geothermal steam directly. Dry steam power plants use very hot (>455 °F, or >235
°C) steam and little water from the geothermal reservoir. The steam goes directly through a pipe to a turbine to spin a
generator that produces electricity. This type of geothermal power plant is the oldest, first being used at Lardarello, Italy,
in 1904. An example of a dry steam generation operation is at the Geysers in North California

Flash steam plants:

Flash Steam Plants which use high pressure hot water to produce steam when the pressure is reduced. Flash steam
power plants use hot water (>360 ºF, or >182 ºC) from the geothermal reservoir. When the water is pumped to the
generator, it is released from the pressure of the deep reservoir. The sudden drop in pressure causes some of the water to
vaporize to steam, which spins a turbine to generate electricity. Both dry steam and flash steam power plants emit small
amounts of carbon dioxide, nitric oxide, and sulfur, but generally 50 times less than traditional fossil-fuel power plants.16
Hot water not flashed into steam is returned to the geothermal reservoir through injection wells

Binary cycle plants:

Binary Cycle Plants which use moderate-temperature water (225 to 360 ºF, or 107 to 182 ºC) from the geothermal
reservoir. In binary systems, hot geothermal fluids are passed through one side of a heat exchanger to heat a working fluid
in a separate adjacent pipe. The working fluid, usually an organic compound with a low boiling point such as Iso-butane
or Iso-pentane, is vaporized and passed through a turbine to generate electricity. An ammonia-water working fluid is also
used in what is known as the Kalina Cycle. Makers claim that the Kalina Cycle system boosts geothermal plant efficiency
by 20-40% and reduces plant construction costs by 20-30%, thereby lowering the cost of geothermal power generation
(Green Jobs, 2002). The Mammoth Pacific binary geothermal power plant, located at the Casa Diablo geothermal field

Geothermal Energy Scenario: India and the world

Geothermal power plants operated in at least 24 countries in 2010, and geothermal energy was used directly for
heat in at least 78 countries. These countries currently have geothermal power plants with a total capacity of 10.7 GW, but
88% of it is generated in just seven countries: the United States, the Philippines, Indonesia, Mexico, Italy, New Zealand,
and Iceland. The most significant capacity increases since 2004 were seen in Iceland and Turkey. Both countries doubled
their capacity. Iceland has the largest share of geothermal power contributing to electricity supply (25%), followed by the
Philippines (18%).

The number of countries utilizing geothermal energy to generate electricity has more than doubled since 1975, increasing
from 10 in 1975 to 24 in 2004. In 2003, total geothermal energy supply was 20 MToE (metric Tonne Oil Equivalent),
accounting for 0.4% of total primary energy supply in IEA member countries. The share of geothermal in total renewable
energy supply was 7.1%. Over the last 20 years, capital costs for geothermal power systems decreased by a significant
50%. Such large cost reductions are often the result of solving the “easier” problems associated with science and
technology improvement in the early years of development.
Although geothermal power development slowed in 2010, with global capacity reaching just over 11 GW, a significant
acceleration in the rate of deployment is expected as advanced technologies allow for development in new countries. Heat
output from geothermal sources increased by an average rate of almost 9% annually over the past decade, due mainly to
rapid growth in the use of ground-source heat pumps. Use of geothermal energy for combined heat and power is also on
the rise.

India has reasonably good potential for geothermal; the potential geothermal provinces can produce 10,600 MW of power
(but experts are confident only to the extent of 100 MW). But yet geothermal power projects has not been exploited at all,
owing to a variety of reasons, the chief being the availability of plentiful coal at cheap costs. However, with increasing
environmental problems with coal based projects, India will need to start depending on clean and eco-friendly energy
sources in future; one of which could be geothermal.

16. b) What is the basic principle of tidal energy? Explain the principle of working of simple tidal energy
conversion plant with a neat sketch. What is the status of tidal power plants in the world and in India?

Basic principle of tidal energy:

A dam is constructed in such a way that a basin gets separated from the sea and a difference in the water level is
obtained between the basin and sea. Tidal power barrages have to resist waves whose shock can be severe and where
pressure changes sides continuously.

Tidal power plant working principle.

Tides in the sea are produced due to the gravitational attraction of moon and sun upon the rotating earth. Rise and fall of
tides occur twice a day.

The highest level of tidal water is called high tide or flood tide whereas the lowest level of tidal water is called low tide or
ebb tide. The level difference between high and low tides is called tidal range.

The tidal range is time, season and location dependent. The maximum tidal range takes place at the time of new and full
moon known as spring tides. Availability of 5 m tidal range or above in particular location can be used to operate a
hydraulic turbine.

In tidal energy power plants, the water during high tides is first collected in an artificial basin and it is released during the
period of low tides. The water while escaping is used to spin a hydraulic turbine connected to a generator. The three main
components of a tidal energy power plant are:

• powerhouse,
• dam to form the basin,
• sluiceways from the basin to sea and vice versa.

The function of the dam is to create an obstacle between sea and the basin. The sluiceways are used to either fill the basin
during high tide or empty the basin during the low tide.

Single Basin Tidal Power Plant Working

 In single basin tidal power plant, the powerhouse is located at the mouth of the basin. The hydraulic turbine in
powerhouse only operates during the discharge of water from the basin during low tide. The basin is filled again during
the high tide. Intermittent operation is the main disadvantage of this system.

However, in a double cycle system, power generation is possible during the low as well as high tide. The direction
of flow during the low and high tide alternates and generation of power takes place during the both the emptying and
filling cycle of the basin.

Double Basin Tidal Power Plant Working

In double basin tidal power plant, two basins at different levels are made and a dam is provided in between them. Inlet
and outlet sluice gates are made in the dam. The water level in upper basin is maintained above the level of water in the
lower basin.

The upper basin is filled with water during high tide and the lower basin is evacuated during the low tide. Therefore, a
permanent head is produced between upper and lower basins.

When a sufficient head is created, the turbines of the power plant are started. The water flows from upper basin to turbine
which discharges into the lower basin and electrical power is generated.

When the water level in upper basin is maximum during high tide, the inlet sluice is closed and the level of the water in
lower basin keeps on rising due to the discharge of water by the turbine.

When the level of water in lower basin equals during the low tide, the outlet sluice is opened and it is closed when the
water level reaches to its minimum level. In this system, the power can be produced continuously during emptying and
filling of basins.

The status of tidal power plants in the world and in India

• The first tidal power station was the Rance tidal power plant built over a period of 6 years from 1960 to 1966
at La Rance, France. It has 240 MW installed capacity.
• The first tidal power site in North America is the Annapolis Royal Generating Station, Annapolis Royal, Nova
Scotia, which opened in 1984 on an inlet of the Bay of Fundy. It has 20 MW installed capacity.
 Station Capacity (MW) Country Comm
Rance Tidal Power Station 240 France 1966
Annapolis Royal Generating Station 20 Canada 1984
Jiangxia Tidal Power Station 3.2 China 1980
Kislaya Guba Tidal Power Station 1.7 Russia 1968
Strangford Lough SeaGen 1.2 United Kingdom 2008
Uldolmok Tidal Power Station 1.0 South Korea 2009

• The Jiangxia Tidal Power Station, south of Hangzhou in China has been operational since 1985, with current
installed capacity of 3.2 MW. More tidal power is planned near the mouth of the Yalu River.
• The first in-stream tidal current generator in North America (Race Rocks Tidal Power Demonstration Project) was
installed at Race Rocks on southern Vancouver Island in September 2006. The next phase in the development of
this tidal current generator will be in Nova Scotia.
• A small project was built by the Soviet Union at Kislaya Guba on the Barents Sea. It has 0.4 MW installed
capacity. In 2006 it was upgraded with a 1.2MW experimental advanced orthogonal turbine.
• Jindo Uldolmok Tidal Power Plant in South Korea is a tidal stream generation scheme planned to be expanded
progressively to 90 MW of capacity by 2013. The first 1 MW was installed in May 2009.
• A 1.2 MW SeaGen system became operational in late 2008 on Strangford Lough in Northern Ireland.
• 254 MW Sihwa Lake Tidal Power Plant in South Korea is under construction and planned to be completed by the
end of 2010.
• The contract for an 812 MW tidal barrage near Ganghwa Island north-west of Incheon has been signed by
Daewoo. Completion is planned for 2015.
• A 1,320 MW barrage built around islands west of Incheon is proposed by the Korean government, with projected
construction start in 2017.
• Other South Korean projects include barrages planned for Garorim Bay, Ansanman, and Swaseongho, and tidal
generation associated with the Saemangeum reclamation project. The barrages are all in the multiple-hundred
megawatts range.
• Estimates for new tidal barrages in England give the potential generation at 5.6GW mean power.
Indian Scenario:
• A British tidal energy company, Atlantis Resources, is expected to set up a tidal power plant with the capacity to
generate over 250 MW in the Gulf of Kutch or Khambhat.
• India’s first attempt to harness tidal power for generating electricity would be in the form of a three MW plant
proposed at the Durgaduani creek in Sundarbans delta of West Bengal.
• The Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of Cambay in Gujarat and Ganga delta in the Sunderbans, the world’s largest
mangrove, are the three sites identified as potential areas for tidal power generation.