The Use of Repeat Photography in Contemporary Geomorphic Studies: An Evolving Approach To Understanding Landscape Change

Geography Compass 4/9 (2010): 1339–1357, 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2010.00376.
The Use of Repeat Photography in Contemporary

Geomorphic Studies: An Evolving Approach to
Understanding Landscape Change
Dawna L. Cerney*
Department of Geography, Youngstown State University
Abstract
The long and continued use of repeat photography, in geomorphology and other natural science
studies, attests to the benefits of its employment as a methodology for historical reconstruction
and process recognition. This article reviews the use of repeat photography as a tool in observing
and understanding geomorphic patterns and processes that have been carried out over the last
40 years. This is not an exhaustive review of the literature, but rather an investigation of the main
geomorphic themes that have been studied along with methods of application and adaptations of
the methods to improve data quality. Areas of research which have had little to no significant
application, but could benefit from its use, are discussed.
Introduction
Assessing change in the physical landscape is accomplished through the use of historical
data. Historical data acquired from repeat photography can provide a timeframe of refer-
ence for movement and patterns in landscapes, which are the product of geomorphic
processes. Movement and locations of features are captured over defined time periods by
assessing data found in sequential photographs of the same feature or features. Trimble
(2008) argues that changes observed though repeat photography can be extrapolated to
facilitate understanding change across geological time. Links between pattern and process
can be recognized through multitemporal analysis of changed and unchanged elements
between photographs. Geomorphic change takes place over a variety of temporal and
geographic scales. Repeat photography is uniquely suited to capture data across a wide
range of temporal and geographic scale, offering observation of change from landscape to
micro scales (Butler and DeChano 2001; Cerney et al. 2008; Graf 1979; Hall 1976;
Hattersley-Smith 1966).
Image characteristics used in interpretation include shape, size pattern, tone, texture
and spatial associations between features and identified objects (Lillesand and Keifer
2008). These are typically used to detect heterogeneity and homogeneity (Nüsser 2001)
in addition to location and structure. Repeat photography has been used alone and in
consort with other data acquisition methods to observe changes of these characteristics in
a variety of geomorphic subjects. Traditionally, repeat photography is employed as an
illustrative tool in recognizing and assessing landscape change in case studies. It can
provide insight into specific geomorphic case conditions that other tools cannot, such as
furnishing temporally sensitive data on single events. In addition, it offers support to
nomothetic studies (Trimble 2009). Even though some geomorphic processes can be
observed through models and laboratory experiments there is no substitute for onsite
ª 2010 The Author

Geography Compass ª 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
1340 Repeat photography use in geomorphic studies
measurements (Graf 1979). A critical note from Butler (1994) states, observation of actual
landforms removes assumptions made when observing processes under laboratory condi-
tions. This is important as systems found in distinct geographic locations are unique, and
processes will not behave the same in all locations. As each case study is unique, repeat
photography can glean general principles, but not universal conclusions (Trimble 2008).
This does not preclude understanding the nature of processes which produce distinct
landscape conditions. Unfortunately, repeat photography data are often not systematically
available, and they are often overlooked as a tool for understanding geomorphic change
in favour of quantitative assessment methods, such as satellite remote sensing, aerial
photography and direct field measurements. Its main benefit is its ability to offer longer
temporal scales of analysis (Trimble 2008) than other methods.
This article offers accounts of recent repeat photography use in recognizing unique
geomorphic change and clarification on processes that produce geomorphic landscape
change. Methodological adaptations are presented alongside visual qualitative assessment
of sequential photographs. Through these accounts an argument is presented which dem-
onstrates that repeat photography is an effective methodology for analysing past landscape
change and processes. The subject matter offered here is only a sample of the topics
which could be evaluated with repeat photography.
Repeat Photography
Repeat photography monitors change by means of acquiring proxy-data through analysis
of paired successive images of a particular scene obtained from identical photopoint loca-
tions over a discrete period of time (Bass 2004; Kull 2005). The original photograph may
be taken by the investigator or acquired from another source; following images are then
photographed at a later date. Figures 1–3 are USGS classic examples of repeat photogra-
phy. Repeat photography offers data for three temporal scales: long time periods where
continual micro or small scale change manifests in observable landscape change over
years, decades and centuries; over the course of regular events such as channel change as
a product of spring runoff; to document punctuated landscape-change post-high energy
events such as landslides.
The technique is also referred to as time-lapse photography (Trimble 2008). However,
time-lapse photography typically involves short time periods; often seconds to hours. In
the case of short temporal scales, the investigator will take all the photographs in the ser-
ies. When attempting to appreciate the nature of change over extended periods of time
such as decades the investigator may be required to obtain multiple photographs (Bass
2004) from a variety of public and private sources (Cerney and Butler 2004). Acquisition
of original photos can be the most challenging component of the study. Locating historic
images requires a great deal of investigation and may prove disappointing because few
images exist, if the area under investigation is remote or infrequently visited. Further,
photographs from a variety of sources may produce challenges related to interpretation
accuracy (Cerney 2006). Successive photographs become part of a continuous record
that offers understanding and prediction of natural landscape shaping forces (Skovlin and
Thomas 1995). In addition, Skovlin and Thomas (1995) express that personal knowledge
of the site is beneficial to producing accurate accounts.
Landscape change studies require an integrated approach, because landscapes are the
product of many variables (Naven and Liebermann 1994; Nüsser 2001), which include
geomorphic, biotic and climatic conditions. Geomorphic studies which have examined
landscape change include; fluvial movement and channel change (Butler and Malanson
ª 2010 The Author Geography Compass 4/9 (2010): 1339–1357, 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2010.00376.x

Repeat photography use in geomorphic studies 1341
(A)
(B)
Fig. 1. Retreat of Muir Glacier, Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, Alaska, USA (USGS 2010a). (A) Muir Gla-
cier, 2 September 1892, photograph by H.F. Reid (USGS 2010a). (B) Muir Glacier, 11 August 2005, photograph by
B.F. Molnia (USGS 2010a).
1993; Butler et al. 1991; Graf 1978; Webb et al. 2002), alterations in land uses (Byers
2000; Nüsser 2001; Vale 1987), ice movement, glacial recession and snow pack (Butler
and Wilkerson 2001; Selkowitz et al. 2002; Veatch 1969), mass movement (Butler 1985;
Byers 1987a,b; Hincks and Cruden 2003; Ives 1987), human induced change (Baker and
Veblen 1990; Gruell 1980, 1983; Veblen and Lorenz 1988) and studies considering multi-
ple elements of landscape change (Butler 1985; Graf 1978; Nelson and Byrne 1966; Rog-
ers 1982; Vale 1987). Repeat photography holds may advantages over other techniques

(A)
(B)
Fig. 2. Retreat of Grinnell Glacier, Glacier National Park, Montana, USA (USGS 2010b). (A) Grinnell Glacier 1900,
photograph by F.E. Matthes (USGS 2010b). (B) Grinnell Glacier 2008, photograph by, L. McKeon (USGS 2010b).
for recognizing geomorphic change. The most common argument for its use is that it is
quick and economical (Antrop and Van Eetvelde 2000; Byers 2000; Rogers 1982) and
convenient when remoteness and logistical challenges of conducting long-term research
limit the use of other methods. Perhaps most importantly, repeat photography can
increase temporal depth (Rogers et al. 1984) by adding image information which is older
than both aerial photographs (Butler and Malanson 1993; Graf 1978) and satellite images.
The acquisition of aerial photographs and satellite images is often limited by cost or image
availability. Additionally, both aerial photography and satellite remote sensing can be

(A)
(B)
Fig. 3. Pre- and post-eruption of Mount. St. Helens, Washington, USA (USGS 2010c). (A) Mount St Helens,
Washington USA, 18 May 1980, photograph by H. Gliken (USGS 2010c). (B) Mount St Helens, Washington USA,
16 September 1980, photograph by L. Topinka (USGS 2010c).
limited by air space restrictions (Breed and Reheis 1999) unfavourable weather condi-
tions, ground cover, complex topography, or when there is insufficient time to capture
images (Cerney 2006) of an event such as an unexpected landslide. It should be noted
that inclement weather also affects repeat photography. Satellite images are further limited
by timing of the orbit to coinciding with the event occurrence. Small-scale change con-
ditions may not be observable with satellite images and aerial photographs because the
resolution offered by these techniques is too course. Further features which are oblique
to the satellite or aircraft may not be visible. For instance, Hewitt (2005) noted some
conditions on the landscape are too localized or masked to permit recognition of details
with satellite images. Images of these particular features can be produced with traditional
photography. Investigations such as Trimble’s (1997) which recognize cutbank retreat
would not be evident because he used aerial photographs.

Use of Repeat Photography
FLUVIAL
The dynamic conditions of fluvial environments produce ideal landscapes for repeat photog-
raphy studies. Large volumes of work using the technique in fluvial geomorphology are
readily available. The Colorado River and rivers in the American southwest have been
the subject matter for many of these studies. One of the most recent studies examined
over 3000 images of river reaches across the American South West. The authors con-
cluded that there was an overall increase in riparian vegetation, attributed to the loss of
beaver populations, water diversion, decreased winter flooding and an increased growing
season. Ultimately, the increases of trees along the banks and reductions in water volume
changed the fluvial dynamics of the region. In contrast, the loss of important annual
flooding in some reaches produced an increase of channel width and loss of cottonwood
trees (Webb and Leake 2006).
Graf has been one of the most fervent users of repeat photography. His work using
repeat photography to understand changes along river systems began in the late 1970s.
Among one of his best known works, Graf (1978) used repeat photography to recognize
plant growth near river channels acted as significant agents who resist bank erosion,
and island and bar formation. In this same study, he establishes a rate for the spread of
tamarisk from Northern Arizona reaches of the Colorado River into the Green River.
This study predicted invasion rates and fluvial conditions for river reaches which, at the
time of study, had not yet been invaded. Subsequent photographic studies of both
lower reaches of the Colorado and Green Rivers’ and their tributaries can confirmation
or refute Graf’s (1978) predictions. Photographic reinvestigation of studies such as this
can assist in recognition of continued channel response to biotic disruption.
Graf’s (1979) paper examining channel response to mining has been a seminal paper
observing the impact of human resource use activities on natural systems using repeat
photography. Graf made his assessment with topographic maps, field measurements,
early written accounts and repeat photography. This combined approach concluded that
multiple factors are influential in resisting erosion and that channel alteration occurred
within a few months of initial mining and logging disturbances in the study area. Graf
(1982, 1983) illustrated how land use, particularly that of vegetation change, has signifi-
cant affects on channel development which included arroyo infilling and bed material
changes. He later supplemented aerial photographic analysis of the Salt River in
Arizona with repeat photographs to illustrate progressive changes in riverbed material,
stream down cutting and bed composition change (Graf 2000). In contrast, his 1994
study of the Rio Grande River illustrates the positive affect of vegetation on sediment
deposits.
Additional researchers have used repeat photography to understand the geomorphic
nature of river systems. Among these researchers is Butler (1994) who noted that pre-
and post-flood conditions of channel, and vegetation removal and transportation are
apparent through repeat images of changing alluvial fan conditions. Osterkamp et al.
(1995) used the technique to illustrate that alluvium and colluvium partly covered an
incisement in one area, where as in another area of the same river system previous
deposition was incised by a historic flood.
Cluer (1995) established a time-lapse camera system to test whether large changes
in channel size depositions occur over shorter time periods than previously measured.
Image capture took place every 8 h during a 2-week period when considerable

erosion had taken place. The period of time between measurements was critical in
determining that the greatest volumes of change occurred during short intervals and
that the events are cyclical. Cluer (1995) and Dexter and Cluer (1999) used a high
oblique camera angle to take daily photographs with a programmable camera to cap-
ture changing sediment conditions along the Colorado River. Dexter and Cluer
(1999), specifically studied rapid, erosional events of sandbars in the same area also
using high oblique photographs. Daily photographs of erosion events during periods of
reduced flow showed that stability occurred between reducing events. The study
allowed recognition of downstream geomorphic events was related to Glen Canyon
Dam low-flow periods.
Trimble (2009) produced a robust historical reconstruction of past stream-flow condi-
tions through repeat photography and historical accounts of stream and upland use which
provided an account of the processes, morphology and sediment budgets in the Coon
Creek Basin. His images offered evidence that suggest that storm flows altered channel
locations and that channels had been ameliorated by land use. His sequential historical
photographs allowed recognition of distinct stages in stream evolution in addition to clear
trends in sediment yield in the photographed basin, offering some conclusions to sedi-
ment discharge in the greater basin.
GLACIAL
Glacial studies are some of the most common investigations which use repeat photogra-
phy. These studies have included investigation of both glacial ice conditions and subse-
quent landforms created by both ice and glacial melt water. A large volume of research
has observed alpine glacial retreat. In 1989, Marston et al. published a paper which exam-
ined changes in glacier mass balance. A year later Byers (2000) in a general study of land-
scape change across Huascaran National Park, concluded that there was a dramatic loss of
glacial ice at each of his sites over a 60-year period and that mechanically drained glacial
lakes had been colonized by vegetation. Byers (2007) later measured change of volumes
with ice with satellite imagery augmented by repeat photography. His findings supported
findings of other studies that were based entirely on remote sensing. His photographs and
interviews permitted recognition of loss of small glaciers, retreat of large glaciers and the
formation of potentially dangerous glacial lakes that satellite images do not identify as
threats to the people living in the region. Schmidt and Nüsser (2009) used repeat photog-
raphy to illustrate the gradient of glacial ice and the location of debris covered ice. Work
conducted by Butler and DeChano (2001) utilized fire lookout photographs to conclude
that the majority of glacial decline occurred over a specific period of time, 1920 through
the early 1930s.
The affects of climate change on glacial environments have also been explored using
repeat photography. Investigations, including Veatch (1969), Rapp (1996), Kaufmann and
Ladstädter (2004), Rivera et al. (2008), USGS (2008), and Schmidt and Nüsser (2009)
illustrated loss of ice thickness, retreating glacial fronts, and loss of entire glaciers, in
North and South America Europe and Asia. Rapp (1996) specifically questioned how
rapid change in ice was initiated by climate change at different latitudes and identified
what the visible signs are in mountain environments. This study recognized loss of surface
moraines. However, Marston et al. (1989) in an earlier study recognized combined field
measurements and aerial photographs with repeat photography to determine the elevation
drop in moraines and location of glacial toes.

MASS MOVEMENT
Repeat photography lends itself to documenting mass movement events immediately after
slope displacement and continued later documentation to record consequential adjust-
ments to the slope. For instance, Ives (1987) rephotographed debris flows which allowed
recognition of slope recovery. In another study, evidence suggested that slush avalanches
are an important geomorphic agent of deposition fans after the loss of glacial ice fronts
(Rapp 1996). Butler and DeChano (2001) were able to establish the magnitude of snow
avalanches by identifying the margins and areal coverage of the event through comparison
of images of past avalanche paths. This research suggested multiple photographs can estab-
lish rates of the upward succession and infilling of trees from which periods of slope
stability and soil formation can be established. Studies such as these could establish the
frequency of specific magnitude avalanches through location and documentation of
invading vegetation and its maturity in the avalanche path. In some cases illustrating no
change is as important is noting change. Byers (1987a) refuted long-term claims of slope
instability and gully erosion by demonstrating that very little large scale geomorphic
change was apparent in photographs of the landscape in question.
Conditions of slower mass movement events can also be documented. Over a 9-year
period, Coe et al. (2009) systematically used ground-based photography along with GPS
and aerial photographs to determine the variability of pond locations and water elevation
atop continually moving landslides. GPS and aerial photographs clearly indicated change
in location of the ponds under investigation. However, repeat photography documented
change of water surface elevation, algae conditions and evaporative salts as a function of
climatic conditions. Photographs captured changed positions of specific items such as the
GPS station and a highly identifiable tree.
EROSION, DEPOSITION AND STABILITY
Subtle erosion and deposition events across landscapes have been recognized through
repeat photography. Minute annual changes are difficult to discern, but when the histori-
cal photographic record is long enough the series of subtle changes become apparent.
One such notable documentation of erosion is Mushroom Rock in South Dakota.
Multi-decadal photographic evidence of this and neighbouring sandstone features show
deflation of the structures due to aeolian activity and primarily human activities such as
climbing (Charlton 2001). Evans and Warburton (2005) used repeat photography to sup-
plement data collected through field measurements to determine sediment budget of an
eroding peat-moorland. The photography provided visual evidence of long-term deposi-
tions and revegetation in the catchment area.
A number of studies have examined human-induced soil loss. Work by Byers (1987b)
used repeat photography supplementing palaeoecological data to extrapolate the role of
past human activities and establish the temporal length of landscape alteration. Studies
completed across the Central Plateau of Ethiopia examined overall change of soil condi-
tions which included erosion and subsequent reestablishment (Munro et al. 2008; Nyssen
et al. 2009). Skovlin et al. (2001) recognized change in soil and other geomorphic condi-
tions post-removal of sheep grazing using images that were nearly 90 years apart. Original
1907 photographs indicate that there was no remaining ground cover and an existent A
horizon, but that there was no upper horizon. Subsequent photographs showed both
serial stage plant establishment along with the absence of bare ground. The presence of
plants in these images implies soil formation processes occurring. Perez (2001) estimated

change in soil organic matter as related to growth of plants. Knowing the relative volume
of organic matter produced at developmental life stages of silversword allows the total
volume of soil transformation of an area to be approximated, by assessing the number of
individual plants at different stages observed in photographs between years, along with
taking soil samples.
PROCESS
In addition to observing changing landscape patterns, repeat photography can illustrate

processes which produce those patterns. For instance, Konicki and Holman (2000) used
video images to study continual transformations of transverse sand bars and bathymetric
features perpendicular to the shore line. Images taken once every 24 h and later once
every hour allowed for the calculation of formation occurrence frequency. The authors
also rectified images to measure morphologic features. Image analysis allowed measure-
ment of dune occurrence, spacing, mean wavelength, extent of bars and angle orienta-
tion. It was established that variability of sand bar movement was influenced by
seasonality and varied greatly day to day. Millington et al. (2009) used fixed point photo-
graphy to observe the evolution, migration, stabilization and deflation of dunes. They also
argue that baseline data allow long-term analysis of dynamic landscapes, and that future
morphology can be predicted. Haff and Werner (1996) witnessed the progressive recov-
ery of disturbed desert pavement micro sites over a 5-year period. They photographed
five 40-cm surface sites cleared of stones. Photographs illustrated that stone migration into
the cleared area was highly local, episodic and primarily small in diameter.
The majority of repeat photography studies have investigated vegetation, land use and
human-induced changes. Classifying these studies by the change observed often results in
cross-referencing and recognizes multiple agents of change in individual studies. Samples
of these studies are provided in Table 1.
Methods of Repeat Photography
TRADITIONAL REPEAT PHOTOGRAPHY
As demonstrated traditional repeat photography has been both the sole method of investi-
gation and is also commonly used in conjunction with other methods of investigation.
Traditional repeat photography involves visual examination of photographs of different
dates. Including traditional repeat photography to multiple data sets has three benefits.
First, known dates of historical photographs or interpolation of artefacts in the images can
provide an estimate time for specific conditions under investigation. Second, photographs
can provide data that are otherwise too fine a scale or masked by location or ground
cover to permit recognition by aerial photographs or satellite images. Third, photographs
can assist in verification of results from other methods or augment understanding by
providing visuals that clarify conditions under investigation.
These studies have been conducted at a variety of scales, many of which have used
vegetation evidence of change to imply geomorphic conditions. Successive photographs
can give rise to vegetation pattern recognition which may provide clues to the type and
extent of geomorphic event(s). At the micro scale, Brehmer Foyer’s (1973) study
intended to estimate moraine ridges ages by calculating growth rates of lichen, as deter-
mined between repeat photographs. The established rate could then infer the age of the
moraine. Large-scale geomorphic events can be documented by change in vegetation

Table 1. Sample of archetypal repeat photograph studies.
Subject Study Author and date
Vegetation change
• The canyon revisited: a rephotography of The Grand Baars et al. (1994)
Canyon 1923 ⁄ 1991
• Examining montane ecotone change with repeat Cerney and Butler (2004)
photography
• The changing mile: an ecological study of vegetation Hastings and Turner (1965)
change with time in the lower mile of an arid and
semiarid region
• Response of old growth in montane Picea abies Hofgaard et al. (1991)
(L.) karst. Forest to climate variability in Northern
Sweden
• The use of repeat photos to evaluate long-term Kay (2002)
vegetation change and the land management in
South-Central and South West Utah
• Ungulate herbivory on Utah Aspen: assessment of Kay and Bartos (2000)
long-term exclosures
• Shapshot in time: repeat photography on the Lorenz (1993)
Boise National Forest, 1870–1992
• Yellowstone and the biology of time: Meagher and Houson (1998)
photographs across a century
• Historical landscape change in northwestern Moseley (2006)
Yunnan, China: using repeat photography to
assess the perceptions and realities of biodiversity
loss
• Eighty years of change: the montane vegetation of Rhemtulla et al. (1999)
Jasper National Park, Alberta, Canada
• Eighty years of change: vegetation in the montane Remtulla et al. (2002)
ecoregion of Jasper National Park, Alberta, Canada
• Then and now – a photographic history of Rogers (1982)
vegetation change in the central Great Basin Desert
• Interpreting long-term trends in Blue Mountain Skovlin and Thomas (1995)
ecosystems form repeat photography
• Recent vegetation changes along the Colorado Turner and Karpiscak (1980)
River between Glen Canyon Dam and Lake Mead
• Tree invasion of Cinnabar Park in Wyoming Vale (1987)
• Grand Canyon, A century of change: rephotography Webb (1996)
of the 1889–1890 Stanton expedition
Landscape level change
• Environmental change in Glacier National Park, Butler and DeChano (2001)
Montana: an assessment through repeat
photography from fire lookouts
• Repeat photography in the ancient Cross Timbers Griffin et al. (2005)
of Oklahoma, USA
• Fire’s influence on wildlife habitat on the Gruell (1980)
Bridger-Teton National Forest, Wyoming Vol. 1 –
photographic record and analysis
• Response of old growth in montane Picea abies Hofgaard et al. (1991)
(L.) karst. Forest to climate variability in Northern
Sweden
• Time and the Tuolumne landscape: continuity Vale and Vale (1994)
and change in the Yosemite High Country
• Recent vegetation changes along the forest ⁄ steppe Veblen and Lorenz (1988)
ecotone in northern Patagonia

Table 1. (Continued).
Subject Study Author and date
Land-use change ⁄ human-induced change

• LUHNA Pilot Project – Southwestern United States Allan et al. (1995)
• More trees in the tropics Bass (2004)
• Old images record landscape change through time Bierman et al. (2005)
• An assessment of landscape change in the Khumbu Byers (1987a,b)
region of Nepal using repeat photography
• Contemporary landscape change in the Huascarán Byers (2000)
National Park and Buffer Zone, Cordillera Blanca, Peru
• Fire and vegetative trends in the northern Rockies: Inter- Gruell (1983)
pretations from 1871 to 1982 photographs
• Repeat photography on range and forest lands in the Hart and Laycock (1996)
western United States
• Using repeat landscape photography to assess vegeta- Hendrick and
tion changes in rural communities of the southern Copenheaver (2009)
Appalachian Mountains in Virginia, USA
• Repeat photography in debris flow and agricultural ter- Ives (1987)
races in the middle mountains of Nepal
• The Himalayan dilemma: reconciling development and Ives and Messerli (1989)
conservation
• Understanding cultural landscape transformation: a Nüsser (2001)
re-photographic survey in Chitral Eastern Hindukush,
Pakistan
• Assessing vegetation change over a century using repeat Pickard (2002)
photography
• Development of a spatial analysis method using ground- Roush et al. (2007)
based repeat photography to detect changes in the alpine
treeline ecotone, Glacier National Park, Montana, USA
• Interpreting landscape change in high mountains of north- Skovlin et al. (2001)
eastern Oregon from long-term repeat photography
• A century of vegetation change in the San Juan Moun- Zier and Baker (2006)
tains, Colorado: an analysis using repeat photography
Multiple elements of landscape change
• Vegetative and geomorphic change on snow avalanche Butler (1985)
paths, Glacier National Park, Montana, USA
• Fluvial adjustments to the spread of tamarisk in the Col- Graf (1978)
orado Plateau region
• Lewis and Clark’s observations and measurements of Moody et al. (2003)
geomorphology and hydrology, and changes with time
• Man as an instrument of landscape change: Fires, floods Nelson and Byrne (1966)
and national parks in the Bow Valley, Alberta
• Vegetation change and park purpose in the high eleva- Vale (1987)
tions of Yosemite National Park, California
canopies. Butler (1985) examined brush occurrence to determine if avalanches had taken
place over a specified time period. Emergence of new vegetation or maturation of vege-
tation would suggest a lack of geomorphic activity (Zier and Baker 2006), whereas the
amount of apparent disturbance could indicate event magnitude. Observation of snags
and downed wood (Zier and Baker 2006) or distressed vegetation can indicate a geomor-
phic disturbance not easily apparent beneath the vegetation canopy. For instance,
Kullman (1997) suggests the occurrence of severe ground freezing as indicated by needle
death in a mixed pine stand.

ENHANCEMENT OF TRADITIONAL REPEAT PHOTOGRAPHY
Repeat photography has often been overlooked as a research tool in large part because
scales change across the image (Rhemtulla et al. 2002) limiting identification of absolute
locations and sizes. However, relative per cent changes between photographs have been
concluded in a number of studies. For instance, Roush et al. (2007) ortho-referenced
oblique images to each other to establish scale compatibility in ArcMAP (ESRI,
Redlands, California, USA). Grids were then placed over the area of interests in each
photograph to measure relative change between each photograph. A specific attribute was
assigned to individual cells and the attributes between cells were compared.
Dexter and Cluer (1999) used high oblique programmable cameras housed in retrofit-
ted military ammunition cans to document changes in sandbars. Exposures were made
once every 24 h during low-flow river stages. Each sand bar had control panels with
known co-ordinates fixed to them. Photographs were converted to Tagged Image Format
files and rectified into a planimetric model to allow area measurements, whereby image
locations were transformed through establishing pixels that contained the control panels
to their real world co-ordinate locations. Before and after images were then rectified to
each other. Change in erosion areas were calculated using the area of interest module in
Imagine 8.2. Similarly, Chandler et al. (2002) monitored the water surface and flow
depth of a braided gravel bed using high-oblique single camera and control panels to
monitor change in the bed during low flow. Chandler and his colleagues set up three
fixed camera position upstream, downstream and mid-stream of the area of study to
produce stereo coverage of the area. From stereo pairs, digital elevation models and an
orthophotograph were constructed. Sequential variations in flow coverage were obtained
and merged images allowed subtraction calculations to determine differences between the
sources of data. A detailed image of the terrain was produced allowing for small scale
terrain measurements of grain size sedimentary and erosion features. Cerney et al. (2008)
used digital image processing techniques associated with satellite image analysis to study
change across broad landscapes. The processes used detected changes along scree and
barren slopes that were not apparent with the naked eye (Figure 4). Multitemporal colour
additive composites, unsupervised classification of paired images and principal components
analysis were conducted to recognize differences between photographs.
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
Early quantitative measurements using terrestrial photography include examining rate of

slope morphology change (Chandler and Cooper 1988; Chandler and Moore 1989).
More recently, researchers have attempted to quantify the amount of change observed in
repeat photography (Butler and DeChano 2001; Manier and Laven 2002; Remtulla et al.
2002; Sinclair 1995; Webb 1996; Wilmshurst et al. 2004), by expressing change as a per
cent relative amount measured between photographs. For instance, Butler and DeChano
(2001) determined relative amount of change by outlining the changed area on a topo-
graphic map and then delineated polygons of the areas of interest in sequential photo-
graphs and calculated the difference between the areas. Remtulla et al. (2002), Manier
and Laven (2002) and Wilmshurst et al. (2004) calculated change by using remote sensing
and GIS software to establish polygons to define areas of interest, calculated each poly-
gon’s area though a pixel count and determine volume of change between polygons.
Remtulla et al. (2002) used a spatial cross-tabulation to develop a transition matrix which
summarized the direction and amount of change between pair-wise combinations of the

(A)
(B)
(C)
Fig. 4. Unsupervised classification of single image permits recognition of subtle tonal value differences within the
image. Skree slopes are indicated as green in Figure 4B. The same slope in Figure 4C is illustrated as white and
yellow, where yellow is indicative of recent movement (Cerney 2006). (A) Original photograph. (B) Unsupervised
classification – eight classes. (C) Unsupervised classification – 13 classes.
areas of interest. Munro et al. (2008) and Nyssen et al. (2009) used a semi-quantitative
analysis to measure change in soil conditions. Soil experts were asked to identify relevant
indicators of change such as gully erosion, overall erosion vegetation cover, and cultiva-
tion on steep slopes and stone ⁄ soil bundles. The experts then compared the indicators
between sequential photographs and numerically rated the landscape conditions as
severely deteriorated, deteriorated, the same, improved and strongly improved. Median
scores were calculated for each image pair.
Digital elevation models have been paired with oblique photographs to assess landscape
conditions (Corripio 2004; Kaufmann and Ladstädter 2004; Rivera et al. 2008). Corripio
(2004) georeferenced photographs to digital elevation models, to produce an accurate map
of snow surface albedo. Similarly, Rivera et al. (2008) mapped changes in snow cover.
Quantitative image analysis of stone surface change has been conducted using image
analysis by mathematical morphology assessment (IAMMA). IAMMA measures stone tex-
ture from grey-tones associated with surface characteristics. Measuring the topographical
and optical characteristics of the stone over time indicates the nature and degree of decay
(Maurı́cio and Figueiredo 2000). Thornbush and Viles (2004) processed digital images in
Adobe Photoshop to assess changes in limestone surfaces. Images were converted with
Lab Color Mode to provide chroma colour vividness, then converted into percentages
allowing for comparison with spectrophotometic data. In 2008, Thornbush and Viles
assessed weathering and soiling of stone walls by processing repeat photography images in
Adobe Photoshop. They determined that images processed in Color Lab Mode allowed
discrimination between inorganic soiling and other causes of stone darkening.

Potential Research
There are a number of research opportunities using traditional and enhanced repeat pho-
tography. Three areas include continuing or revisiting research already undertaken to
contribute to the historic record and monitoring of case specific phenomena, applying
the techniques in new case studies, and applying the techniques to study areas where
application has been minimal or non-existent. Areas where application may be most ben-
eficial could include phenomena which cannot easily be documented with remote sens-
ing. These include events which are too fine scale, occur at oblique angles or occur too
frequently, or are masked by vegetation or frequent cloud cover for remote sensing to
capture. Pattern and process studies can be conducted on all the following examples.
To date, little repeat photographic work has been done on biotic-geomorphology.
One such example is Butler and Malanson (2005) who illustrated both the affect of bea-
ver dams in trapping sediment occurrence of and erosion created by breached beaver
dams. Similar morphometric studies can be conducted on a wide variety of subject matter
including, bioturbation caused by windthrow or burrowing animals, denudation by bur-
rowing, animal wallowing or erosion of animal corridors. Landscape-level human affects
have been observed with repeat photography (e.g. Byers 2000), however, little has been
examined at smaller scales of activity, such as footpath erosion which was conducted by
Gellatly et al. (1986), or small scale agrarian or industrial activities. There also seems to
be a significant gulf in aeolian studies. Studies can include monitoring low-energy inten-
sity, small-scale dune morphology processes, or long-term monitoring of abrasion and
deflation in arid landscapes. Additional slow geomorphic transformation studies can
include monitoring solifluction and creep. In contrast, geomorphic recovery from large
hazard events in a variety of landscapes can be studied at many scales. Such events can
include, flooding, earthquakes and tornadoes. Coastal environments can also benefit from
additional repeat photography studies. For example, erosion and deposition from both
storm events and daily tides can be measured. With underwater cameras a variety of
aquatic environments can be monitored, including changing conditions in coral reefs. In
contrast, subterranean environments have yet to be investigated with repeat photography.
The above is a mere sample of studies which can be conducted with repeat photography.
Although quantitative studies are still limited with repeat photography, there are enor-
mous benefits to conducting research in this manner. Repeat photography can reach areas
quickly and routinely without being encumbered by equipment, cost or inopportune
timing. Further, initial studies conducted by repeat photography can provide evidence for
rationale of future quantitative investigations, both at the investigation site and additional
locations. Finally, there are many sources of photographic data which are left largely
unexplored. Three of these include postcards (Sawyer and Butler 2006), fire lookout
photographs (Butler and DeChano 2001) and declassified military reconnaissance images.
The central challenge to repeat photography is to develop a methodology to produce
quantitative assessments from oblique photographs. Producing user-friendly techniques for
acquiring quantitative data will propel studies in repeat photography.
Conclusion
Although repeat photography has been used little in more recent geomorphic studies,
there is a strong rational to consider its application. Its long relevance in the scientific
literature attests to its usefulness in acquiring meaningful data. Recent technological appli-
cations such as the ability to use remote digital cameras, remote-sensing techniques and

the incorporation of Geographic Information Systems analysis provide burgeoning new

directions for the technique. It can acquire image data that aerial photographs and satellite
images simply cannot. Finally, it has wide application across the geomorphic field, from
fluvial studies to mass wasting.
Short Biography
Dawna L. Cerney is an assistant professor in the Department of Geography at Youngs-
town State University. She researches landscape-level changes that are products of both
human- and naturally induced events, using both field methods and digital image analysis.
Her primary and on-going investigations use remote-sensing techniques as applied to
repeat photography to recognize changes in mountain landscapes. Current research also
investigates the historic land-cover change on Nantucket Island as a function of conserva-
tion initiatives and landscape-scale vegetation patterns of recovery post-fire in Waterton
Lakes National. She has papers published in the Journal of Vegetative Science, Geocarto
International and Papers of the Applied Geography Conferences. She holds a BSc in
Physical Geography from the University of Lethbridge, a Master of Environmental
Design from the University of Calgary and a PhD in Environmental Geography from
Texas State-San Marcos.
Note
* Correspondence address: Dawna L. Cerney, Department of Geography, Youngstown State University, One
University Plaza, Youngstown, OH 44555, USA. E-mail: dlcerney@ysu.edu.
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The Use of Repeat Photography in Contemporary Geomorphic Studies: An Evolving Approach To Understanding Landscape Change

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Geography Compass 4/9 (2010): 1339–1357, 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2010.00376.

The Use of Repeat Photography in Contemporary

ª 2010 The Author

ª 2010 The Author Geography Compass 4/9 (2010): 1339–1357, 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2010.00376.x

ª 2010 The Author Geography Compass 4/9 (2010): 1339–1357, 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2010.00376.x

ª 2010 The Author Geography Compass 4/9 (2010): 1339–1357, 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2010.00376.x

ª 2010 The Author Geography Compass 4/9 (2010): 1339–1357, 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2010.00376.x

Use of Repeat Photography

ª 2010 The Author Geography Compass 4/9 (2010): 1339–1357, 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2010.00376.x

ª 2010 The Author Geography Compass 4/9 (2010): 1339–1357, 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2010.00376.x

EROSION, DEPOSITION AND STABILITY

ª 2010 The Author Geography Compass 4/9 (2010): 1339–1357, 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2010.00376.x

In addition to observing changing landscape patterns, repeat photography can illustrate

Methods of Repeat Photography

TRADITIONAL REPEAT PHOTOGRAPHY

ª 2010 The Author Geography Compass 4/9 (2010): 1339–1357, 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2010.00376.x

Table 1. Sample of archetypal repeat photograph studies.

Subject Study Author and date

ª 2010 The Author Geography Compass 4/9 (2010): 1339–1357, 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2010.00376.x

Subject Study Author and date

Land-use change ⁄ human-induced change

ª 2010 The Author Geography Compass 4/9 (2010): 1339–1357, 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2010.00376.x

ENHANCEMENT OF TRADITIONAL REPEAT PHOTOGRAPHY

Early quantitative measurements using terrestrial photography include examining rate of

ª 2010 The Author Geography Compass 4/9 (2010): 1339–1357, 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2010.00376.x

ª 2010 The Author Geography Compass 4/9 (2010): 1339–1357, 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2010.00376.x

ª 2010 The Author Geography Compass 4/9 (2010): 1339–1357, 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2010.00376.x

the incorporation of Geographic Information Systems analysis provide burgeoning new

ª 2010 The Author Geography Compass 4/9 (2010): 1339–1357, 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2010.00376.x

ª 2010 The Author Geography Compass 4/9 (2010): 1339–1357, 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2010.00376.x

ª 2010 The Author Geography Compass 4/9 (2010): 1339–1357, 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2010.00376.x

ª 2010 The Author Geography Compass 4/9 (2010): 1339–1357, 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2010.00376.x

ª 2010 The Author Geography Compass 4/9 (2010): 1339–1357, 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2010.00376.x

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