Multiphonics for the Oboe

Nora Post

Reproduced from INTERFACE by arrangement with the editors.

ABSTRACT

This paper explores four aspects of multiphonic sounds as they pertain to the oboe - definition,
acoustical properties, notation, and compositional usage. The article provides a detailed
multiphonic fingering chart as well as a brief discussion of (1) the notation of oboe fingering
generally and the multiphonic fingering chart in particular; (2) slurred multiphonics; and (3)
the factors which affect the reliability of oboe multiphonics.

DEFINITION AND NOTATION

The impact of multiphonics on today's repertoire is undisputed. Of all the recent expanded techniques for the
woodwinds, the interest in, and development of, multiphonics has been far more extensive than that of any
other "new" sound. This development has been advantageous for the oboe, which possesses an extraordinary
ability to execute a great variety of multiphonic sounds. The oboe can make an almost imperceptible
pianissimo multiphonic entrance - and it can produce an immediately incisive fortissimo attack. Well-chosen
multiphonics can be articulated at the same speeds as the most rapid single sounds, including double and triple
tonguing. More than anything else, it is this responsiveness which accounts for the reliability - and consequent
attractiveness - of oboe multiphonics.

There are several types of multiphonics for the oboe. But first, a working definition is essential. What,
exactly, is a multiphonic? Bruno Bartolozzi (1967, p. 35) offers one explanation: "... the generation, at one
and the same time, of a number of frequency vibrations in the single air column of an instrument." Or, as
Arthur Benade (1976, p. 565) describes it:

A multiphonic oscillation is made up of a collection of components whose frequencies are

connected to one another by an elaborate set of heterodyne relationships. The ordinary tones of
woodwind instruments also fit this description, but the frequency components in normal tones
are limited to those belonging to a single harmonic series.

As to the process involved: "These chords result from fingering patterns which in principle provide several
tube- lengths on which to provide composite tones." (Read, 1976, p. 150).

Does singing and playing simultaneously constitute a multiphonic? Technically speaking, singing/playing and
multiphonics are both the same acoustic phenomena, although they are produced by different means. On some
wind instruments - the flute and saxophone, for example - singing and playing sometimes cannot be
distinguished from multiphonics. [1] (This is not the case with the oboe, due primarily to its limited capacity
for singing and playing.) But, while singing and playing is the result of one tone being played and one being
sung, multiphonics are produced exclusively by the vibrating system of the instrument. Since singing and
playing do not satisfy this criterion, they will be excluded from my comments.

There is considerable diversity about the manner in which multiphonics are notated. From the performer's
viewpoint, any notational system is acceptable if it efficiently conveys accurate information. This is no easy
task. Bartolozzi sought clarity via numbers representing the keys of the woodwind instruments (Fig. 1). His
system had a substantial influence upon composers during the years immediately following the publication of
his book. Of late, this influence has waned. Performers find his notation awkward because it requires that
arbitrary numbers representing each key of an instrument be memorized. It is quite natural for an oboist to see
"B" written in a fingering; it is time consuming to see "9" written in a score, forcing the performer to consult
Bartolozzi's book to decipher the composer's intention and then to translate Bartolozzi's notation into standard
fingering symbols. It is unfortunate that a number of outstanding composers employed a system which creates
unnecessary difficulties for the performer.

I have devised what is, in my opinion, a simpler and clearer notation for multiphonic, as well as other,
fingerings. It entails depicting the six main tone holes of the oboe, including a dividing line between right and
left hands, and then giving letter names for all other keys. Fig. 2 indicates two fingerings of the same
multiphonic - the left utilizing the Bartolozzi system, the right using mine.

Aside from variants of the two systems of multiphonic notation described above, other multiphonic notation

deals with indeterminate or only partly-determined multiphonics. David Cope [2] employs the sign to
indicate indeterminate multiphonics. Vinko Globokar[3], on the other hand, utilizes several different
multiphonic notations, depending upon the context. Most often, however, he uses the symbol "M" above a
note, and places under it either a number specifying how many pitches should be in the multiphonic or
alternatively, provides pitchless noteheads representing the total number of tones desired. (Fig. 3)

There are two groups of multiphonic sounds for the oboe. The first is what Bartolozzi calls "homogeneous
chords". These are "...all sounds of approximately the same volume and colour..." (Bartolozzi, 1967, p. 42).
The second group, which he calls "broken sounds", he describes as:

...chords containing sounds of different tone colour are obtained by emitting simultaneously
two sounds which are close together, with their relative harmonics. In this way it is possible to
exploit the phenomenon of "beats" caused by the interference in sound vibrations occurring
when two sounds are emitted which are very close together, within the maximum space of a
semitone.

There are substantial differences between the sound and production of "beating" and normal oboe
multiphonics. For that reason, beating multiphonics will be treated as a special subset.

COMPOSITIONAL USAGE

The uses of multiphonics are almost as numerous as they are diverse. The examples discussed below illustrate
the vast variety of available multiphonic possibilities.

Lucas Foss and Peter Schat have each written works which utilize oboe multiphonics for virtually their entire
duration. The oboe part for Schat's Clockwise and Anti-Clockwise, [4] written in circular form, consists of
twelve groups of multiphonics for three oboes. Beginning at any point, the players proceed either clockwise or
counterclockwise, changing multiphonics at the conductor's signal. The effect is a homogeneous wash against
which the rest of the piece is set. While the oboe part includes a catalogue of fingerings and pitches, the actual
"boxes" of multiphonics show only fingerings (Ex. 1). Foss's The Cave of the Winds, [5] uses multiphonics,
borrowed in toto from Bartolozzi, for all four woodwinds. Included in the score are Bartolozzi's drawings of
the four instruments with his numbering of the keys.

An unusual version of multiphonics has been the "orchestration" of their pitches - that is, having certain
pitches doubled by other instruments in the ensemble. Ursula Mamlok [6] employs this device to reinforce the
individual pitches of several sustained multiphonics in her Concerto for Oboe and Orchestra. In similar
fashion, Paul Zonn [7] requires each of the other instruments to enter separately on one of the pitches of a
sustained oboe multiphonic.

Multiphonic ostinati patterns occur occasionally. Peter Salemi [8]calls for numerous ostinati in his Riff 70/71,
each of which is played at one of three recurrent speeds. Paul Earls [9]demands something more difficult - the
English Horn begins a slow, soft ostinato between several multiphonics; each time the pattern is repeated it
must crescendo and accelerate. Furthermore, a new multiphonic must be added at each repetition. When all
the indicated multiphonics have been added, the ostinato ends.

Multiphonics are frequently employed in conjunction with other sounds, conventional or otherwise. A simple
combination is the arrival at, and/or departure from, a multiphonic via one of its pitches. Although often
encountered in the repertoire, this is possible only with certain multiphonics (see Remarks on Multiphonic
Fingering Chart). However, one cannot always precisely predict when these multiphonics will sound.
Composers usually allow some time, consequently, for the embouchure to achieve the desired effect. Ton de
Kruyf takes this into account when he adds F5 to the C6 (Ex. 2).

In contrast to most multiphonics, which speak tutti, there are some whose pitches can be phased in one by one
(see Beating Multiphonic Fingering Chart).

Occasionally, fluttertongue is added to a multiphonic. The result depends on the multiphonic chosen, for the
denser multiphonics (i.e., those comprised of many pitches) are so complex that the added effect of
fluttertongue is negligible. Two of the more successful examples of this technique are found in Toru
Takemitsu, who adds singing to a fluttertongued multiphonic and then deletes fluttertongue from a
multiphonic (Exs. 3 and 4).

Multiphonics can sometimes be slurred together [10], although this demands a thorough knowledge of the
oboe's fingering system. Iannis Xenakis does it quite expertly in the example given below (Ex. 5). [11]

Composers often do not grasp the difference between a multiphonic trill and a multiphonic tremolo. A trilled
multiphonic is one in which all the pitches of the multiphonic move in the same direction by a semitone. If the
pitches do not change in this symmetrical fashion, what we have is, technically speaking, a tremolo.
Consequently, many multiphonics marked "tr" are not actually trills, but tremolos. While most multiphonic
trills and tremolos are executed the same way - i.e., only one finger moves - this does not necessarily produce
a symmetrical semitone trill of all the pitches in the multiphonic. Takemitsu clearly distinguishes between
trills and tremolo added to multiphonics (Ex. 6). In most cases, though, composers use the "tr" indication
regardless of the internal construction of the multiphonic.

Oboe multiphonics do not have much pitch flexibility. Individual notes within a given multiphonic cannot be
tuned. Although some multiphonics lend themselves to semitone pitch bend, most do not. Recognizing this
limitation, Earls asks simply for whatever degree of multiphonic pitch bend possible (Ex. 7). Xenakis uses
special fingerings to extend the limited range of multiphonic pitch bends (Ex. 8), calling for a semitone
glissando via fingering change. (He also requires that fluttertongue and trill be added.)
Some composers ask the oboist to sing while playing multiphonics, as illustrated by the Takemitsu example
cited earlier (Ex. 3). Globokar seeks a more complex effect by employing a series of vocal entrances,
including vocal glissandi (Ex. 9). However, as with simultaneous singing and playing, the effectiveness of this
technique is less than overwhelming.

Beating multiphonics are rarely encountered because few composers and performers are familiar with them.
Most instances consist of two predominant pitches, usually a semitone apart (see Multiphonic Fingering
Chart). If the performer begins the sound quietly enough, one of the two main pitches can frequently be
produced alone, and then the beating pitch added. The speed of the beating is influenced by the dynamic level
of the multiphonic- the beats tend to be slower when the dynamic level is soft, and to increase in speed as the
dynamic increases. Therefore, some degree of beating control is possible. Furthermore, the speed of some
beating multiphonics can also be controlled by the embouchure. The multiphonic shown below, based upon a
predominant F4, is an excellent case in point (Fig. 4). One of the few published examples of beating
multiphonics is found in Foss's The Cave of the Winds which, incidentally, also provides a particularly good
fingering (Ex. 10).

REMARKS ON MULTIPHONIC FINGERING CHART

1. Fingerings

Fingerings will be based upon the six major keys (tone holes) of the oboe, which will not be identified by
letter name:

Any other keys, when utilized, will be given written symbols (consisting of letter names and/or numbers),
which will appear in the location of their position on the oboe. These symbols will be shown to the right or
left of the six main tone holes, as if the reader were looking directly at an oboe. Duplicate keys will not be
specifically indicated, since their location will identify them as such. The symbols for keys are as follows
[12]:
 [

Venting for the six main holes will be indicated:

Thus, the multiphonic fingering shown below would be executed:

left hand: B and A keys depressed, G key depressed only on rim leaving cent hole open, low B key depressed.
right hand: F# and E keys depressed, D key open, C key depressed

2. Slurred Multiphonics

Only some multiphonics can be slurred. Inability to slur many multiphonics results from the fact that most
players cannot gradually slide one finger off one key and onto another. As we can see in Fig. 5, the fifth finger
of the left hand cannot readily slide to another of the five keys it operates. [13] Similarly, the fifth finger of
the right hand usually cannot slide among the three keys it controls. [14] While a few unusually skilled oboists
can overcome some of these difficulties, they are exceptional.

Half-hole fingerings as well as those in which only the rims of the keys are depressed do not
jeopardize the ability to slur. A passage by Takemitsu, going from a G#4 to a multiphonic and then back to
the G#4, requires that the second finger of the left hand slide to uncover the center hole of the key (Ex. 11).
Given the complexities of slurred multiphonics, interested composers would be well advised to consult an
oboist.
3. Reliability

The reliability of the multiphonics listed in the following pages will vary somewhat for each player depending
upon differences in, among other things, embouchure, reed materials and instruments used, individual reed
making techniques, and national reed making styles. From the acoustical point of view, the effect of just the
reed alone is substantial (Benade, 1976, p. 566):

The internally measured spectrum can he changed drastically when the player makes small
changes in the size of the reed cavity (this is particularly true among the conical instruments).
The reason for this is that cavity changes shift the frequency relationships among the air-
column resonance peaks, and so oases the subtle interplay between them and the generated
components. The relationship between the internal and the external spectrum of a multiphonic
sound is not of the simple sort we find for more normal woodwind tones.

While these acoustical and instrumental factors are too large a topic to consider here, their effect on any
attempt to standardize the reliability (and response) of different fingerings must be taken into account. In
general, multiphonic production requires more embouchure pressure and/or more reed in the mouth than
conventional playing. Thus, problems encountered in producing these sounds will result most likely from
either the reed or an inappropriate embouchure. Players should realize that reed flexibility is the critical
prerequisite to the production of multiphonic sounds; only a flexible reed will respond to the embouchure
adjustments needed to avoid the pitfalls of multiphonics (Benade, 1976, p. 565):

On the pianissimo side, the instrument may lapse into producing an essentially pure tone based
on the tallest resonance peak, and on the loud-playing side the reed may simply choke up and
snap closed if too many of the generated components lie at dips in the resonance curve.

Because even the most reliable multiphonics vary in their response characteristics, each multiphonic will be
coded by number to indicate: (1) dynamic range, (2) reliability/stability, and (3) ease of response. Dynamic
range will be indicated by the standard symbols. Ease of response and stability/reliability will be given letter
names- A, B, or C, to signify the following:

Reliability/stability

 A = highly stable/reliable
 B = moderately stable/reliable
 C = usually stable/reliable, but somewhat difficult to produce

Ease of response

 A = highly responsive
 B = moderately responsive
 C = moderately responsive, but somewhat difficult to produce

Thus, a typical multiphonic entry might read:

1. pp-ff (dynamic range)
2. A (reliability/stability)
3. A (ease of response)
Multiphonics are listed according to their highest pitch, since this is often the pitch with the most reliable
intonation. Where the player can slur either into or out of a multiphonic via one of its constituent pitches, that
pitch is indicated by a fermata. A slur marking shows whether the single note preceeds or follows the
multiphonic. Within a multiphonic, pitches marked by parentheses indicate notes which are either difficult to
hear or which occasionally may not sound at all.

Beating multiphonics are listed by the predominant pitch, with the beating note in parentheses. Frequently, the
main pitch can be produced alone, and then the beating effect added. This usually entails a very low dynamic
level, and the results vary from player to player.

4. Intonation

Multiphonic fingerings below utilize the following system to indicate microtonal intonation:

= 1/4 tone sharp

= 1/4 tone flat

= slightly sharp

= slightly flat

MULTIPHONIC FINGERING CHART

Page 1
Page 2
Page 3
Page 4
Page 5
Page 6 (Beating Multiphonics)
Page 7 (Beating Multiphonics)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bartolozzi, B. New Sounds for Woodwind, transl. and ed. Reginald Smith Brindle. London: Oxford University
Press, 1967.

Benade, A. Fundamentals of Musical Acoustics. New York: Oxford University Press, 1967.
Read, G. Contemporary Instrumental Techniques, with a Foreword by Gunther Schuller. New York: Schirmer
Books, 1967.

NORA POST

Oboist Nora Post received her B.A. from the University of California, San Diego, and both her M.A. and
Ph.D. from New York University. She made her debut at Town Hall, New York in 1974, and has since
performed, recorded and lectured throughout the United States and Europe. Miss Post has premiered works by
Xenakis, Hiller. Wuorinen, Feldman and Cage. Her publications appear in Perspectives of New Music and
Early Music; her Contemporary Oboe Technique is forthcoming with University of California Press. Post also
plays and builds historical 2-keyed oboes, and has been invited to redesign the modern oboe at IRCAM.

FOOTNOTES

[1] Brass instruments cannot produce two tones simultaneously, thus singing and playing
constitutes their only possibility for multiphonics. [return]

[2] David Cope, Indices for Solo Oboe(ist), 1971 (Copy of composer's ms.). [return]

[3] Vinko Globokar, Discours 111, fur funf Oboen, 1969 (Frankfurt: C. F. Peters Corp.,
c1972). [return]

[4] Peter Schat, Clockwise and Anti-clockwise, voor zestier blazers, 1967 (Amsterdam:
Donemus, c1967), Oboe part, pp. 15-16, score. [return]

[5] Lucas Foss, The Cave of the Winds, for woodwind quintet, 1972 (Paris: Editions Salabert,
c1973). [return]

[6] Ursula Mamlok, Concerto for Oboe and Orchestra, 1975-76 (Copy of composer's ms.).
[return]

[7] Paul Zonn, Liberata 111, Concerto for Wind Quintet, 1969 (Grinnell, Iowa: Music Press,
n.d.). [return]

[8] Peter Salemi, Riff 70/71 for eunice and j.p., for solo oboe, alto flute, harpsichord, 12-string
guitar, German zither, and percussion, 1971 (Copy of composer's ms.). [return]

[9] Paul Earls, Doppelganger: Music for Oboes and Laser, 1976 (Copy of composer's ms.).
[return]

[10] For detailed information on slurred multiphonics, see Remarks on Multiphonic Fingering
Charts. [return]

[11] Although Xenakis employs numbers in his notation, his system is not identical to
Bartolozzi's. [return]

[12] The instruments used as the basis for all fingerings were full Plateau Conservatoire system
oboes F. Loree DA45 and Marigaux 10213. [return]
 [13 ]The keys controlled by the fifth finger of the left hand are: B, Bb, G# Eb, and F. Those
controlled by the fifth finger of the right hand are: C, C#, and Eb (plus alternate C and C#
keys). [return]

[14] Other ''rules ' of slurring are: (a) the first and second octave keys may be slurred; and (b)
for those oboes having a third octave key, the second and third octave keys can be slurred.
Always check that a duplicate key is not available for an otherwise awkward slur. These
include the right and left G#, Eb, and F keys, as well as right and left C# trill keys. In situations
where neither F fingering works, there is always the option of the forked F fingering. [return]

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