Ans 1:-

1. Protocol layering is a common technique to simplify networking designs by dividing them into
functional layers, and assigning protocols to perform each layer's task.
Ex:-
it is common to separate the functions of data delivery and connection management into separate
layers, and therefore separate protocols. Thus, one protocol is designed to perform data delivery,
and another protocol, layered above the first, performs connection management. The data delivery
protocol is fairly simple and knows nothing of connection management. The connection
management protocol is also fairly simple, since it doesn't need to concern itself with data
delivery.

2. Protocol layering produces simple protocols, each with a few well-defined tasks. These
protocols can then be assembled into a useful whole. Individual protocols can also be removed or
replaced as needed for particular applications.

Ans 2:- Difference between Connection oriented service and

Connectionless service

1. In connection oriented service authentication is needed while connectionless service does not
need any authentication.

2. Connection oriented protocol makes a connection and checks whether message is received or
not and sends again if an error occurs connectionless service protocol does not guarantees a
delivery.

3. In connection oriented service is more reliable than connectionless service.

4. Connection oriented service interface is stream based and connectionless is message based.

Ans 3:- Both models are based on layered protocols. Both have a network,
transport, and application layer. In both models, the transport
service can provide a reliable endtoend byte stream connection.

Ans 4:-
1. In guided media the signal requires a physical path for transmission but in the
unguided media the signal is broadcasted through air or sometimes water.

2. Guided media is called wired communication or bounded transmission media and

 but unguided media is called wireless communication or unbounded transmission
media.

3. Guided media provides direction to signal for travelling but the

unguided media does not provide any direction.

4. Example of guided media is twisted pair cable, coaxial cable and fibre optic cable.
Example of unguided media is Radio wave, microwave and infrared.

Ans 5:-
Fraction of the network bandwidth is filled with headers:-
From the given data, a system contains n-layers protocol hierarchy and "h" bytes of data are
added at each layer.

So the total number of header bytes is n×h; therefore the space wasted on the headers of the is
n×h.

Each message generated by the application is M-bytes long; So add "M" with total number of
header bytes.

Thus the total message size is M+nh.

Divide the total number of header bytes by total message size to calculate the fraction of
bandwidth wasted on the headers.
Fraction of bandwidth wasted =