Construction[edit]

Materials and history[edit]

Models of watchtowers and other buildings made during the Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 25–220); while these
models were made of ceramics, the real versions were made of easily perishable wood and have not survived.

Wood was originally utilised as a primary building material because it was very common. Also,
Chinese people trust that life is connecting with nature and humans should interact with animated
things, therefore wood was favored as opposed to stone, which was associated with the homes of
the dead.[27] However, unlike other building construction materials, old wooden structures often do not
survive because they are more vulnerable to weathering and fires and are naturally subjected to
rotting over time. Although now-nonexistent wooden residential towers, watchtowers, and pagodas
predated it by centuries, the Songyue Pagoda built in 523 is the oldest extant pagoda in China; its
use of brick instead of wood had much to do with its endurance throughout the centuries. From
the Tang dynasty (618–907) onwards, brick and stone architecture gradually became more common
and replaced wooden edifices. The earliest examples of this transition can be seen in building
projects such as the Zhaozhou Bridge completed in 605 or the Xumi Pagoda built in 636, yet stone
and brick architecture is known to have been used in subterranean tomb architecture of earlier
dynasties.

A stone-carved pillar-gate, or que (闕), 6 m (20 ft) in total height, located at the tomb of Gao Yi in
Ya'an, Sichuan province, Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 AD);[28] notice the stone-carved decorations of
roof tile eaves, despite the fact that Han Dynasty stone que (part of the walled structures around tomb
entrances) lacked wooden or ceramic components (but often imitated wooden buildings with ceramic roof tiles).
[29]

These rammed earth ruins of a granary in Hecang Fortress (Chinese: 河仓城； Pinyin: Hécāngchéng), located
~11 km (7 miles) northeast of the Western-Han-era Yumen Pass, were built during the Western Han (202 BC –
9 AD) and significantly rebuilt during the Western Jin (280–316 AD).[30]

In the early 20th century there were no known fully wood-constructed Tang Dynasty buildings that
still existed; the oldest so far discovered was the 1931 find of Guanyin Pavilion at Dule Monastery,
dated 984 during the Song.[3] This was until the architectural historians Liang Sicheng (1901–1972),
Lin Huiyin (1904–1955), Mo Zongjiang (1916–1999), and (1902 – c. 1960s) discovered that the
Great East Hall of Foguang Temple on Mount Wutai in Shanxi was reliably dated to the year 857 in
June 1937.[3] The groundfloor dimensions for this monastic hall measures 34 by 17.66 m (111.5 by
57.9 ft).[31] A year after the discovery at Foguang, the main hall of nearby Nanchan Temple on Mount
Wutai was reliably dated to the year 782, [32] while a total of six Tang era wooden buildings have been
found by the 21st century.[33] The oldest existent fully wooden pagoda that has survived intact is
the Pagoda of Fogong Temple of the Liao dynasty, located in Ying County of Shanxi. While the East
Hall of Foguang Temple features only seven types of bracket arms in its construction, the 11th-
century Pagoda of Fogong Temple features a total of fifty-four. [34]

Remnants of the Great Wall of Qi on Dafeng Mountain, Changqing District, Jinan, which was once part of the
ancient State of Qi during the Warring States Period (475–221 BC).

The Great Wall of China at Mutianyu, near Beijing, built during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644)

The earliest walls and platforms in China were of rammed earth construction, and over time brick
and stone became more frequently used. This can be seen in ancient sections of the Great Wall of
China, while the brick and stone Great Wall seen today is a renovation of the Ming dynasty (1368–
1644).
With it all consistency is found in Chinese architecture and, although wood being one of the main
features, other materials like stone and glazed ceramic tiles were used too. Buildings for public use
and for the elites usually consisted of earth mixed with bricks or stones on raised platforms which
makes it of little wonder they survived time and natural disasters,hardly do you see the remains of
homes of commoners.
The earliest of this sort of architecture can be traced to the Shang dynasty (c. 1600 - 1046 BCE) [35]

Structure[edit]
Main article: Ancient Chinese wooden architecture

Mortise and tenon work of tie beams and cross beams, from Li Jie's building manual Yingzao Fashi, printed in
1103.

Diagram of corbel wood bracket supports ("dougong") holding up a multi-inclined roof, from the architectural
treatise Yingzao Fashi (1103 AD)

 Foundations: Most buildings are typically raised on raised platforms (臺基) as their
foundations. Vertical structural beams may rest on raised stone pedestals (柱础) which
occasionally rest on piles. In lower class construction, the platforms are constructed of
rammed earth platforms that are unpaved or paved with brick or ceramics. In the simplest cases
vertical structural beams are driven into the ground directly. Upper class constructions typically
have high raised stone paved rammed earth or stone foundations with ornately carved heavy
stone pedestals for supporting large vertical structural beams. [14] The vertical beams rest and
remain on their pedestals solely by friction and the pressure exerted by the building structure. [36]
 Structural beams: Use of large structural timbers for primary support of the roof of a building.
Wooden timber, usually large trimmed logs, are used as load-bearing columns and lateral
beams for framing buildings and supporting the roofs. These beams are connected to each other
directly or, in larger and higher class structures, tied indirectly together through the use of
brackets. These structural timbers are prominently displayed in finished structures. It is not
definitively known how the ancient builders raised the huge wooden load bearing columns into
position.
 Structural connections: Timber frames are typically constructed with joinery and dowelling
alone, seldom with the use of glue or nails. These types of semi-rigid structural joints allow the
timber structure to resist bending and torsion while under high compression. [14] Structural stability
is further ensured through the use of heavy beams and roofs, which weighs the structure down.
[36]
 The lack of glue or nails in joinery, the use of non-rigid support such as dougong, and the
used of wood as structural members allow the buildings to slide, flex, and hinge while absorbing
shock, vibration, and groundshift from earthquakes without significant damage to its structure.
[14]
 Dougong has a special function. The rich people applied valuable materials to decorate the
Dougong for displaying their wealth. The common people used artwork to express their
appreciation to the house.[37]
 Walls: The common use of curtain walls or door panels to delineate rooms or enclose a
building, with the general de-emphasis of load-bearing walls in most higher class construction.
However, with the reduction in availability of trees in the later dynasties for building structures,
the use of load-bearing walls in non-governmental or religious construction increased, with brick
and stone being commonly used.
 Roofs: Flat roofs are uncommon while gabled roofs are almost omnipresent in traditional
Chinese architecture. Roofs are either built on roof cross-beams or rest directly on vertical
structural beams. In higher class construction, roof supporting beams are supported through
complex dougong bracketing systems that indirectly connect them to the primary structural
beams.[14] Three main types of roofs are found:
1. Straight inclined: Roofs with a single incline. These are the most economical type of
roofing and are most prevalent in commoner architectures.
2. Multi-inclined: Roofs with 2 or more sections of incline. These roofs are used in
higher class constructions, from the dwellings of wealthy commoners to palaces.
3. Sweeping: Roofs with a sweeping curvature that rises at the corners of the roof. This
type of roof construction is usually reserved for temples and palaces although it may
also be found in the homes of the wealthy. In the former cases, the ridges of the roof are
usually highly decorated with ceramic figurines.
 Roof apex: The roof apex of a large hall is usually topped with a ridge of tiles and statues for
both decorative purposes as well as to weigh down the layers of roofing tiles for stability. These
ridges are often well decorated, especially for religious or palatial structures. In some regions of
China, the ridges are sometimes extended or incorporated into the walls of the building to form
matouqiang (horse-head walls), which serve as a fire deterrent from drifting embers.
 Roof top decorations: Symbolism can be found from colors of the eaves, roofing materials
and roof top decorations. Gold/yellow is an auspicious (good) color, imperial roofs are gold or
yellow. They are usually used by the emperor. Green roofs symbolize bamboo shafts, which, in
turn, represent youth and longevity.[38]

Classification by structure[edit]
A pavilion inside the Zhuozheng Garden in Suzhou, Jiangsu province, one of the finest gardens in China

The Zhaozhou Bridge, built from 595–605 during the Sui dynasty. It is the oldest fully stone open-
spandrel segmental arch bridge in the world.

Chinese classifications for architecture include:

 亭 (Chinese: 亭; pinyin: Tíng) ting (Chinese pavilions)
 臺 (simplified Chinese: 台; traditional Chinese: 臺; pinyin: Taí) tai (terraces)
 樓 (simplified Chinese: 楼; traditional Chinese: 樓; pinyin: Lóu) lou (multistory buildings)
 閣 (simplified Chinese: 阁; traditional Chinese: 閣; pinyin: Gé) ge (two-story pavilions)
 軒 (轩) xuan (verandas with windows)
 塔 ta (Chinese pagodas)
 榭 xie (pavilions or houses on terraces)
 屋 wu (Rooms along roofed corridors)
 斗拱 (Chinese: 斗拱; pinyin: Dǒugǒng) dougong interlocking wooden brackets, often used in
clusters to support roofs and add ornamentation.
 藻井 Caisson domed or coffered ceiling
 宮 (simplified Chinese: 宫; traditional Chinese: 宮; pinyin: Gōng) palaces, larger buildings
used as imperial residences, temples, or centers for cultural activities.

Miniature models[edit]
Main article: Science and technology of the Han Dynasty §  Structural engineering
Although mostly only ruins of brick and rammed earth walls and towers from ancient China (i.e.
before the 6th century AD) have survived, information on ancient Chinese architecture (especially
wooden architecture) can be discerned from more or less realistic clay models of buildings created
by the ancient Chinese as funerary items. This is similar to the paper joss houses burned in some
modern Chinese funerals. The following models were made during the Han Dynasty (202 BC – AD
220):
 

A pottery palace from the Han dynasty (202 BC – AD 220)

 


Two residential towers joined by a bridge, pottery miniature, Han dynasty (202 BC – AD 220)

 


A pottery tower from the Han dynasty (202 BC – AD 220)

 


A ceramic model of a house with a courtyard, from the Han dynasty (202 BC – AD 220)

 
 

A pottery gristmill from the Han dynasty (202 BC – AD 220)

 


A pottery tower from the Han dynasty (202 BC – AD 220)

 


A pottery model of a well from the Han dynasty (202 BC – AD 220)

During the Jin dynasty (266–420) and the Six Dynasties, miniature models of buildings or entire
architectural ensembles were often made to decorate the tops of the so-called "soul vases"
(hunping), found in many tombs of that period. [39]

Gender in Chinese homes and society[edit]

Beyond the physically creative architecture techniques that the Chinese used, there was an
"imaginary architecture"[40] that was implemented into a Chinese house. This imaginary architecture
projected three major principles, that display a different set of messages about the relations between
its inhabitants, the cosmos, and society at large, that each depicts a gender power imbalance. [40]
The first design principle was that the Chinese house was the embodiment of Neo-Confucian values.
The values of the home incorporated prominently social values, collaborative values of loyalty, and
values of respect and service. The values were depicted through how the Chinese home
represented generations, gender, and age. Unlike western homes, the Chinese home was not a
private space or a place separated from the state. It was a smaller community in itself. A place that
sheltered a clan's or family's patrilineal kinship. It was quite common for houses to shelter "five
generations under one roof."[40] In this patrilineal kinship, there are heavily influenced social concepts
of Confucianist values from the Five Relationships between "ruler and subject, father and child,
husband and wife, elder and younger brother and friends." [40] There is a large emphasis on the
unequal relationship between the superior and subordinate. In the case of the relationship between
husband and wife, it clearly was male-dominated. Despite this, the husband was still responsible for
treating the partner with kindness, consideration, and understanding.
The second aspect was that the Chinese house was a cosmic space. The house was designed as a
shelter to thwart away evil influences by channeling cosmic energies (qi) through means of
incorporating Feng shui (also known as geomancy). Depending on the season, astral cycle,
landscape's configuration of hills, rocks, trees, and water streams, and the house's arrangement,
orientation, and details of roofs or gates, an arbitrary amount of energy would be produced.
However, since the cosmic energy was such an arbitrary concept, it would be used in both moral
and immoral ways. The moral way is by adding Feng shui to a local community temple. Yet, it other
times Feng shui would be used competitively to raise the value of one's house at the expense of
others. For example, if someone built a part of their house against the norm, their house would be
considered a threat. Since it was throwing off the cosmic energy. In one detailed account, a fight
broke out over Feng shui.[41] Additionally, this methodology was also incorporated inside the home.
Symmetry, orientations, arrangements of objects, and cleanliness were important factors to cosmic
energy. Even in poorer homes cleanliness and tidiness were highly desired since it would
compensate for the cramped quarters. Sweeping was a daily task that was thought to be an act of
purifying the room of pollutions such as dirt. As the Chinese historian, Sima Guang writes, "The
servants of the inner and outer quarters and the concubines all rise at the first crow of the cock. After
combing their hair, washing, and getting dressed, the male servants should sweep the halls and
front courtyard; the doorman and older servants should sweep the middle courtyard, while the maids
sweep the living quarters, arrange tables and chairs, and prepare for the toilet of the master and
mistress." Through cleaning, the gender segregation of the Chinese household can be seen. [40]
The third component was that the house was a space of culture, by depicting the Chinese view of
humanity. The house was a domestic domain that marked the separation of the undomesticated
world. Commonly symbolized through walls and gates. Gates were first a physical barrier and
second a kind of notice board for the outside world. Walls were the boundaries of a patriarchal
domain. The home culture was also a place where family rules could be enforced, causing divides in
the upbringing of the inhabitants. Most commonly, there was a wide gender distinction. Women were
often hidden away within the inner walls to do wifely domestic duties. While men would be house
representatives. In terms of the marriage duties, "Men would grow up, marry and likely die in the
house win which he, his father and paternal grandfather had been born and in which his mother
would live until her death. Women would leave their natal home on marriage to become a stranger in
a new house."[40] Women wouldn't be accepted into a new home until they sired a child. Often new
brides would be treated badly by the senior members of a household. In extreme cases, junior brides
were treated like unpaid servants and forced to do unpleasant chores. Additionally, to women,
marriage was thought of as a descent into hell. "The analogy of the wedding process with death is
made explicit: the bride describes herself as being prepared for death, and the wedding process as
the crossing of the yellow river that is the boundary between this life and the next. Shes appeals for
justice, citing the valuable and unrecognized contribution she has made to her family. Her language
is bitter and unrestrained, and she even curses the matchmaker and her future husband's family.
Such lamenting can take place only within her parents' household and must cease halfway on the
road to her new home, when the invisible boundary has been crossed." [40] As a result of this, men
and women faced two vastly different lives.
The confinement of women was a method of controlling their sexuality. It was thought that women
needed to be controlled so that they may not get pregnant by an outsider and then try to claim a
state in the male's domain. In addition, wives were often represented as "gossiping troublemakers
eager to stir up strife between otherwise devoted brothers, the root of family discord, requiring strict
patriarchal control."[40] As a result, they were untrusted and were always considered to be involved in
an illicit sexual relationship if they were in the company of another male.
Even though a couple would be married, husbands and wives did not stay in the same private room
for long. During the day, men would go out or work in their studies so that they can avoid any
unnecessary contact with female relatives. Women weren't allowed to leave the inner perimeter. If a
woman had to leave the inner perimeter, they must cover their face with a veil or her sleeve.
However, the inner quarters did provide women with some control over the patriarchal order. Since
they had their own private room that men were not usually permitted to enter.
On all social levels and aspects of the Chinese home, the seclusion of women was ingrained into
society. A married woman was a virtually a prisoner in her husband's domain while the husband
"never had to leave his parents or his home, he knew which lineage and which landscape he
belonged to from the time he began to understand the world." [40]

Influence from outside of China[edit]

Despite largely being self-developing, there have been periods where Chinese architecture received
significant influence from abroad, particularly during conquest dynasties such as the Yuan and Qing,
who tended to be more outward-looking.[42] The ruins of the Yuan capital of Khanbaliq under the
Forbidden City in Beijing were analysed by scholars to be both distinct from previous styles and
influential to many later architecture. Additionally the import of many Muslim officials, architects and
scholars from the Islamic world during the Yuan led to an influx of Islamic design elements,
especially in Chinese mosques.[43]
The Zhenghai Mosque in Ningbo city, Zhejiang province is a type of Islamic Architecture which
appeared in China during the Song dynasty (990 AD). When the Arabic traders arrived at the big
commercial city of Ningbo and settled down there, they spread the Muslim culture and built a
mosque. Later, more mosques were built around Beijing. [44][45] The case itself is found in the mosques
of Xi'an such as Xi'an Great Mosque and Daxuexi Alley Mosque. [46] Beijing's Mosques also follow
essentially the norms of Chinese planning, [47] layout, design, and traditional wooden structure. [46][48][49]
There are many miniature pagodas in Northeast China. They were built by Buddhists during the Liao
dynasty (907–1125), and the dynasty supported the practice of Buddhism. They developed some
new types of Buddhist architecture building with bricks. Thus, one can find many such pagodas from
Hebei Province to Beijing and Inner Mongolia.[50]

Influence on neighboring Asian countries[edit]

The Gate detail at the Winter Palace of the Bogd Khan, in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia contains Chinese
architectural influences.

Chinese architecture has been influential in varying degrees in the development of the architecture
of many neighboring East Asian countries. After the Tang dynasty, the era when much Chinese
culture was imported en masse by neighboring nations, Chinese architecture has had a major
influence on the architectural styles of Japan, Korea, Mongolia, and Vietnam where the East Asian
hip-and-gable roof design is ubiquitous.[2][3][1]
Chinese architecture also has underlying influences in the architecture of various Southeast Asian
countries. Certain Chinese architectural techniques were adopted by Thai artisans after trade
commenced with the Yuan and Ming dynasty towards Thai architecture. Certain temple and palace
roof tops were also built in Chinese-style and Chinese-style buildings can be found in Ayutthaya a
nod towards the large numbers of Chinese shipbuilders, sailors and traders who came to the
country.[5] In Indonesia, mosques bearing Chinese influence can be found in certain parts of the
country. This influence is recent in comparison to other parts of Asia and is largely due to the
sizable Chinese Indonesian community.[4]
In South Asia, Chinese architecture has played a significant role in shaping Sri Lankan architecture,
alongside influences from India and other parts of Southeast Asia.[6][7] The Kandyan roof style, for
example bears many similarities to the East Asian hip-and-gable roof technique which has its origins
in China.[51]
The Chinese-origin guardian lion is also found in front of Buddhist temples, buildings and some
Hindu temples (in Nepal) across Asia including Japan, Korea, Thailand, Myanmar, Vietnam, Sri
Lanka, Nepal, Cambodia and Laos.[52]