DECLARATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
 ABSTRACT

“What is this life if full of care, we have no time to stand and stare”. Quoted from his poem
“Leisure”, William Henry Davies best describes to me the true essence of a museum. A place to
pause, reflect and ponder over this incredible world we inhabit.

The practice of museology has a broad discourse based upon ideological, sociological,
technological and architectural disciplines. This thesis will only cover two of these disciplines,
architecture and technology, while analyzing the museum environment as it is believed that
museums are one of the most independent architectural spaces in both design and narration. 

Today, the field of virtual museums have become very dynamic due to technological innovations
and it offers different conceptual ideas for architectural design. Museums that are designed using
virtual applications function in-between real and virtual spaces.

In a society in which the access to information is a touch away, especially in urban areas, the
cultural institutions which preserve and promote heritage have to improve the way to send the
message due to the fact that the unidirectional transfer of information is no longer preferred by
the visitors. 

GLOSSARY

LIST OF ABBREVATIONS

ASI- Archaeological Survey of India

ICOM- International Council of Museums

LIST OF FIGURES
 TABLE OF CONTENT

i) Abstract
ii) Glossary
iii) List of Abbreviations
iv) List of Figures

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Definition of Museum

1.2 Types of Museums
1.3 Functions of Museums
1.4 Definition of Archaeology
1.5 Architecture & Archaeology
1.6 Significance of study
1.7 Aim & Objectives
1.8 Scope and Limitations

Chapter 2 Literature Review

2.1 Museology
2.2 The changing roles of museums
2.3 Curation & Conservation
2.4 Explanation & Presentation
2.5 Museum Visitors & Experience
2.6 The 21st Century Museum
2.6.1 Challenges of the Postmodern Museum
2.6.2 Opportunities of the Postmodern Museum
 2.7 Inferences

Chapter 3 Research Methodology

3.1 Approach to the research

3.2 Research Framework
3.3 Sources of Information

Chapter 4 Museum

4.1 Definition of a Museum

4.2 Types of Museums
4.3 Functions of Museums
4.4 History of Museums
4.5 Origin & Development of Museums in India
4.6 Evolution of Museums
4.7 Museological Narrative
4.8

Chapter 5 Archaeology

5.1 Definition of Archaeology

5.2 Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)
5.3 Archaeological Archives
5.4 Curation & Conservation
5.5 Presentation & Preservation

Chapter 6 Case Studies

6.1 Indian Museum, Kolkata

 6.2 National Museum, New Delhi
6.3

Chapter 7 Museum Design

7.1 ASI Design Guidelines

7.2 Space Organization
7.2.1 Standard Area for Museum Architecture
7.2.2 Standard Design Data for Museum Architecture
7.2.3 Supporting Facilities in Museums
7.3 Planning Factors
7.3.1 Zoning of a Museum
7.3.2 Circulation
7.3.3 Entrance & Access
7.4 Exhibition Space
7.4.1 Display Arrangements
7.4.2 Space Layout
7.4.3 Viewing Parameters
7.5 Display Techniques
7.5.1 Display Theme
7.5.2 Types of Exhibitions
7.5.3 Museum Exhibit Design
7.5.4 Problems of Visitors
7.5.5 Criteria for Successful Exhibit Design
7.6 Lighting
7.6.1 Natural Lighting
7.6.1.1 Techniques of Day lighting
7.6.1.2 Top Lighting
7.6.1.3 Horizontal & Sloped Skylight
7.6.1.4 Exposure to Diffused Daylight
7.6.2 Artificial Lighting
 7.6.2.1 Objects regarding sensitivity to Light
7.6.3 Lighting Considerations
7.6.3.1 General Considerations for Lighting
7.6.3.2 General Lighting Levels
7.6.3.3 Deciding the types of lights
7.6.4 Display Lighting Techniques
7.7 Services
7.7.1
7.8 Design Issue & Green Perspective
7.8.1 Sustainability of Museum
7.8.2 Energy Efficient Design
7.8.3 Green Perspective in Design
7.9 Standards for Archives

Chapter 8 Site

8.1 Site Selection Criteria

8.2 General Introduction
8.3 Access & Approach
8.4 Physical Features
8.5 Climatic Analysis
8.6 Social & Cultural Factors
8.7 SWOT Analysis
8.8 Bye Laws
8.9 Inferences

Chapter 9 Conclusions

Bibliography

Appendix
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Definition of Museum

The latest definition of museum was adopted during the 22nd General Assembly in Vienna,
Austria, held on August 24th, 2007 by the International Council of Museums (ICOM). According
to it, a museum is defined as:

‘A museum is a non-profit, permanent institution in the service of society and its development,
open to the public, which acquires, conserves, researches, communicates and exhibits the
tangible and intangible heritage of humanity and its environment for the purposes of education,
study and enjoyment’.

The definition of museum has evolved, alongside developments in society. Since its creation in
1946, ICOM updates this definition in accordance with the realities of the global museum
community.

The word "museum" comes from the Latin word, and is pluralized as "museums" (or, rarely,
"musea"). Originated from the Greek word mouseion, which denotes a place or temple dedicated
to the Muses (the patron divinities in Greek mythology of the arts). Museum, as defined by the
Oxford Dictionary, is a building in which objects of artistic, cultural, historical or scientific
interests are displayed. The objects in the museums may be antique, historically and
archeologically.

“A museum is an institution that cares for (conserves) a collection of artifacts and other objects
of scientific, artistic, cultural, or historical importance and makes them available for public
viewing through exhibits that may be permanent or temporary.” (Alexander & Alexander, 2007)
“A museum is an institution, which collects documents, preserves, exhibits and interprets
material evidence and association for the public benefit.” (Museum associates UK 1994)

“The museum, as we know, is a building that commands authority through the ‘authentic’
fragments that it contains. In our view the case for conceptualizing the museum as a dynamic
space that is made meaningful through the interactions of space, objects, sociality, and the very
meanings that flow from that interaction is a compelling one.”  (Jones & MacLeod, 2016)

1.2 Types of Museums

Architecturally museums are the most significant building. The museum boom continues in the
world despite the severe criticisms. It has become a culture in the architectural world. Many
museums are designed with different natures. Museum can be of various types depending as per
the type of collections and function on the basis of which the different types are-

1. Art museum

2. Science museum

3. Natural history museum

4. History museum

5. Other museums- in such types above mentioned disciplines may be combined

1.3 Functions of Museums

A museum is a public service organization and deals mainly with objects—its exhibition and
visitors. It has some responsibilities towards the objects and society and thus, performs manifold
activities on a regular basis. Image and popularity of a museum depends upon its public friendly
approaches, entertainment, amusement facilities in addition to its contribution towards research
and education. 
Listed below are the various functions of a museum, which may vary from one museum to other,
based on the nature of collection.

 Collection

 Storage

 Preservation and conservation

 Documentation

 Research 

 Exhibition

 Security

 Education and knowledge dissemination

 Publication

 Public services or organizing activities

 Outreach activities or community service

 Lecture, seminar, workshops

1.4 Definition of Archaeology

The Oxford Dictionary defines archaeology as,

The study of human history and prehistory through the excavation of sites and the analysis of
artifacts and other physical remains.

Archaeology is often considered a branch of socio-cultural anthropology, but archaeologists also

draw from biological, geological, and environmental systems through their study of the past. The
discipline involves surveying, excavation and eventually analysis of data collected to learn more
about the past. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts
and cultural landscapes. Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of
the humanities.

Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding cultural history to

reconstructing past ways of life to document and explain changes in human societies through
time. Derived from the Greek, the term archaeology literally means “the study of ancient
history.”

1.5 Architecture & Archaeology

Often overlooked, the link between the fields of architecture and archaeology, have a lot in
common. Archaeology is the study of the material remains of generations past. Ranging from the
discovery of stone tools made by early humans to the discovery of palaces and cathedrals,
archaeological investigations have played a central role in shaping our understanding of how we
see the world.

There are many parallels between archaeology and architecture. Both disciplines are intimately
concerned with human activity and material culture as well as the ways in which society evolves.
While archaeologists record the artifacts, buildings and landscapes of past cultures, architects
actively shape these elements to encapsulate modern values.

Aiming to document cultural changes and promote understanding, archaeologists share

architects’ desires to better understand human relationships and exchange. Coupling geography,
anthropology and history, both disciplines explore what makes us who we are.

So what happens when the two fields collide?

1.6 Significance of Study

Worldwide, museums today use more advanced and interactive techniques of display which are
quite effective in arousing interest among the visitors and helping them learn enthusiastically as
well. However, we are still using outdated ways of display that the Europeans adopted during the
18th century and rehabilitating the historic building for museum purpose in the name of
conservation. In today’s context, new technologies have arrived and it is important for us to
adopt the technology and innovations that we can afford in order to have a better social
competence with international community, since it is a place from which they will gain a first
impression about us. Earlier museums started as static displays. Now, it has been turning into a
hub for interactive display as well as research, consequently the space requirements of the
museum have to be re- envisaged.
Museums around the world are transforming and striving to innovate and remain socially
relevant. Archaeological museums face a new challenge; while they must provide excellent
facilities for safekeeping of the vast remains of excavated objects and fragments from the sites,
they should also present collections to people in the context of the site and are interesting and
engaging for visitors.
The museums, like all other social institutions have changed through time. They have changed in
form, in function and in basic concepts. A museum has now changed from a repository of objects
to an educational agency. Its policy to collect isolable objects has changed and it now
emphasizes to integrate an object and its social and natural networks with the visitor's
experience. A museum is now no more a privilege for a few but it serves the society as a whole.
Over and above this change a museum is today an active participation in the socio-cultural life of
the community which it stands for. The growing appreciation for culture, cultural tourism,
impressive international exhibitions and huge promotional campaigns have provided
extraordinary impetus to museum-movement and to world-wide popularity of museums as places
for leisure and education. The museums have thus become a social phenomenon wherein the
recreational and experiential functions are predominant.

Along with the changing times and technology, it is imperative for museums and museum
architecture to change and adapt to the 21st century and its people. This thesis aims at studying
the possibilities of a postmodern museum.

1.7 Aim & Objectives

AIM

The thesis aims at exploring museums as a space for conservation, education and display; while
adapting to new realities of the present, characterized by technology and innovation.

OBJECTIVES

 To study the architectural and spatial design aspects of a museum.

 To study the ergonomics of the museum exhibits and display units.
 To develop new concepts of interior spaces keeping in mind the demand for more
interactive and immersive museum experience.
 To formulate steps that is required in inscribing a narrative in real space. 
 To formulate a set of guidelines for the postmodern museum. 

1.8 Scope & Limitations

SCOPE

The studies will be focused in providing a new direction to museum architecture. The design
of any museum is mainly based upon ideological, sociological, technological and
architectural disciplines. This research will only focus only on the architectural and
technological aspects of museum design. It aims to explore the new concepts of a ‘live
museum’ with the possibilities of immersive and interactive spaces; to make it innovative
and accessible prioritizing a high level of engagement.
The thesis is a solution to address the one dimensional or single-layered narrative in museum
design projects which lack linkage with the cultural roots.

LIMITATIONS
This research is not looking at site museums that focus on the curation and exhibition of
collections from designated archaeological excavation sites or heritage sites; but at museum of
archaeology at the state or national level.

Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Museology

2.2 The Changing roles of Museums

Museums were once the primary venue for archaeological research, museums are still recognized
as “the main institutional connection between archaeology as a profession and discipline, and
wider society” (Shanks & Tilley 1992, p. 68). Even in the 21st century they remain powerful
forces for the communication of archaeological information. Most of the earliest archaeological
museums were founded either as a byproduct of antiquarian research or to promote social
betterment through access to works of art and science. PD Hall asserts that museums over the
years have evolved from private entities through public charities into non-stock corporations or
units of government.  (Hall 1992)

Hudson (1998) argues that it can be asserted, “with confidence that the most fundamental change
that has affected museums…are the now universal conviction that they exist in order to serve the
public. The old-style museum felt itself to be under no such obligation. It existed, it had a
building, and it had collections and a staff to look after them. It was reasonably adequately
financed, and its visitors, usually not numerous, came in to look, to wonder and to admire what
was set before them. They were in no sense partners in the enterprise. The museum’s prime
responsibility was to its collections, not its visitors.”

The American Association of Museums (AAM) (1992) stated that museums must place
education—in the broadest sense of the word—at the center of their public service role and make
their educational role central to their activities. This educational role is crucial to both the
development of modern archaeological museums and the wide range of critical approaches to
them because it requires that museums move from passive repositories to active arbiters and
interpreters of the past. 

One sobering statistic emerged from surveys of public attitudes toward archaeology; although
88% of respondents said they had visited a museum exhibiting archaeological materials, only 9%
reported learning anything about archaeology from museums (Ramos & Duganne 2000, p. 12).
Television remains the most popular vehicle for learning about the past (Ramos & Duganne
2000).

Different kinds of experiences and pedagogical practices are needed to effectively engage
students employing different learning strategies. Museum-based programs tend to have shorter
encounter times with visitors or students than do other kinds of venues, they tend to be more
dependent on self-guided activities, and they require greater knowledge of visitor preconceptions
well in advance of exhibition creation or programmatic activities. Thus, successful programs
often depend on detailed visitor studies to understand the needs and background of diverse
audiences.

Exhibitions, then, can succeed by offering elements that provide wonder and other elements (or
moments) that contextualize and embed the object through resonance. A broad range of museum
literature examines the morphology or logistics of exhibitions, including such elements as traffic
flow, sight lines, dwell time (or the amount of time a visitor spends in front of a particular
element), and diligence (whether visitors fully examine exhibit elements and signage or select a
subset of available options).

2.3 Curation & Conservation

Collections lie at the heart of the museum.  As Swain has argued (2007, p. 91), of all the
elements that constitute a museum (staff, buildings, donors, galleries, collections, etc.), any one
could be removed without changing the fundamental character of the institution, except the
collections. They define the profile and prospects of the institution in ways more profound and
lasting than do mission statements or current circumstances. Six distinct kinds of objects
comprising archaeological collections in museums have been identified:  (a) chance finds, (b)
private collections amassed by individuals, (c) material from museum-based excavation
projects,  (d ) material from excavations by other bodies or institutions, (e) materials accepted
from fieldwork or cultural resources management (CRM) projects, and ( f ) material from metal
detectorists. 

2.4 Explanation & Presentation

Museum architecture not only provides the material built contexts within which museums exist,
it also crucially adds meaning to the objects and interactions in these ‘spaces of encounter’
(Boast 1991).

Pearce (1990) suggests three additional dimensions in archaeological exhibits. “Depth” is the
relative number of distinct spaces that must be crossed to move from one exhibit element to
another. “Rings” measure the number of alternative paths a visitor may use to traverse an
exhibition without backtracking, and “entropy” measures the relative linearity or simplicity of
the layout. These dimensions directly structure how information is perceived by the visitor. 

Shallow depth and low ring factors “present knowledge as if it were a map of a well-known
terrain where the relationship of each part to the other, and all to the whole, is thoroughly
understood”. By contrast, she argues, exhibits with a high entropy value, considerable depth, and
high ring factor “show knowledge as a proposition which may stimulate further, or different,
answering propositions”.  (p. 150)

2.5 Museum Visitors & Experience

What do people remember from their museum visits? What factors seem to most contribute to
visitors forming these long-term memories? 

According to Dr. Falk, four factors seem to influence the memories of visitors:
  Things that supported their entering needs and interests.
 Things that were novel.
 Things that had high emotional content for the individual.
 Things that were supported by later experiences.

Visitor studies is a pivotal part of museum practice, as it quite literally places the visitor at the
centre of everything. Visitor studies department is a vital contributor to the day to day runnings
of a museum. They map the demographics of museum visitors; age, education, gender,
origin/ethnicity, visit frequency and social arrangement. 
Dr. Falk’s paper advances the thesis that museum visitors’ identities, motivations and learning
are inextricably intertwined. All individuals enact multiple identities, many of which are
situational and constructed in response to a social and physical context. Identity influences
motivations, which in turn directly influence behavior and learning. Visitors to museums tend to
enact one or various combinations of five museums specific identities, described here as: 
 Explorer -visitors who are curiosity-driven with a generic interest in the content of the
museum. They expect to find something that will grab their attention and fuel their
learning. 
 Facilitator- visitors who are socially motivated. Their visit is focused on primarily
enabling the experience and learning of others in their accompanying social group.
 Professional/hobbyist - visitors who feel a close tie between the museum content and
their professional or hobbyist passions. Their visits are typically motivated by a desire to
satisfy a specific content-related objective. 
 Experience seeker - visitors who are motivated to visit because they perceive the museum
as an important destination. Their satisfaction primarily derives from the mere fact of
having ‘been there and done that’.
 Spiritual pilgrim - visitors who are primarily seeking to have a contemplative, spiritual
and/or restorative experience. They see the museum as a refuge from the work-a-day
world or as a confirmation of their religious beliefs. 
(Falk, 2006)
A large number of visitors arrive at museums with preconceived expectations. They use the
museum to satisfy those expectations and then remember the visit as an experience that did just
that – satisfied a specific expectation. (Falk, 2006)

The development of tourist interpretation techniques has become a must in order to provide a
unique experience to the visitors, in museums’ intention to generate repeated visits. 
2.6 The 21st Century Museum

In a society in which the access to information has become accessible to everybody, especially in
urban areas, the cultural institutions which preserve and promote heritage have to improve the
way to send the message due to the fact that the unidirectional transfer of information is no
longer preferred by the visitors. Museums are important because they are “active in shaping
knowledge, using their collections, they put together visual cultural narratives which produce
views of the past and thus of the present” (E. Hooper-Greenhill, 2007:2). Therefore, they have to
adapt to the new preferences of the visitors competing with cinematography, theatres,
commercial centers or other cultural organizations in their attempt to attract a significant number
of people. 

For the museum of the 21st century, the public is essential because it is the cornerstone of its
development and meaning. The need of being more market-oriented has been underlined from
the 80s when Cossons (1983) predicted the improvements in visitor management and the quality
of service to the public, which would demand more individualistic and participative experiences.

2.6.1 Challenges of the Postmodern Museum

“The museum of the 21st century is unarguably an institution that continuously negotiates its role
in society. Just like cities which nowadays are struggling to turn into more attractive and
hospitable places by becoming eventful (Richards & Palmer, 2012), museums are repositioning
themselves by changing their function (van Aalst & Boogaarts, 2002).”  (Gheorghilas,
Dumbraveanu, Tudoricu, & Craciun, 2017)

If traditionally they were focused on conservation and restoration of collections, nowadays they
are becoming an exhibition space and a platform for dialogue and communication in general.
The economic pressure along with the need to attract even more visitors forced museums to find
solutions. 
The 21st century - students' opinion
 ”The 21st century museum is more complex – it has to respond to the needs visitors have,
keeping its educational role and taking care of the collection. It should embed technology
and new media; it should be friendly, but find a way to stay sober at the same time.” 
 ”The new museum has to be an impersonal storyteller. It should bring the past to the
present in a pleasant way, it should captivate the listener and deliver information
smoothly” 
 ”It is diverse and multi-layered. It should provide experience, information and be popular
with the members of the public. It has to be an open space for debates and dialogues in
general”.

The 21st century museum - professionals' opinion

 ”It should encourage people to reflect and question. I think that this is a very important
function in a healthy democracy - public debate and engagement with contemporary life -
and museums could play an important role in this process.”
  ”I think the 21st century museum should be an immersive and engaging experience
where audiences can explore and discover stories about the world around them, past and
present. Museums should awaken or renew an audience's enthusiasm about a topic and
inspire them to want to discover more.”
   ”A 21st century museum is a place that transcends the building. The museum should
engage with the community in which it exists, by communication and programs outside
the collection.”
  ”The new museum should be about being provoked instead of being taught. It should be
a trigger for information more than a learning platform.”
  ”Modern day museum is an attractive space that allows you to interact with the exhibits,
prepares you for a journey that’s full of fun and inspiring and you never know that the
message of the artist leaves with you and, at the end, that’s what you learn.”
  ”I think a 21st century museum should be able to adapt to technology and be innovative
in how information is presented. They shouldn't just be about the past but should also be
relevant to current society.” 
Survey results from research paper      
 (Gheorghilas, Dumbraveanu, Tudoricu, & Craciun, 2017)

Initially, museums were a form of public education, an expression of the 18th century
enlightenment which stimulated equality of opportunity in learning (Wittlin, 1949) and that has
gradually been transformed “from a place for the conservation of culture to a tourist destination
where consumption is the primary mode of behaviour” (Ibelings, in van Aalst & Boogaarts,
2002:198).

2.6.2 Opportunities of the Postmodern Museum

 The “Switching from information to provocation”  (Gheorghilas, Dumbraveanu, Tudoricu, &

Craciun, 2017) approach has become mandatory in the last years of technological progress.
Driven by the enthusiasm of tasting different types of experiences than before, consumers
worldwide have rapidly changed their tastes when talking about cultural products. There's no
need for instruction when the internet is full of information. 

Despite the efforts made in order to increase museums' popularity, there are less people than
before that visit museums. In the 90's, museums were considered as first class places, visited
only by the upper class (Burton, C. and C. Scott; 2003). There is definitely a need for education
through museum programs, but the way in which the process happens, needs to be adaptable.
Permanently adapting to new realities of the “Technological Age” has become of utmost
importance for the survival of museums.

A museum can't protect what the community doesn't value. The connection between the visitor
and the object is only possible if there is a powerful experience that gives the visitor the sense of
place and the importance of  that specific object as part of his personal identity. Working with
identities is of great importance for every museum institution but at the same time, it can be
really challenging. 

“Museums have to go through dramatic changes because they need to adapt to the realities of the
moment, characterised by high-tech and significant market segmentation.” (Gheorghilas,
Dumbraveanu, Tudoricu, & Craciun, 2017)   In this respect, the postmodern museum has to be
visitor-oriented, constantly checking the profile of its consumers, meeting their expectations by
applying new learning techniques. Given the fact that its most important role is the educational
one, the new museum has to be innovative and use communication technologies in order to send
the message. Focusing on stories rather than on scientific information seems to be more efficient
for the new generation of visitors. Interpretation techniques should be attractive and subtle in
order to provoke the public rather than inform it. 

2.7 Inferences

2.8 Research Questions

What are the fundamentals of museum architecture and space design? 

What are the various spatial and narrative strategies for museum architecture?
What are the key points to engaging the audience?
What are the applications of technology in museum exhibits?
 Chapter 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Approach to the research

The methodology for this research is derived from desk research both in libraries, from the
internet and studying similar sites and projects. Majority of the research and evidence to support
the hypothesis comes from books, periodicals, journal articles and research papers, government
documents and data from interviews.

Case studies both live and online are selected in such a way that they cover various aspects of
museum design such as architecture, exhibition design, form and function, , services (lighting,
disaster management,), concept evolution, scale of project, site of project, relevance to thesis
topic, area programming, activity pattern, design capacity, structural details, materials, etc.
In addition, data regarding user experience, circulation pattern, multi-sensory engagement,
immersive exhibits is also a part of the study.

3.2 Research framework

OBJECTIVE HOW TO ACHIEVE IT TOOLS

To study the architectural and
spatial design aspects of a
museum.
To study the ergonomics of the
museum exhibits and display
units.
To develop new concepts of
interior spaces keeping in mind
the demand for more interactive
and immersive museum
experience.
To formulate steps that are
Literature and document study Internet, books, interviews
of museums, their design
aspects.
Literature study of exhibits and Literature.
display units (dimensions,
placements, management).
Case studies of various Case studies.
museums using technology as a
part of their exhibits.
Mapping the flow of every Case studies, visits.
 required in inscribing a narrative aspect of museums.
in real space. 
Visitor experience and Questionnaires and observation Case studies, questionnaire,
circulation pattern in museums. of movement patterns of visitors museum visits.
in museums.
Techniques and impacts of Analysis of different techniques Case studies.
lighting in museums. and their impact. 

3.3 Sources of information

Primary Data Sources

 Case study:
1. Deccan College Archaeology Museum, Pune
2. State Archaeology Museum, Goa

 Interviews:
1. Dr. P. D. Sable
Head of the Dept, AIHC & Archaeology & Professor in Environmental Archaeology
Deccan College, Pune
Dr. Sable, an alumni of Shivaji University, Kolhapur, has a teaching experience of 20.5 years in
the field of archaeology and has specialization in the subjects of Environmental Archaeology
(Geoarchaeology), Geomorphology, Sedimentology, Underwater Archaeology, Heritage Sites
Management and Scientific Conservation, Remote sensing, Geophysics, Engineering Geology,
Rock Mechanics. 
Having worked on over 10 projects as the principal investigator, he had valuable insights to offer
in the field of archaeology and its current state in India.

2. Dr. Shrikant Ganvir

Assistant Professor in Ancient Indian History and Culture
Deccan College, Pune 
Research Specialization: Buddhist Art, Architecture and Iconography, Religious History of
Deccan, History of Buddhism in South Asia, Rock-Cut Architecture of the Deccan, Religious
imagery of ancient India, Archaeology of Religions.
 3. Krithika Tholpady
Design student at SOFT, Pune
Design student from SOFT, Pune, Ms. Tholpady had great inputs about exhibition design and the
intricate detailing and planning that goes into displaying every piece of collection and creating a
multi-sensory engaging experience in exhibition design.

Secondary Data Sources

 Study of articles from websites, books, reports, blogs, TED talks.

 Boris Micka Associates (museum design specialist)- online study
Design scenographies, museums, exhibitions
35 years experience
Their projects are known for media-enriched design, grounded in the appreciation of its
context.
 Online Courses:
University of Reading “From Dig to Lab and Beyond”
University of Glasgow “The Museum as a Site and Source for Learning”
 Case Study:
1. Indian Museum, Kolkata
2. National Museum, New Delhi

Chapter 4: MUSEUMS
4.1 Introduction to Museums

‘A museum is a non-profit, permanent institution in the service of society and its

development, open to the public, which acquires, conserves, researches, communicates and
exhibits the tangible and intangible heritage of humanity and its environment for the
purposes of education, study and enjoyment’.

As discussed in chapter 1 the definition of museums is given by the International Council of

Museums (ICOM) and updated regularly in accordance with the changing perceptions and
development of society.
The museum is an institution dedicated to aiding the community understand and appreciate
the natural world, the history of civilizations, and the records of humanity’s artistic, scientific
and technological achievements. Museums collect objects of scientific, aesthetic, or historical
importance; care for them; and study, interpret, and exhibit them for the purposes of public
education and the advancement of knowledge.
Museums can be found in almost every major city in the world. They offer many benefits to
their visitors, their communities, and society as a whole. As educational institutions, they
offer unparalleled opportunities for self-directed learning and exploration by people of
diverse ages, interests, backgrounds, and abilities. They are public gathering places where
visitors can be entertained, inspired, and introduced to new ideas. Museums enrich local
cultural life and make communities more appealing places to live and to visit.
In his paper ‘Museum Architecture Matter’ Paul Jones states, “For society as whole,
museums provide valuable intangible benefits as sources of national, regional, and local
identity. They have the singular capacity to reflect both continuity and change, to preserve
and protect cultural and natural heritage while vividly illustrating the progression of the
human imagination and the natural world.” (Jones & MacLeod, 2016)
Most museums offer programs and activities for a range of audiences, including adults,
children, and families, as well as those for more specific professions. Programs for the public
may consist of lectures or tutorials by the museum faculty or field experts, films, musical or
dance performances, and technology demonstrations. Although most museums do not allow
physical contact with the associated artifacts, there are some that are interactive and
 encourage a more hands-on approach. Modern trends in museology have broadened the range
of subject matter and introduced many interactive exhibits, which give the public the
opportunity to make choices and engage in activities that may vary the experience from
person to person. With the advent of the internet, there are growing numbers of virtual
exhibits, i.e. web versions of exhibits showing images and playing recorded sound. Museums
are usually open to the general public, sometimes charging an admission fee. Some museums
have free entrance, either permanently or on special days. Museums are usually not run for
the purpose of making a profit, unlike galleries which engage in the sale of objects. There are
governmental museums, non-governmental or non-profit museums, and privately owned or
family museums.

4.2 Types of Museums

In addition to institutions designated as "museums" the following qualify as museums for the
purposes of this definition: 

1. Natural, archaeological and ethnographic monuments and sites and historical monuments and
sites of a museum nature that acquire, conserve and communicate material evidence of
people and their environment
2. Institutions holding collections of and displaying live specimens of plants and animals, such
as botanical and zoological gardens, aquaria and vivaria.
3. Science centers and planetarium.
4. Non-profit art exhibition galleries
5. Nature reserves; conservation institutes and exhibition galleries permanently maintained by
libraries and archives centers; natural parks
6. International or national or regional or local museum organizations, ministries or departments
or public agencies responsible for museums as per the definition given above
7. Non-profit institutions or organizations undertaking conservation research, education,
training, documentation and other activities relating to museums and museology
8. Cultural centers and other entities that facilitate the preservation, continuation and
management of tangible or intangible heritage resources (living heritage and digital creative
activity)
9. Such other institutions as the Executive Council, after seeking the advice of the Advisory
Committee, considers as having some or all of the characteristics of a museum, or as
supporting museums and professional museum personnel through museological research,
education or training.

4.3 Functions of Museums

 Collection

The primary function of a museum is to collect objects of heritage since it is a custodian

of the heritage of society or country. Collection in a museum depends upon the mission,
vision and objectives of the museum and also on the needs of research, education,
conservation, presentation of evidence of natural and cultural heritage. 

 Storage

Whatever a museum collects, needs to be stored scientifically in a well planned and

secured area. Only one-third of the collection is usually displayed, the other two-third
remains within the stores. So, a museum must have a good storage of its collection. It
should be regularly supervised to keep clean, control from humidity, light effects, pests
and other biochemical and natural hazards or disasters.

 Preservation and conservation

Objects need regular care because every object is subject to deterioration due to
spontaneous change in environment and subsequent physio-chemical factors. Museum
practices various preservation techniques, which are exclusively objects specific to
protect them from attacks of organisms like fungus, insects, rodents etc. and damage from
humidity, temperature and light sources and intensities. 

 Documentation

It is considered as one of the main administrative functions of any museum. It is very

important to document objects with authentic information after necessary research and
 consultation. It facilitates in knowing the provenance, identification, composition and
necessary treatment of objects. 

 Research 

For keeping and dissemination of information regarding each object, every museum
needs to research those particular objects. It is also required to preserve and publish such
information for the use of the museum itself while documentation and displaying objects,
and also to serve research scholars.

 Exhibition

Museum is established for exhibition of objects too, apart from collection and
preservation. It is an important function of any museum and every museum exhibits
objects by forming permanent galleries or organizing temporary exhibitions.

 Security

Museum collects and stores antique and precious objects or pieces of art which are
priceless. So, a strong security system needs to be developed by the museum against
vandalism, fire, theft, burglary and natural disaster.

 Education and knowledge dissemination

Museum at the time of its inception in 3rd BCE in Alexandria was a place for
philosophical discussion. Since then it remains the place for knowledge dissemination on
the subjects it is established for. It supports people as an informal education center for
disseminating knowledge on art, history, science and technology through the material and
non material evidences.

 Publication

Museum publishes many popular literatures for visitors like leaflets, folders, posters,
guide books etc. Catalogues on specific museum collections, journals, art albums,
 monographs etc. are published by museums, which are useful for scholars. Museum also
publishes bulletins, newsletters, annual reports etc. 

 Public services or organizing activities

Museum apart from the exhibition also organizes various activities for the service of
society, targeting specific groups of visitors as its calendar events. Science centers and
museums run daily shows on relevant subjects that add knowledge to visitors on the
various areas of science and technologies in addition to the static exhibitions.

 Outreach activities or community service

Now, museums are more concerned about serving its community through its outreach
initiatives in many innovative ways and taking it as one of its priority of work.

 Lecture, seminar, workshops

Museums also organize lectures, seminars and workshops where they invite eminent
experts to share his/her opinion in the field of heritage and culture or on a specific subject
area concerned with the museum. These are the scholarly activities of a museum that
helps museum professionals to enhance their work potential and the research and
development of the museum.

4.4 History of Museums

The English word "museum" comes from the Latin word. It originates from the Greek word
mouseion, which denotes a place or temple dedicated to the Muses or seat of muses, and
hence a building set apart for study and the arts.
The great Museum at Alexandria established by Ptolemy I Soter 2nd century B.C. was
considered by many to be the first museum/library. The library of Alexandria had some
objects, including statues of thinkers, astronomical and surgical instruments, elephant trunks
and animal hides, and a botanical and zoological park, but it was chiefly a university or
philosophical academy-a kind of institute of advanced study with many prominent scholars in
residence and supported by the state. Records of collection of precious items date as back as
ancient Greek and Roman times. Enthusiasm for the products of classical antiquity and a
sense of history first developed during the Italian renaissance. It was during this period that
the collection of art started. Bramante in the old Vatican during the beginning of the 16th
century was the first to provide a formal setting for the display of antiques which also
displayed the rooms of wealthy individuals and royals. The term museum was first used
during the renaissance. Museum was a different experience then, it was a ‘Cabinet of
Curiosities’ in the 16th century. Natural and art objects were jumbled together on the walls
and ceilings, cupboard and drawers of not more than two rooms. A square-shaped room filled
with stuffed animals, botanical rarities, small works of art such as medallions or statuettes,
artifacts, and curios. The purpose of the museum was to surprise and delight the visitors and
they had to themselves find what attracted them and make their own interpretation about the
display. With this regard, it shows that early museums began as the private collections of
wealthy individuals, families or institutions of art and rare or curious natural objects and
artifacts which were often displayed in so-called wonder rooms or cabinet of curiosities.
Public access was made often possible for the ‘respectable’, especially to private art
collections, at the whim of the owner and his staff. The first public museums in the world
opened in Europe during the 18th century's Age of Enlightenment.

The Ashmolean:
The first corporate body to receive a private collection, erect a building to house it, and make
it publicly available was the University of Oxford. The gift was from Elias Ashmole;
containing much of the Tradescant collection, it was made on the condition that a place is
built to receive it. The resulting building, which eventually became known as the Ashmolean
Museum, opened in 1683. The first "public" museums were often accessible only by the
middle and upper classes. It could be difficult to gain entrance. When the British Museum
opened to the public in 1759, it was a concern that large crowds could damage the artifacts.
Prospective visitors to the British Museum had to apply in writing for admission, and small
groups were allowed into the galleries each day. The British Museum became increasingly
popular during the 19th century, amongst all age groups and social classes who visited the
British Museum, especially on public holidays. In Victorian times in England, it became
popular for museums to be open on a Sunday afternoon (the only such facility allowed to do
 so) to enable the opportunity for ‘self-improvement’ of the other working classes. In France,
the first public museum was the Louvre Museum in Paris, opened in 1793 during the French
Revolution, which enabled for the first time free access to the former French royal
collections for people of all stations and status. As Napoléon I conquered the great cities of
Europe, confiscating art objects as he went, the collections grew and the organizational task
became more and more complicated. After Napoleon was defeated in 1815, many of the
treasures he had amassed were gradually returned to their owners (and many were not). His
plan was never fully realized, but his concept of a museum as an agent of nationalistic fervor
had a profound influence throughout Europe. While some of the oldest public museums in
the world opened in Italy during the Renaissance, the majority of these significant museums
in the world opened during the 18th century at the age of Enlightenment through following
stages:
 The Capitoline Museums, the oldest public collection of art in the world, began in 1471
when Pope Sixtus IV donated a group of important ancient sculptures to the people of
Rome.
 The Vatican Museums, the second oldest museum in the world, traces its origins to the
public displayed sculptural collection begun in 1506 by Pope Julius II
 The Royal Armouries in the Tower of London is the oldest museum in the United
Kingdom. It opened to the public in 1660, though there had been paying privileged
visitors to the armouries displays from 1592. Today the museum has three sites including
its new headquarters in Leeds.
 The Amerbach Cabinet, originally a private collection, was bought by the university and
city of Basel in 1661 and opened to the public in 1671.
 The Uffizi Gallery in Florence, which had been open to visitors on request since the 16th
century was officially opened to the public in 1765
 The Belvedere Palace of the Habsburg monarchs in Vienna opened with a collection of
art in 1781
 The Charleston Museum was established in 1773 thereby making it the first American
museum. It did not open to the public until 1824
(Source: http://www.britannica.com/)
4.5 Origin and Development of museums in India
During the 9th to 12th centuries of the middle ages of European history, the museum stood as the
`House of Relics'. Its main function was the preservation and the saturation of relics of saints
who played an important role in the political and cultural life of the day.
Even in Asia, such early social institutions did exist to keep the collective memory of people
alive. In India, a stupa, containing the bodily relics of Buddha, was an embodiment of sacredness
and spiritual value. Ancient and medieval Indian literature is full of such terms like
Alekhyagriha', `vithi', and 'Citrasala' etc. which stand for galleries housing paintings, sculptures
and terra-cotta. These were however the royal museums where ordinary people had no access. 
The earliest necessity to house objects of antiquarian remains dates back to late 1796 CE when
the Asiatic Society of Bengal felt the need to house the enormous collection of archaeological,
ethnological, geological, zoological pursuits. However, the first museum by them was started in
1814. The nucleus of this Asiatic Society Museum later provided the Indian Museum, Calcutta.
The last fifty years have been significant for the growth of museums and the museums profession
in India. There are more than 400 museums in India today. There are five major factors which
helped the growth of museums and the museum – movement in India:

 Firstly the British Civil Servants in India, who had seen museum movement in their own
country, encouraged the Indians with an enthusiastic lead.
 Secondly, the support given by the princely states of India.
 Thirdly, the collections of the learned, philanthropic societies were donated to form the
nucleus of big museums. 
 Fourthly, the emergence of Archaeological Survey of India strengthened the museum
movement by opening site museums at a number of excavated sites and
 Lastly, the contribution of Lord Curzon and John Marshall. 

 
 
 
 
The development of Museums in India can be divided into five distinct phases of growth as
follows : 

 Formative Phase (under Colonial Rulers) 1796 – 1858 

 When the British colonized the Indian subcontinent in the 18th century, the European
idea of the museum percolated to India. The early phase of the Museums in India began
with the endeavors of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. The purpose of the society was to
promote deep and wide knowledge of the country's history, culture, religions, geography
and natural resources for posterity within the geographical limits of Asia. In 1796, the
proposal found ready acceptance with the members of the society and it was determined
to establish the Society Museum at the premises of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Thus
India’s first museum was set up at Asiatic Society, 1 Park Street, Calcutta in 1814 which
lit the lamp of the “ Museum movement in India”. Indian museum movement also spread
to Madras in the first quarter of the 19th century. The Victoria museum, Karachi (now in
Pakistan in the North-west), and Trivandrum Museum in South India were established in
1851 and 1857, respectively. The Victoria and Albert Museum was originally established
in 1855 in Mumbai. By the year 1857, there were 12 Museums in the whole of the Indian
Peninsula. 
The museum movement, therefore, progressed very slowly and not as a result of any
deliberate educational policy to utilize them for the purpose until many years later. The
motivation had, therefore, to be provided by the government of the day or the learned
societies, which were burdened with their collections of manuscripts, handicrafts and the
like and felt morally responsible for housing and preserving them for posterity.

 Second Phase (The Victoria era) 1858-1899 

After the first war of Indian Independence, 1857, the progress of Indian museum
movement was hampered for a short period. The year 1861 witnessed the establishment
of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). The tireless efforts of the Director Cunning
Ham, led to the discovery of a large quantity of Archaeological Materials. These found
their way into the nearest extant Provincial Museums or to the Asiatic Society Museum.
During this period, the princely states of India also established a number of Museums in
their respective principalities as part of the state’s educational and cultural dissemination.
During the second phase 24 museums were established.

 Third Phase (the era of Lord Curzon and John Marshall) 1899-1928 
 Lord Curzon who came to India as Governor General in 1899, realized the chaotic
condition of Indian Archaeology without any central leadership and felt very strongly that
the British government in India was doing little for the preservation of cultural heritage of
the country. John Marshall was appointed as the Director General of the reconstituted
Archaeological Survey of India in 1902. Marshall was responsible for setting up a large
number of site museums in India under the direct control of the Archaeological Survey of
India. With the efforts of Lord Curzon and John Marshall several site museums were
established in the places including those at Agra (1906), Delhi fort (1909), Lahore fort,
and an excavated sites of Ajmer (1908), Chamba (1909), Jodhpur (1909), Gwalior
(1910), Khajuraho (1910), Nalanda (1917), Taxila (1918), Sanchi (1919), Mohenjodaro,
Harappa (1926) and Dhakka (now in Bangladesh) (1931) etc. The museum movement in
India was further influenced by the Swadeshi movement. The museum movement took a
new leap when the learned and research societies commissioned museums in their
institutions. Several learned societies such as the Bangiya Sahitya parishad Calcutta
(1910), and Bharatiya Itihas Samsodhak Mandal, Pune(1910), Andhra Historical
Research Society, Rajamundry (1928) and Rajwade Sanshodhan Mandal Pune (1932)
opened the regional heritage museums in their institutions. 

 Fourth Phase (pre Independence era) 1928 – 1947 

During this phase one of the important Museums set up by the Archaeological Survey of
India was the Central Asian antiquities museum in 1929 at New Delhi which constitutes
one of the world’s six great collections of Central Asian Antiquities. The years of Second
World War (1939 – 1945), marked a set back to the Museum movement as to every other
activity in general as a global phenomenon. Mortimer Wheeler, s Director General of ASI
(1944-1947), saw the pathetic condition of the museums under the control of ASI and all
these were not serving their role effectively. Hence, a separate Museums Branch in ASI
was created in 1946 by Mortimer Wheeler under the direct control of the Superintendent
of Archaeology. 

 Fifth Phase (post Independence era) 1947 – present

The activities in post-Independence India saw great strides and development in the field
of Archaeological Survey of India. At present, there are forty-six Archaeological
 museums under ASI, spreading over the length and breadth of India i.e. Kangra
(Himachal Pradesh) in the north to Mattancherry Palace (Kerala) in the south and Sri
Surya Pahar (Goalpara, Assam) in the east to Dholavira (Kachchh, Gujarat) in the west.
Keeping the present scenario in mind, most of the Archaeological museums have now
been up-graded in terms of general layout, gallery plans, information/ interpretative
panels, lighting, disable-friendly environment, etc. In order to nurture best practices in
archaeological museums, guidelines have also been formulated in 2013. These guidelines
were prepared to monitor museum development and management in all its major spheres
of activity and to fund research, conservation, interpretation, and visitor services and
setting-up of efficient management structures.

(Source: https://asi.nic.in/)

4.6 Evolution of Museums

4.7 Museological narrative