Individual na nasearch fruka- wala pa ni na own words

(p.s. sorry if gubot pa ni sya gmay gipang copy paste raman gud ni nko hehe pero nagbutang man
kog citation sa iwit hehehe)

Definition of communication
It is the imparting or exchanging of information or news. It also means of sending or receiving
information, such as phone lines or computers.[ CITATION Oxf1 \l 1033 ]X
It is a process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common system
of symbols, signs, or behavior. [ CITATION Mer214 \l 1033 ]X
Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place, person or group to
another.[ CITATION Ski21 \l 1033 ]X
It is the act or process of communicating; fact of being communicated.[ CITATION DIC21 \l 1033 ]X
Communication is the sending and receiving of information and can be one-on-one or between
groups of people, and can be face-to-face or through communication devices.[ CITATION Wha21 \l
1033 ]X

Communication Processes
The communication process has several components that enable the transmission of a message.
Here are the various parts:
Sender: This is the person that is delivering a message to a recipient.
Message: This refers to the information that the sender is relaying to the receiver.
Channel of communication: This is the transmission or method of delivering the message.
Decoding: This is the interpretation of the message. Decoding is performed by the receiver.
Receiver: The receiver is the person who is getting or receiving the message.
Feedback: In some instances, the receiver might have feedback or a response for the sender. This
starts an interaction. [ CITATION Ind21 \l 1033 ]

Communication Process
The communication process consists of several components. Let's take a look.
A sender is the party that sends a message. Lindsey, of course, will be the sender. She'll also
need the message, which is the information to be conveyed. Lindsey will also need to encode her
message, which is transforming her thoughts of the information to be conveyed into a form that
can be sent, such as words.
A channel of communication must also be selected, which is the manner in which the message is
sent. Channels of communication include speaking, writing, video transmission, audio
transmission, electronic transmission through emails, text messages and faxes and even
nonverbal communication, such as body language. Lindsey also needs to know the target of her
communication. This party is called the receiver.
The receiver must be able to decode the message, which means mentally processing the message
into understanding. If you can't decode, the message fails. For example, sending a message in a
foreign language that is not understood by the receiver probably will result in decoding failure.
Sometimes, a receiver will give the sender feedback, which is a message sent by the receiver
back to the sender. For example, a member of Lindsey's team may provide feedback in the form
of a question to clarify some information received in Lindsey's message.
Let's put all these components together to build a model of the communication process:
A sender encodes information
The sender selects a channel of communication by which to send the message
The receiver receives the message
The receiver decodes the message
The receiver may provide feedback to the sender [ CITATION Wha21 \l 1033 ]X

Communications Process
Communications is a continuous process which mainly involves three elements viz. sender,
message, and receiver. The elements involved in the communication process are explained below
in detail:
1. Sender
The sender or the communicator generates the message and conveys it to the receiver. He is the
source and the one who starts the communication
2. Message
It is the idea, information, view, fact, feeling, etc. that is generated by the sender and is then
intended to be communicated further.
3. Encoding
The message generated by the sender is encoded symbolically such as in the form of words,
pictures, gestures, etc. before it is being conveyed.
4. Media
It is the manner in which the encoded message is transmitted. The message may be transmitted
orally or in writing. The medium of communication includes telephone, internet, post, fax, e-
mail, etc. The choice of medium is decided by the sender.
5. Decoding
It is the process of converting the symbols encoded by the sender. After decoding the message is
received by the receiver.
6. Receiver
He is the person who is last in the chain and for whom the message was sent by the sender. Once
the receiver receives the message and understands it in proper perspective and acts according to
the message, only then the purpose of communication is successful.
7. Feedback
Once the receiver confirms to the sender that he has received the message and understood it, the
process of communication is complete.
8. Noise
It refers to any obstruction that is caused by the sender, message or receiver during the process of
communication. For example, bad telephone connection, faulty encoding, faulty decoding,
inattentive receiver, poor understanding of message due to prejudice or inappropriate gestures,
etc. [ CITATION Top \l 1033 ]

The Communication Process

The goal of communication is to convey information—and the understanding of that information
—from one person or group to another person or group. This communication process is divided
into three basic components: A sender transmits a message through a channel to the receiver.
(Figure shows a more elaborate model.) The sender first develops an idea, which is composed
into a message and then transmitted to the other party, who interprets the message and receives
meaning. Information theorists have added somewhat more complicated language. Developing a
message is known as encoding. Interpreting the message is referred to as decoding. [ CITATION
Cli \l 1033 ]

The process of communication refers to the transmission or passage of information or message

from the sender through a selected channel to the receiver overcoming barriers that affect its
pace.
The different elements in the process of communication –
Sender
Message
Encoding
Channel
Receiver
Decoding
Feedback[ CITATION tut \l 1033 ]X

Types, Principles and Ethics of Communication

Types
Types of communication [ CITATION Dre18 \l 1033 ]
VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Verbal communication occurs when we engage in speaking with others. It can be face-to-face,
over the telephone, via Skype or Zoom, etc. Some verbal engagements are informal, such as
chatting with a friend over coffee or in the office kitchen, while others are more formal, such as a
scheduled meeting. Regardless of the type, it is not just about the words, it is also about the
caliber and complexity of those words, how we string those words together to create an
overarching message, as well as the intonation (pitch, tone, cadence, etc.) used while speaking.
And when occurring face-to-face, while the words are important, they cannot be separated from
non-verbal communication.

NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
What we do while we speak often says more than the actual words. Non-verbal communication
includes facial expressions, posture, eye contact, hand movements, and touch. For example, if
you’re engaged in a conversation with your boss about your cost-saving idea, it is important to
pay attention to both the their words and their non-verbal communication. Your boss might be in
agreement with your idea verbally, but their nonverbal cues: avoiding eye contact, sighing,
scrunched up face, etc. indicate something different.

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Whether it is an email, a memo, a report, a Facebook post, a Tweet, a contract, etc. all forms of
written communication have the same goal to disseminate information in a clear and concise
manner – though that objective is often not achieved. In fact, poor writing skills often lead to
confusion and embarrassment, and even potential legal jeopardy. One important thing to
remember about written communication, especially in the digital age, is the message lives on,
perhaps in perpetuity. Thus, there are two things to remember: first, write well – poorly
constructed sentences and careless errors make you look bad; and second, ensure the content of
the message is something you want to promote or be associated with for the long haul.

LISTENING
The act of listening does not often make its way onto the list of types of communication. Active
listening, however, is perhaps one of the most important types of communication because if we
cannot listen to the person sitting across from us, we cannot effectively engage with them. Think
about a negotiation – part of the process is to assess what the opposition wants and needs.
Without listening, it is impossible to assess that, which makes it difficult to achieve a win/win
outcome.

VISUAL COMMUNICATION
We are a visual society. Think about it, televisions are running 24/7, Facebook is visual with
memes, videos, images, etc., Instagram is an image-only platform, and advertisers use imagery to
sell products and ideas. Think about from a personal perspective – the images we post on social
media are meant to convey meaning – to communicate a message. In some cases that message
might be, look at me, I’m in Italy or I just won an award. Others are carefully curated to tug on
our heartstrings – injured animals, crying children, etc.

Principles
7 Principles of Communication – Explained! [ CITATION Ven \l 1033 ]
Following principles of communication make it more effective:

1. Principle of Clarity:
The idea or message to be communicated should be clearly spelt out. It should be worded in such
a way that the receiver understands the same thing which the sender wants to convey. There
should be no ambiguity in the message. It should be kept in mind that the words do not speak
themselves but the speaker gives them the meaning. A clear message will evoke the same
response from the other party. It is also essential that the receiver is conversant with the
language, inherent assumptions, and the mechanics of communication.

2. Principle of Attention:
In order to make communication effective, the receiver’s attention should be drawn towards
message. People are different in behaviour, attention, emotions etc. so they may respond
differently to the message. Subordinates should act similarly as per the contents of the message.
The acts of a superior also draw the attention of subordinates and they may follow what they
observe. For example, if a superior is very punctual in coming to the office then subordinates
will also develop such habits. It is said that ‘actions speak louder than words.

3. Principle of Feedback:
The principle of feedback is very important to make the communication effective. There should
be a feedback information from the recipient to know whether he has understood the message in
the same sense in which the sender has meant it.

4. Principle of Informality:
Formal communication is generally used for transmitting messages and other information.
Sometimes formal communication may not achieve the desired results, informal communication
may prove effective in such situations. Management should use informal communication for
assessing the reaction of employees towards various policies. Senior management may
informally convey certain decisions to the employees for getting their feedback. So this principle
states that informal communication is as important as formal communication.

5. Principle of Consistency:
This principle states that communication should always be consistent with the policies, plans,
programmes and objectives of the organization and not in conflict with them. If the messages and
communications are in conflict with the policies and programmes then there will be confusion in
the minds of subordinates and they may not implement them properly. Such a situation will be
detrimental to the interests of the organization.

6. Principle of Timeliness:
This principle states that communication should be done at proper time so that it helps in
implementing plans. Any delay in communication may not serve any purpose rather decisions
become of historical importance only.

7. Principle of Adequacy:
The information communicated should be adequate and complete in all respects. Inadequate
information may delay action and create confusion. Inadequate information also affects
efficiency of the receiver. So adequate information is essential for taking proper decisions and
making action plans.
Ethics
Ten basic communication ethics ([ CITATION Jon15 \l 1033 ]
Seek to “elicit the best” in communications and interactions with other group members.
Listen when others speak.
Speak non-judgmentally.
Speak from your own experience and perspective, expressing your own thoughts, needs, and
feelings.
Seek to understand others.
Avoid speaking for others, for example by characterizing what others have said without checking
your understanding, or by universalizing your opinions, beliefs, values, and conclusions,
assuming everyone shares them.
Manage your own personal boundaries: share only what you are comfortable sharing.
Respect the personal boundaries of others.
Avoid interrupting and side conversations.
Make sure that everyone has time to speak, that all members have relatively equal “air time” if
they want it.

Comparison between Ordinary Purposive Communication and 21st Purposive Communication

Communication is a general term.
Purposive communication is communication doing for that purpose.
If you want to sell something to a particular or target audience, you create a video to target this
audience with the purpose of selling something to this group of people. [ CITATION Ern20 \l 1033 ]

We communicate all the time. We read each other’s emotions, responses, “state of mind” from
what we see and hear of them. We chat, exchange stories, cheer at baseball games, write things
in our diaries and publish books—all this is “communication.”
But sometimes, our communication is “purposive”—that is, it has a specific purpose or intent.
As you read this, you and I are engaged in “purposive” communication. My “purpose” is to
respond to your question. If its purpose has been achieved, if I’ve answered your question, this
specific purposive communication has ended. [ CITATION Jef20 \l 1033 ]
5. Mastery Learning on the ff:
A. Nouns ([ CITATION Gra \l 1033 ]

What Are Nouns?

A noun is a word that represents a person, place, or thing. Everything we can see or talk about is
represented by a word. That word is called a "noun." You might find it useful to think of a noun as a
"naming word."

Often a noun is the name for something we can touch (e.g., "lion," "cake," "computer"), but sometimes a
noun names something we cannot touch (e.g., "bravery," "mile," "joy").

Here is a similar video that focuses on the different types of noun.

Easy Examples of Nouns

Here are some examples of nouns. (Notice that some have capital letters. The reason for this is explained
in the next section on "Common Nouns and Proper Nouns.")

 Person: soldier, Alan, cousin, lawyer

 Place: house, London, factory, shelter
 Thing. This includes:
 Objects: table, London Bridge, chisel, nitrogen, month, inch, cooking
 Animals: aardvark, rat, shark, Mickey
 Ideas: confusion, kindness, faith, Theory of Relativity, joy
Most nouns can be pluralized, which usually involves adding "s" to the end (e.g., aardvark > aardvarks).

Common Nouns and Proper Nouns

A noun can be categorized as either a common noun or a proper noun.

 Common Noun. A common noun is the word for a person, place, or thing. It's the word
that appears in the dictionary. For example:
 person
 city
 dog
 Proper Noun. A proper noun is the given name of a person, place, or thing. It's likely to
be a personal name or a title. For example:
 Michael
 New York
 Rover
(Note: A proper noun always starts with a capital letter.)

The difference between common nouns and proper nouns becomes clearer when they're listed side by
side.
 Common Noun Proper Noun

boy David

sailor Adam

lawyer Sarah

mother-in-law Janice

city Boston

bridge The Golden Gate Bridge

tower Eifel Tower

street Honeysuckle Crescent

cat Fido

monkey Bonzo

How To Spot a Common Noun and a Proper Noun

A common noun answers the question "What is it?"

A proper noun answers the question "What's its name?"

Q: What is it? A: It is a bridge.

(The word "bridge" is a common noun.)

Q: What's its name? A: It is London Bridge.

(The name "London Bridge" is a proper noun.)

More about Nouns

As well as being categorized as a common noun or a proper noun, a noun can be further categorized
according to its meaning or its structure (e.g., Is it something tangible, or is it made up of more than one
word?). For example:

Noun Type Example

 son-in-
determination committee
law

Abstract Noun
(cannot be seen or touched)

Concrete Noun
(can be seen or touched)

Collective Noun
(represents a group)

Compound Noun
(consists of two or more words)

Gender-specific Noun
(is masculine or feminine)

Gerund
(formed from a verb and ends "-ing")

Non-countable Noun
(cannot be pluralized)

Countable Noun
(can be pluralized)

Verbal Noun
(formed from a verb but has no verb-like traits)

As shown by the above table, it is common for a noun to fit into several noun categories.

Read more about the different types of noun.

The Function of Nouns

Nouns as Subjects, Objects, and Complements

A noun can function as a subject, an object, or a complement within a sentence. For example:

Role Example

 Oranges contain Vitamin
subject
C.
 object  He likes oranges.

complemen
 They are oranges.
t

There is more on the function of nouns in the "noun phrase" section below.

Attributive Nouns
A noun can also be used like an adjective to modify another noun. For example:

 oxygen tank
 diamond ring
 car door
In these examples, the examples "oxygen," "diamond," and "car" are functioning like adjectives. When
nouns are used like this, they're called "attributive nouns."

Got it? Take a quick test.

More about the Different Types of Noun

Here is a list of the different types of noun with examples. Each entry includes at least one key point for
writers related to the type of noun.

Abstract Nouns
Abstract nouns are things you cannot see or touch. For example:

 bravery
 joy
 determination

Concrete Nouns
Concrete nouns are things you can see or touch. For example:

 tree
 hammer
 cloud

Collective Nouns
Collective nouns are words that denote groups. For example:

 team
 choir
 pack
.
Compound Nouns
Compound nouns are nouns made up of more than one word. For example:

 court-martial
 pickpocket
 water bottle
Two Key Points about Compound Nouns.

(1) Some compound nouns are two words (e.g., "peace pipe"), some are hyphenated (e.g., "play-off"),
and some have become single words (e.g., "eyeopener"). And, many of them are currently transitioning
through those stages. Therefore, spelling compound nouns can be a nightmare.
(2) Some compound nouns form their plural by adding an "s" to the principal word, not necessarily to the
end (e.g., "brothers-in-law").

Countable and Non-countable Nouns

A countable noun is a noun with both a singular and a plural form (e.g., "dog/dogs," "pie/pies"). A non-
countable noun is a noun without a plural form (e.g., "oxygen, patience"). For example:

These are countable:

 mountain (singular) / mountains (plural)

 fight / fights
 kiss / kisses
With no plural forms, these are non-countable:

 food (always singular)

 music (always singular)
 water (always singular)
Key Points about Countable and Non-countable Nouns

(1) Use "fewer" with plural nouns. Use "less" with singular nouns, but use "less" with numbers when they
quantify dates or measurements.

(2) Use "number of" with plural nouns. Use "amount of" with singular nouns. Use "quantity of" with either,
especially if your concept is measurable and you want to allude to accuracy in counting.

It can get quite technical, especially with point 2.

Read more about countable and non-countable nouns.

Gender-specific Nouns
Gender-specific nouns are nouns that are definitely male or female. For example:

 king
 vixen
 actress
Three Points about Gender-specific Nouns

Here are three points related to gender:

(1) If you're unsure whether to use "chairman" or "chairwomen," use "chair." (Many consider that
"chairperson" and even "chairwoman" sound a bit contrived.)

(2) "A blonde" is a woman. "A blond" is a man.

(3) Some people do not identify as male or female. Therefore, word choice can be important.

Read more about gender-specific nouns.

Read more about word choice for the non-binary genders.

Gerunds
Gerunds are nouns that end "-ing" and that represent actions. Gerunds have verb-like properties. For
example (gerunds shown in bold):

 happily building a tower
 quickly drawing the scene
 suddenly attacking the enemy
In the examples above, the gerunds are modified with adverbs and have direct objects. These are verb-
like traits. This is what differentiates gerunds from verbal nouns. Let's dissect one more example:

 Gradually boiling the haggis is best.

(Here, the gerund "boiling" is modified by the adverb "gradually" and its direct object is
"the haggis." Just like normal nouns, verbal nouns are modified with adjectives, and they
can't take direct objects.

A Key Point about Gerunds

Gerunds are great for creating shorter, smoother sentences. For example:

 The quick development of the device is necessary for an improvement in safety.

(There are no gerunds in this 13-word sentence, which is stuffy and stilted.)

 Developing the device quickly is necessary for improving safety.

(There are two gerunds in this 9-word version, which flows better and sounds more
natural.)

Read more about gerunds.

Verbal Nouns
Verbal nouns are nouns derived from verbs. (Verbal nouns have no verb-like properties.) For example
(verbal nouns shown in bold):

 a good building
 a fine drawing
 an effective attack
In the examples above, the verbal nouns are shown with adjectives to differentiate them from gerunds
(which are often confused with verbal nouns). Gerunds are modified with adverbs not adjectives. Let's
dissect one more example:

 The ceremonial cutting of the cake has started.

(Like gerunds, verbal nouns are derived from verbs, but, unlike gerunds, they have no
verb-like properties. In this example, the verbal noun "cutting" is not showing any verb-
 like qualities." It is not modified by a determiner and an adjective ("the" and
"ceremonial") and it requires a preposition ("of") to link it to "the cake." In contrast, in the
sentence "Cutting the cake carefully is key," the word "cutting" (which, despite being
spelled the same, is now a gerund) is showing verb-like qualities. More specifically, it is
modified with an adverb ("carefully") and has a direct object ("the chord").)

Key Points about Verbal Nouns

Verbal nouns are usually preceded by "a or an" or "the" and followed by a preposition (e.g., "of," "in,"
"for"). This makes them pretty inefficient from a wordcount perspective. Also, a sentence with verbal
nouns can often sound stuffy. However, verbal nouns can give an air of formality or provide emphasis.
So, we should all care about verbal nouns for two reasons:

(1) Replacing verbal nouns with verbs and gerunds will reduce your wordcount and improve sentence
flow.

(2) Sentences featuring pure verbal nouns could portray you as stuffy (bad) or authoritative (good).
Employ them skilfully to tune to your needs.

Read more about verbal nouns.

Even More about Nouns (Noun Phrases)

It is rare to find a noun functioning by itself (i.e., without any modifiers) in a sentence.

 Man proposes, but God disposes. (German canon Thomas à Kempis)

(This example features two nouns without any modifiers. That's rare.)

In real life, it is far more common for a noun to be accompanied by modifiers. Here's the first list of nouns
again. This time, each noun (highlighted) has at least one modifier.

 Person: the soldier, my cousin, dopey Alan, the greedy lawyer

 Place: the house in the corner, inner London, dirty factory, no shelter
 Thing: This includes:
 Objects: this table, our London Bridge, the sharp chisel, that nitrogen,
last month, an inch, her cooking
 Animals: that aardvark, one rat, a shark, funny Mickey
 Ideas: utter confusion, some kindness, your faith, the Theory of
Relativity, a joy
A noun with any sort of modifier (even it's just "a" or "the") is called a noun phrase. Like any noun, a noun
phrase can function as a subject, an object, or a complement within a sentence. In each example below,
the noun phrase is underlined and the head noun is shaded.

 Singing in the bath relaxes me.

(Here, the noun phrase is the subject of the verb "relaxes.")

 I know the back streets.
(Here, the noun phrase is the direct object of the verb "know.")

 She was the devil in disguise.

(Here, the noun phrase is a subject complement following the linking verb "was.")

As most nouns feature in noun phrases, let's look quickly at the definition for "phrase."
 Definition of "Phrase"

A phrase has at least two words and functions as one part of speech.

It follows therefore that a noun phrase functions as a noun in a sentence. We can test this because we
know that a noun can be replaced by a pronoun (e.g., "he," "she," "it," "them"). Looking at the examples
above, we can replace each noun phrase with a pronoun.

 It relaxes me.
 I know them.
 She was him.
Here are some real-life examples of noun phrases as subjects, objects, and complements:

 This man has a nice smile, but he's got iron teeth. (Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei

Gromyko on Mikhail Gorbachev)
(The noun phrase "This man" is the subject of the verb "has." The noun phrase "a nice
smile" is the direct object of "has." The noun phrase "iron teeth" is the direct object of the
verb "got." Here's the "pronoun test": He has one, but he's got them.)

 I never learned from a man who agreed with me. (Science-fiction writer Robert Heinlein)
(The noun phrase "a man who agreed with me" is the object of the preposition "from."
Here's the "pronoun test": I never learned from him.)

 Every man of courage is a man of his word. (French dramatist Pierre Corneille)

(The noun phrase "Every man of courage" is the subject of the verb "is." The noun
phrase "a man of his word" is a subject complement following the linking verb "is."
Here's the "pronoun test": He is one.)

It can get quite complicated. It's not unusual for nouns and noun phrases to be embedded within noun
phrases. Looking at the last example, "courage" and "word" are both nouns, but they are not the head
nouns of the phrases. They are both objects of the preposition "of," sitting in prepositional phrases that
modify the head nouns.

The last thing to say about noun phrases is that they can be headed by pronouns as well as nouns, and
they can be quite long.

 Anybody who wants the presidency so much that he'll spend two years organizing and
campaigning for it is not to be trusted with the office. (Journalist David Broder)
(Here, "anybody" is a pronoun. The rest of the noun phrase is an adjective clause
modifying the head "noun". Here's the "pronoun test": He is not to be trusted with the
office.)

Even More about Nouns (Noun Clauses)

Let's look quickly at the definition for "clause".

Definition of "Clause"

A clause has a subject and a verb and functions as one part of speech.

It follows therefore that a noun clause functions as a noun in a sentence, and that means we can apply
the "pronoun test."

Lots of noun clauses start with "that," "how," or a "wh"-word (e.g., "what," "who," "which," "when," "where,"
"why). Here are some easy examples. In each example, the noun clause is underlined, the subject is
shaded, and the verb of the noun clause is bold.

 I know that the story is true.
 I saw how the accident happened.
 I understand why it was necessary.
 I know who said that.
(Often, the opening word (i.e., "how," "that" or the "wh"-word) is the subject of the noun
clause.)

Like all nouns, a noun clause can function as a subject, an object, or a complement within a sentence. In
the four examples above, the noun clauses are all objects (direct objects). Here are some more easy
examples of noun clauses as subjects, objects, and complements.

 Whoever smelt it dealt it.
(Here, the noun clause is a subject.)

 My command is whatever you wish
(Here, the noun clause is a subject complement.)

 I will give what you said some thought.

(Here, the noun clause is an indirect object. That's pretty rare.)

Here are some real-life examples:

 That he believes his own story is remarkable. (Jerome Blattner)

(Here, the noun clause is the subject of the sentence. Starting a sentence with a noun
clause starting "That" is acceptable, but it grates on lots of people's ears. Many writers
prefer ""The fact that…".)

 Light knows when you are looking at it. ("Light and space" artist James Turrell)

(Here, the noun clause is the direct object of the verb "knows.")

 It is a light thing for whoever keeps his foot outside trouble to advise and counsel him
that suffers. (Greek tragedian Aeschylus)
(Here, the noun clause is the object of a preposition ("for").)

 My relationships are between me and whomever I am with, not between me and the

world. (Actress Lili Reinhart)
(Here, the noun clause is the object of a preposition ("between").)

 Liberty means responsibility. That is why most men dread it. (Playwright George

Bernard Shaw)
(Here, the noun clause is a subject complement.)

A More Sophisticated Definition for "Noun"

Right, we started with defining a noun as a "naming word," and now we're talking about nouns being
clauses functioning as subjects, objects, or complements. As grammarians like to talk about the functions
of phrases and clauses, let's summarize this page with a good test for spotting nouns:

A Great Test for Nouns

(regardless of whether they're single words, phrases, or clauses)

A noun is any word or group of words that could be replaced with a pronoun.
Let's dissect one more example.

 A cynic is a man who looks around for a coffin when he smells flowers. (Journalist H L
Mencken)
The underlined text in the example above is functioning as a noun (a subject complement). As it includes
subjects ("who" and "he") and verbs ("looks" and "smells"), you might think it meets the criteria to qualify
as a noun clause. It's not though. It's a noun phrase. Those subjects and the verbs feature in the adjective
clause "who looks around for a coffin when he smells flowers." ("When he smells flowers" is an adverbial
clause embedded in the adjective clause.) Hey, if you can follow what's going on in this example, you're
well down the path between sentence butcher and sentence surgeon.

Why Should I Care about Nouns?

Most native English speakers can form noun phrases and noun clauses without giving the grammar a
second thought. So, if the truth be told, understanding how they function isn't particularly useful unless
you're required to teach them or to compare them with similar structures in a foreign language you're
learning.

That said, here are three common issues associated with nouns.

(Issue 1) Only use capital letter with a proper noun.

Don't give a common noun (e.g., "dog," "brochure," "mountain") a capital letter just because it's an
important word in your sentence. Only proper nouns (e.g., "Dexter," "The Summer Brochure," "Ben
Nevis") get capital letters.

 Read the Instructions carefully. 

("Instructions" is a common noun. It doesn't get a capital letter.)

(Issue 2) Treat a collective noun as singular, but go plural if the context dictates.
It is normal to treat a collective noun as singular. However, if the context highlights the individuals in the
group, you can treat a collective noun as plural.

 The group arrives before the audience. 

(Here, the verb is "arrives" not "arrive" because "group" is treated as singular.)

 The group were out of time. 

(Here, the verb is "were" not "was" because "group" is treated as plural. This might be
preferable if the context puts the focus on the group's individuals.)

To avoid making a decision on whether to go singular or plural, add a term like "members of" and force
the plural.

 The members of the group were out of time. 

(The word "members" becomes the head noun of the new noun phrase.)

(Issue 3) When a noun phrase is the subject of a verb, ensure subject-verb agreement with the head
noun.
 The Spitfire's 9-yard belt of bullets give us the term "the full nine yards." 
(The head noun in this noun phrase is "belt." All the other words in the noun phrase are
modifiers. As "belt" is singular, the verb "give" is wrong. It should be "gives.")
Do not be tricked into agreeing the verb with the nearest noun (here, "bullets"). When a noun phrase is
the subject of a verb, the head noun governs the verb.

Read more about subject-verb agreement

Key Points

 "I need Water!" 

(It's an important word, but "water" is a common noun, so it doesn't get a capital letter.)

 Treat words like "group" (i.e., collective nouns) as singular, but if the focus is on the
individuals in the group, go plural.
 When a noun phrase is the subject of a verb, don't let the modifiers divert your eye from
the head noun as it must govern the verb.

B. Pronouns ([ CITATION Gra1 \l 1033 ]

Definition

 A pronoun (I, me, he, she, herself, you, it, that, they, each, few, many, who, whoever, whose, someone,

everybody, etc.) is a word that takes the place of a noun. In the sentence Joe saw Jill, and he waved at her,

the pronouns he and her take the place of Joe and Jill, respectively. There are three types of

pronouns: subject (for example, he); object (him); or possessive (his).

Rule 1. Subject pronouns are used when the pronoun is the subject of the sentence. You can remember subject

pronouns easily by filling in the blank subject space for a simple sentence.

Example: ___ did the job.

I, he, she, we, they, who, whoever, etc., all qualify and are, therefore, subject pronouns.

Rule 2. Subject pronouns are also used if they rename the subject. They will follow to be verbs, such as is, are, was,

were, am, will be, had been, etc.

Examples:

It is he.

This is she speaking.

It is we who are responsible for the decision to downsize.

NOTE

In informal English, most people tend to follow to be verbs with object pronouns like me, her, them. Many English

scholars tolerate this distinction between formal and casual English.

Example: It could have been them.

Technically correct: It could have been they.

Example: It is just me at the door.

 Technically correct: It is just I  at the door.

Advertisement

Rule 3. This rule surprises even language watchers: when who refers to a personal pronoun (I, you, he, she, we,

they), it takes the verb that agrees with that pronoun.

Correct: It is I who  am sorry. (I  am)

Incorrect: It is I who is sorry.

Correct: It is you who are  mistaken. (you  are)

Incorrect: It is you who's mistaken.

Rule 4. In addition to subject pronouns, there are also object pronouns, known more specifically as direct

object, indirect object, and object of a preposition (for more detail, see the definition of a verb in the Finding

Nouns, Verbs, and Subjects section). Object pronouns include me, him, herself, us, them, themselves.

Examples:

Jean saw him.

Him is the direct object of the verb saw.

Give  her the book.

The direct object of give is book, and her is the indirect object. Indirect objects always have an

implied to or for in front of them: Give [to] her  the book. Do [for] me  a favor.

Are you talking to me?

Me is the object of the preposition to.

Rule 5. The pronouns who, that, and which become singular or plural depending on the subject. If the subject is

singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.

Example: He is the only one of those men who is always on time.

The word who refers to one. Therefore, use the singular verb is.

Sometimes we must look more closely to find a verb's true subject:

Example: He is one of those men who are  always on time.

The word who refers to men. Therefore, use the plural verb are.

In sentences like this last example, many would mistakenly insist that one is the subject, requiring is always on time.

But look at it this way: Of those men who  are always on time, he is one.

Rule 6. Pronouns that are singular (I, he, she, everyone, everybody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody, someone,

somebody, each, either, neither, etc.) require singular verbs. This rule is frequently overlooked when using the
pronouns each, either, and neither, followed by of. Those three pronouns always take singular verbs. Do not be

misled by what follows of.

Examples:

Each  of the girls  sings well.

Either  of us is  capable of doing the job.

Neither of them is  available to speak right now.

Exception 1: The singular pronouns I and you take plural verbs.

Examples:

I  sing well.

You  sing well.

She  sings well.

Exception 2: When each follows a noun or pronoun in certain sentences, even experienced writers sometimes get

tripped up:

Incorrect: The women each gave her approval.

Correct:  The women each gave their approval.

Incorrect: The words are and there each ends with a silent vowel.

Correct:  The words are and there each end with a silent vowel.

These examples do not contradict Rule 6, because each is not the subject, but rather an adjunct describing the true

subject.

Rule 7. To decide whether to use the subject or object pronoun after the words than or as, mentally complete the

sentence.

Examples:

Tranh is as smart as she/her.

If we mentally complete the sentence, we would say Tranh is as smart as she is. Therefore, she is the correct

answer.

Zoe is taller than I/me.

Mentally completing the sentence, we have Zoe is taller than I am.

Daniel would rather talk to her than I/me.

We can interpret this sentence in two ways: Daniel would rather talk to her than to me. OR Daniel would rather

talk to her than I would. A sentence's meaning can change considerably, depending on the pronoun you

choose.
Rule 8. The possessive pronouns yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs, and whose never need apostrophes. Avoid

mistakes like her's and your's.

Rule 9. The only time it's has an apostrophe is when it is a contraction for it is or it has. The only time who's has an

apostrophe is when it means who is or who has. There is no apostrophe in oneself. Avoid "one's self," a common

error.

Examples:

It's been a cold morning.

The thermometer reached its highest reading.

He's the one who's always on time.

He's the one whose wife is always on time.

Keeping oneself ready is important.

Rule 10. Pronouns that end in -self or -selves are called reflexive pronouns. There are nine reflexive

pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, oneself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves.

Reflexive pronouns are used when both the subject and the object of a verb are the same person or thing.

Example: Joe helped himself.

If the object of a preposition refers to a previous noun or pronoun, use a reflexive pronoun:

Example: Joe bought it for himself.

Reflexive pronouns help avoid confusion and nonsense. Without them, we might be stuck with sentences like Joe

helped Joe.

Correct:  I worked myself to the bone.

The object myself is the same person as the subject I, performing the act of working.

Incorrect: My brother and myself did it.

Correct:  My brother and I did it.

Don't use myself unless the pronoun I or me precedes it in the sentence.

Incorrect: Please give it to John or myself.

Correct:  Please give it to John or me.

Correct:  You saw me being myself.

Myself refers back to me in the act of being.

A sentence like Help yourself looks like an exception to the rule until we realize it's shorthand for You may help

yourself.

In certain cases, a reflexive pronoun may come first.

Example: Doubting himself, the man proceeded cautiously.

Reflexive pronouns are also used for emphasis.

 Example: He himself finished the whole job.

Rule 11a. The use of they and their with singular pronouns is frowned upon by many traditionalists. To be consistent,

it is a good practice to try to avoid they and its variants (e.g., them, their, themselves) with previously singular nouns

or pronouns.

Not consistent: Someone has to do it, and they have to do it well.

The problem is that someone is singular, but they is plural. If we change they to he or she, we get a rather clumsy

sentence, even if it is technically correct.

Technically correct: Someone has to do it, and he or she has to do it well.

Replacing an inconsistent sentence with a poorly written one is a bad bargain. The better option is to rewrite.

Rewritten:  Someone has to do it, and has to do it well.

Many writers abhor the he or she solution. Following are more examples of why rewriting is a better idea than

using he or she or him or her to keep sentences consistent.

Inconsistent: No one realizes when their time is up.

Awkward:  No one realizes when his or her time is up.

Rewritten:  None realize when their time is up.

Inconsistent: If you see anyone on the trail, tell them to be careful.

Awkward:  If you see anyone on the trail, tell him or her to be careful.

Rewritten:  Tell anyone you see on the trail to be careful.

NOTE

Please see our note regarding the word none under Rule 6 of Subject-Verb Agreement.

Rule 11b. When rewriting is not practical and gender-neutrality is desired, use they, them, their, themself,

or themselves with singular nouns, proper nouns, and pronouns. (This is sometimes referred to as the singular they,

which has a long history in the English language.)

Rule 12. When a pronoun is linked with a noun by and, mentally remove the and + noun phrase to avoid trouble.

Incorrect: Her and her friend came over.

If we remove and her friend, we're left with the ungrammatical Her came over.

Correct:  She and her friend came over.

Incorrect: I invited he and his wife.

If we remove and his wife, we're left with the ungrammatical I invited he.

Correct:  I invited  him and his wife.

Incorrect: Bill asked my sister and I.

If we remove my sister and, we're left with the ungrammatical Bill asked I.

Correct:  Bill asked my sister and  me.

 NOTE

Do not combine a subject pronoun and an object pronoun in phrases like her and I or he and me.

Whenever and or or links an object pronoun (her, me) and a subject pronoun (he, I), one of those pronouns will

always be wrong.

Incorrect: Her and I went home.

Correct:  She and I went home. (She went and I went.)

Rule 13. If two people possess the same item, and one of the joint owners is written as a pronoun, use the

possessive form for both.

Incorrect: Maribel and my home

Incorrect: Mine and Maribel's home

Correct:  Maribel's and my home

Incorrect: he and Maribel's home

Incorrect: him and Maribel's home

Correct:  his and Maribel's home

Incorrect: you and Maribel's home

Incorrect: yours and Maribel's home

Correct:  Maribel's and your home

Note: As the above examples demonstrate, when one of the co-owners is written as a pronoun, use possessive

adjectives (my, your, her, our, their). Avoid possessive pronouns (mine, yours, hers, ours, theirs) in such

constructions

C. Verbs

What Are Verbs? (with Examples) [ CITATION Gra2 \l 1033 ]

A verb is a word that expresses a physical action (jump), a mental action (guess), or a state of being
(exist). Here are some more examples:

 A physical action (e.g., "to swim," "to write," "to climb").

 A mental action (e.g., "to think," "to guess," "to consider").
 A state of being (e.g., "to be," "to exist," "to appear").
You might find it useful to think of verbs as "doing" words.

Verbs Expressing Physical Actions

Here are some sentences with verbs that express physical actions. (In each example, the verb is in bold.)

 She sells pegs and lucky heather.

(In this example, the word "sells" is a verb. It expresses the physical activity "to sell.")

 The doctor wrote the prescription.

(In this example, the word "wrote" is a verb. It expresses the physical activity "to write.")
  Alison bought a ticket.
(The word "bought" is a verb. It expresses the physical activity "to buy.")

Verbs Expressing Mental Actions

While many verbs express physical actions (e.g., "to jump," "to dance," "to sing"), verbs can also express
mental actions. For example:

 She considers the job done.

(The word "considers" is a verb. It expresses the mental activity "to consider.")

 Peter guessed the right number.

(The word "guessed" is a verb. It expresses the mental activity "to guess.")

 I thought the same thing.

(The word "thought" is a verb. It expresses the mental activity "to think.")

Verbs Expressing a State of Being

A small but extremely important group of verbs do not express any activity at all; they express a state of
being. The most important verb in this group (arguably of all) is the verb "to be."

Here is the verb "to be" in the different tenses:

Verb "to be"

Subject
past tense present tense future tense

I Was am will be

You Were are will be

He / She / It Was is will be

We Were are will be

You Were are will be

They Were are will be

Here are some real examples with the verb "to be":

 Edwina is the largest elephant in this area.

(The word "is" is a verb from the verb "to be.")

 It was a joke.
(The word "was" is a verb from the verb "to be.")

 I am.
 (The word "am" is a verb from the verb "to be.")

Here are some other verbs that express a state of being.

 Alien life almost certainly exists.

(The word "exists" is a verb from the verb "to exist.")

 It seemed funny at the time.

(The word "seemed" is a verb from the verb "to seem.")

Interesting Fact

"I am" is the shortest sentence in English.

A Video Summary
Here is a video summarizing this lesson about verbs and the key terms associated with verbs.

The Types of Verbs

As we've covered, a verb can be categorized as a physical verb (e.g., to run), a mental verb (e.g., to
think), or a state-of-being verb (e.g., to be). However, a verb will often be further categorized as one of the
following:

Action Verb
An action verb expresses an activity that a person or thing can do. For example:

 Lee eats cake.
("Eating" is something Lee can do.)

 The bear chased the salmon in the shallow rapids.

("Chasing" is something the bear can do.)

Compare those verbs with these:

 Lee likes cake.
("To like" is not an activity. It's a state.)

 The bear is hungry.
("To be" is not an activity. It's a state.)

Stative Verb
A stative verb expresses a state rather than an action. A stative verb typically relates to a state of being, a
thought, or an emotion. For example:

 I am at home.
 She believes in fairies.
 He feels elated.

Transitive Verb
A transitive verb is one that acts on something (i.e., it has a direct object). For example:

 I saw the dog.
(Here, the direct object is "the dog.")
  Lee ate the pie.
(Here, the direct object is "the pie.")

 The postman will give Sarah the letter.

(Here, the direct object is "the letter.")

Note: The direct object of a transitive verb can be found by finding the verb and asking "what?" For
example, "saw what?" (answer: the dog); "ate what?" (answer: the pie); "will give what?" (answer: the
letter).

Read more about transitive verbs.

Intransitive Verb
An intransitive verb is one that does not act on something (i.e., there is no direct object). For example:

 The rain fell.
 My throat hurts.
 The cat sneezed.
Read more about intransitive verbs.

Auxiliary Verb
An auxiliary verb (or helping verb) accompanies a main verb to help express tense, voice or mood. The
most common auxiliary verbs are "be," "do," and "have" (in their various forms). Here are some examples
of auxiliary verbs:

 Lee has eaten all the pies.

(Here, the auxiliary verb "has" helps to express tense.)

 The table has been prepared.

(Here, the auxiliary verbs "has been" help to express voice (in this case, the passive
voice).)

 If he were to arrive in the next 10 minutes, we would be on schedule.

(Here, the auxiliary verbs "were" and "would" help to express mood (in this case,
the subjunctive mood).)

Read more about auxiliary verbs.

Modal Verb
A modal verb is a type of auxiliary verb used to express ideas such as ability, possibility, permission, and
obligation. The modal auxiliary verbs are "can," "could," "may," "might," "must," "ought to," "shall,"
"should," "will," and "would." For example:

 Lee can eat a lot of pies.

(Here, the modal verb "can" helps to express the idea of ability.)

 Lee might eat that pie before he gets home.

(Here, the modal verb "might" helps to express the idea of possibility.)

 Lee may eat as many pies as he likes.

(Here, the modal verb "may" helps to express the idea of permission.)

 Lee should give you some of that pie given you bought it.

 (Here, the modal verb "should" helps to express the idea of obligation.)

Read more about auxiliary modal verbs.

Phrasal Verb
A phrasal verb is a verb made up of more than one word (usually two words). A phrasal verb has a main
verb and another word (either a preposition or a particle). The phrasal verb usually has a meaning
different to the main verb. For example:

 A burglar will often break a window to break in.

(Here, the phrasal verb "break in" means "to enter illegally," which is different to
"break.")

 If you drop the baton the team will drop back to last place.
(Here, the phrasal verb "drop back" means "to fall behind," which is different to "drop.")

Read more about phrasal verbs.

Regular and Irregular Verbs

A regular verb is one that forms its simple past tense and its past participle by adding -ed or -d to
the base form of the verb. (Note: There are spelling rules to consider too.) For example:

Regular Verb Simple Past Tense Past Participle

Love loved has loved

Hate hated has hated

Move moved has moved

An irregular verb is one that does not conform to this ruling. For example:

Irregular Verb Simple Past Tense Past Participle

Tell told has told

Bleed bled has bled

Read more about regular and irregular verbs.

Verb Terminology
There is a lot of grammatical terminology associated with verbs. Below are explanations of the most
common terms. (There is a more comprehensive list in our Glossary of Terms.)

The Infinitive Form

When a verb is preceded by the word "to," it is said to be in its infinitive form (i.e., its most basic form).
  I have to smoke that!
("To smoke" is the infinitive form of the verb.)

Read more about the infinitive form of a verb.

Past Tense
Verbs that express actions in the past are said to be in the past tense.

 He talked with more claret than clarity. (Susan Ertz)

("Talked" is the past tense of the verb "to talk.")

 I ran to the lake.

("Ran" is the past tense of the verb "to run.")

 They were all there.
("Were" is the past tense of the verb "to be.")

Present Tense
Verbs that express actions occurring now are said to be in the present tense.

 John jumps out the window.

("Jumps" is the present tense of the verb "to jump.")

 Who is ill?
("Is" is the present tense of the verb "to be.")

 He is the kind of a guy who lights up a room just by flicking a switch.

("Is" is the present tense of the verb "to be," and "lights up" is the present tense of the
verb "to light up.")

Future Tense
Verbs that express actions in the future are said to be in the future tense. These are usually formed by
preceding the verb with the word "will."

 I will take the blame.

("Will take" is the future tense of the verb "to take.")

 They will surrender.
("Will surrender" is the future tense of the verb "to surrender.")

 Give me where to stand, and I will move the earth. (Archimedes, 287-212 BC)
("Will move" is the future tense of the verb "to move.")

Read more about verb tenses.

Take a test on verb tenses.

Subject of a Verb
The person or thing performing the action of the verb is said to be the subject of the verb or the "subject
of the sentence."

 Tony stole the boat.

("Tony" is the subject of the verb "to steal.")

 The dog is guilty.

 ("The dog" is the subject of the verb "to be.")

 Who was that?
("Who" is the subject of the verb "to be.")

Read more about the subject of a verb.

Direct Object of a Verb

Many verbs perform an action on something. This is called the direct object of the verb.

 Terry kissed her hand.

("Her hand" is the direct object of the verb "to kiss.")

 Beverly can eat a whole chicken.

("A whole chicken" is the direct object of the verb "to eat.")

Some verbs cannot have a direct object. These verbs are called intransitive verbs.

 The rain fell heavily.
(The rain fell, but it did not perform an action on anything. In this example, the verb "to
fall" is an intransitive verb.)

 Jack protested in the street.

(Jack protested, but he did not perform an action on anything. In this example, the verb
"to protest" is an intransitive verb.)

Verbs that can have a direct object (most of them) are called transitive verbs.

 Barney copied the answer.
(The verb "copied" is a transitive verb. The direct object of the verb is "the answer.")

 Terry saw a black fin cutting through the water.

(The verb "saw" is a transitive verb. The direct object of the verb is "a black fin.")

Read more about direct objects.

Indirect Object of a Verb

Some verbs have two objects, a direct object and an indirect object. The indirect object is the person or
thing for whom the action was performed.

 Jamie read the children a story.

(Here, "a story" is the direct object, and "the children" is the indirect object.)

 I will bake him a cake.

(Here, "a cake" is the direct object, and "him" is the indirect object.)

 The postman gives Anne a letter every day.

(Here, "a letter" is the direct object, and "Anne" is the indirect object.)

Read more about indirect objects.

Passive Sentence
The subject of a sentence does not always do the action of the verb. Sometimes, the action is done to the
subject. Such sentences are called passive sentences because the subjects are being passive, i.e., not
doing anything.

 Carl was arrested.

 ("Carl" is not doing anything, but he is the subject of the sentence.)
(Note: "Carl" is the subject of the verb "to be.")

Passive verbs always comprise two parts ("was arrested" in this example). The person doing the action of
the verb in a passive sentence is usually shown with the word "by."

 Carl was arrested by PC Adams.

Passive verbs are said to be in the passive voice. Passive sentences can be quite useful:

 The carpet was damaged.

(This is a passive sentence. No one is blamed for damaging the carpet.)

 Mark damaged the carpet.

(A passive sentence contrasts with an active sentence (where the subject performs the
verb). This is an example of an active sentence. It tells us that Mark damaged the
carpet.)

Read more about passive sentences.

Active Sentence
Active sentences contrast with passive sentences. In an active sentence, the subject of the verb performs
the action.

 We damaged the carpet.

(This is an active sentence. "We" is the subject. "We damaged" the carpet.)

 Jamie read a story.

(This is an active sentence. "Jamie" is the subject. "Jamie read" a story.)

Read more about active sentences.

Conjugation of Verbs
A verb will change its form a little depending on the subject. For example:

 I write.
 He writes.
 The jackal laughs.
 The jackals laugh.
When verbs change in this way, it is known as "conjugation." A verb conjugates according to the subject.
The subject of a verb can be in one of six forms:

 I
 You
 He / She / It
 We
 You
 They
The first three are the singular forms (known as first person singular, second person singular, and third
person singular). The second three are the plural forms (known as first person plural, second person
plural and third person plural).

All subjects fit into one of these categories. For example, "jackal" is like "he" (i.e., third person singular)
and "jackals" is like "they" (i.e., third person plural). (This subject rarely causes problems for native
English speakers, who conjugate verbs correctly without much thought.)
Interestingly, this is the origin of the insurance term "third party" (i.e., it's insurance covering actions by
"them").

Read more about subject-verb agreement.

Participles
Participles are formed from verbs. There are two types: present participles and past participles. Present
participles end -ing. Past participles have various endings (e.g., -ed, -en). Below is a table showing some
participles:

Verb Present Participle Past Participle

to sing singing sung

to drive driving driven

to go going gone

to rise rising risen

to watch watching watched

to be being been

Participles are classified as adjectives. (Note: When a verb form (like a participle) functions as an
adjective or a noun, it is known as a verbal.) Below are some examples of participles being used as
adjectives:

 Our business is badly affected by the soaring price of wool.

(The word "soaring" is a present participle. Here, it is being used as an adjective to
describe "price.")

 He is a forgotten hero.
(The word "forgotten" is a past participle. Here, it is being used as an adjective to
describe "hero.")

Read more about participles.

Why Should I Care about Verbs?

Even though there's a lot of terminology associated with verbs, native English speakers are really good at
using them (e.g., using the right tense, conjugating verbs correctly). We can handle all this stuff without
giving the grammar a second thought. Nevertheless, the terms covered on this page will definitely be
useful if you decide to learn a foreign language or to teach English because, if you do, you will encounter
all of these terms. Knowing what they mean in English is a great starting point for learning how these
features are addressed in other languages.
That said, some of the terms covered in this entry do have their own oddities or traps, and these are
covered on their individual pages. At the "verb" level, there are five good reasons to think more carefully
about verbs.

(Reason 1) Write flowing sentences.

We fill our speech with verbs. For that reason, speech is great. It's clear and structured naturally. Writing,
on the other hand, can be boring, corporate, predictable, and structured abnormally. These bad traits are
most often caused by an overuse of nouns.

So, a good trick to ensure your writing leans towards verbs and not nouns is to say your sentence
aloud and make that the start point of your sentence structure. This is a good way to get some verbs into
your writing and to limit yourself to just enough nouns to get the job done.

Unnatural (Overusing Nouns) Natural (Deploying a Good Verb)

I was under the mistaken assumption you had made I mistakenly assumed you had paid.
the payment.

They are in agreement that he was in violation of They agree he violated several
several regulations. regulations.

She will be in attendance to present a demonstration She will attend to demonstrate how
of how the weather will have an effect on our process. the weather will affect our process.

Opting for verbs over nouns will not only make your sentences flow better but also reduce your word
count because you will avoid the articles (e.g., "an," "the") and prepositions (e.g., "in," "on") required to
make nouns work.

There's another refinement. To optimize your sentence flow and to reduce your word count even further,
opt for action verbs over linking verbs, which – like nouns – can sound a little stuffy.

Stuffy (Using Linking Verbs) Natural (Using Action Verbs)

This rule is applicable to both teams. This rule applies to both teams.

The treaty is binding for all parties. The treaty binds all parties.

Top Tip

"If your writing reads like writing, then re-write it."

(Reason 2) Ensure your subject and verb agree in number.

Here is an excellent reason to care about verbs: subject-verb agreement.

"Subject-verb agreement" means using the right version of the verb to agree with the subject. It just
means saying "The cat was hungry" and not "The cat were hungry." In other words, it's about changing a
verb to match its subject (called "verb conjugation").

Verb conjugation is a simple concept, but there are many traps that cause writers to match
a singular subject with a plural verb or vice versa. When this mistake occurs, we say there is no subject-
verb agreement. A subject and its verb must agree.

Here are three examples of sentences with no subject-verb agreement. (The verbs are shown in bold.)

 Either of the buttons work. 

("Works" would be correct because "either" is singular.)

 The agenda are pinned on the wall. 

("Agenda" is now accepted as a singular word, despite deriving from the plural of
"agendum.")

 Jack as well as Jill fall down the hill. 

("Falls" would be correct because "as well as" does not create a compound subject like
"and" does.)

Read more about the traps that cause no subject-verb agreement.

(Reason 3) Avoid common spelling errors related to verbs.

Here are some common spelling errors caused by failing to spot a verb:

 "Accept" is a verb, but "except" usually isn't.

 "Advise" is verb, but "advice" isn't.
 "Affect" is usually a verb, but "effect" usually isn't.
 "Lose" is usually a verb, but "loose" usually isn't.
 "Marinate" is a verb, but "marinade" isn't.
 "Passed" is a verb, but "past" isn't.
 In British English, "practise" is a verb, but "practice" isn't.
 In British English, "license" is a verb, but "licence" isn't.

(Reason 4) Spot when you've written a sentence and end it appropriately.

Verbs are important. You can't write a sentence without one. Remember that a sentence expresses a
complete thought and includes a subject that governs at least one finite verb. It may sound basic, but lots
of writers fail to spot when they've written a sentence. Consequently, they commit the most common
mistake made by otherwise excellent writers: the run-on error. The most common type of run-on error is
writing a sentence, putting a comma, and then writing another sentence.

 I don't know how to act my age, I've never been this old before. 
 Lazy is such an ugly word, I prefer to call it selective participation. 
 It was me, I let the dogs out. 
 My house was clean yesterday, I'm sorry you missed it. 
Having written a sentence, writers are drawn to a comma because they've more to say and feel a period
(full stop) is too abrupt a halt. It isn't. A period is fine. There are other options of course (e.g., a dash,
a semicolon, an ellipsis (three dots), a subordinating conjunction like "because") – you just can't use a
comma.

What's this got to do with verbs? Well, spotting finite verbs and their subjects is a good start point for
dividing your work into proper sentences. If you look at the wrong examples above, you will find a subject,
a finite verb, and a complete thought either side of the comma, which means you're looking at two
sentences.

(Reason 5) Spot when to use a comma after a conjunction (e.g., "and").

Of course, it is common for a sentence to consist of more than one independent clause. (An independent
clause is one that can stand alone as a sentence.) When these "standalone sentences" are joined with a
conjunction (e.g., "and," "but," "or"), it is normal to put a comma before the conjunction.

 Actors are con men, and con men are actors. (Actor Edward Burns)
(This sentence comprises two "standalone sentences" (i.e., independent clauses). The
comma before "and" is correct.)

When a conjunction does not join two independent clauses, it is normal not to use a comma.

 My grandmother was gruff and looked very fierce. She was quite small, but she was
very wide. (Author Salman Rushdie)
(Here, the words "looked very fierce" is not an independent clause because there's no
subject. However, the words "she was very wide" is an independent clause. That's why
there's no comma before "and" but one before "but.")

What's this got to do with verbs? Well, spotting finite verbs and their subjects is a good start point for
dividing your work into independent clauses, and that's key for determining whether to use commas
before conjunctions.

Key Point

 Nouns are clunky and eat up your word count. Use more verbs. They're flowy and
efficient.
(You can read about all the other issues related to verbs by following the links to those specific pages.)

D. Paragraph Organization

Paragraph organization refers to the way sentences are ordered and structured to create a unified and cohesive body
of text. The principal features to consider in paragraph organization are the topic sentence and controlling idea,
supporting details, organizational patterns, and signal words. Together, these features progress a topic and idea from
one point to the next, logically and fluidly. This resource and the accompanying video tutorial explain these features
and provide numerous examples of paragraph organization in context.

Along with having topic sentences and supporting details, paragraphs are also organized to achieve a

certain purpose. However, just as a paragraph can contain different types of supporting details, a

paragraph may also include more than one organizational pattern. Listed here are some common

patterns for organizing a paragraph:

• Cause and Effect: for showing how one thing leads to another

• Chronological Order: for narrating events that occurred over time

• Classification: for grouping things together according to their features

• Compare and Contrast: for showing how things are similar or different
• Definition and example: for defining a term or idea then expanding it with examples

• Description: for listing details

• Episode: for presenting details or information about a specific event or anecdote [ CITATION Sus11 \l 1033 ]

E. Vowel Sounds

What are vowel sounds? [ CITATION Sea16 \l 1033 ]

English has fifteen vowel sounds represented by the letters a, e, i, o, and u. The letters y, w and gh are also
commonly used in vowel sound spellings. Vowel sounds are produced with a relatively open vocal tract. Consonant
sounds, in contrast, are created by pushing air through a small opening in the vocal tract or by building up air in the
vocal tract, then releasing it.

Categories of vowel sounds

Vowel sounds are divided into the following three categories:

 Long vowels (vowels that sound like the letter name)

 Short vowels (the most common sound for a single vowel spelling)
 Other vowels (the remaining vowel sounds)

References

Carlson, S., Center, K. U., Rios, C., & Stoff, M. (2011, September 14). The Topic Sentence and Paragraph
Organization. Retrieved from montereysat.com:
http://www.montereysat.com/uploads/5/1/5/3/51535499/the_topic_sentence_and_paragraph_organiza
tionrev.pdf

Chen, E. (2020, January 4). What is the difference between purposive communication and communication?
Retrieved from qoura.com: https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-purposive-
communication-and-communication

CliffsNotes. (n.d.). Communication Process. Retrieved from cliffsnotes.com: https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-

guides/principles-of-management/communication-and-interpersonal-skills/the-communication-process

DICTIONARY. (2021). communication. Retrieved from dictionary.com:

https://www.dictionary.com/browse/communication

Drexel University. (2018, july 12). Types of Communication. Retrieved from https://drexel.edu/goodwin/:
https://drexel.edu/goodwin/professional-studies-blog/overview/2018/July/Five-types-of-communication/

Grammar Book. (n.d.). Pronouns. Retrieved from GrammarBook.com:

https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/pronoun.asp#:~:text=A%20pronoun%20(I%2C%20me%2C,of
%20Joe%20and%20Jill%2C%20respectively.

Grammar Monster. (n.d.). What are Nouns? Retrieved from grammar-monster.com: https://www.grammar-
monster.com/lessons/nouns.htm

Grammar Monster. (n.d.). What are Verbs? (with examples). Retrieved from grammar-monster.com:
https://www.grammar-monster.com/lessons/verbs.htm
Indeed Editorial Team . (2021, may 12). Steps and Components of the communication process. Retrieved from
indeed.com: https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/communication-process

Lewis, J. J. (2015, September 10). 10 Basics of Ethical Communication. Retrieved from rysec.org:
https://www.rysec.org/10-basics-of-ethical-communication/

Merriam-webster. (2021, August 28). communication. Retrieved from merriam-webster.com:

https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/communication

Moses, J. (2020, January 19). What is the difference between purposive communication and communication?
Retrieved from qoura.com : https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-purposive-
communication-and-communication

Oxford Languages . (n.d.). Dictionary . Retrieved from Google.com: https://www.google.com/search?

q=definition+of+communication&oq=definition+of+communication&aqs=chrome.0.69i59l2j0i512l5j69i60.
7758j1j7&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8

Seattle Learning Activity. (2016). Introduction to English Vowel Sounds . Retrieved from pronuncian.com:
https://pronuncian.com/introduction-to-vowels

SkillsYouNeed.com . (2021). What is Communication? Retrieved from SKILLS YOU NEED:

https://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/what-is-communication.html

Toppr. (n.d.). Communication. Retrieved from toppr.com: https://www.toppr.com/guides/business-

studies/directing/communication/

tutorialspoint. (n.d.). Effective Communication -Process. Retrieved from tutorials.com:

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/effective_communication/effective_communication_process.htm

Venkatesh. (n.d.). 7 Principles of Communication – Explained! Retrieved from yourarticlelibrary.com:

https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/management/communication/7-principles-of-communication-
explained/53333

What is Communication? (2021, July 31). what is communication?- definition and importance. Retrieved from
study.com: https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-communication-definition-importance.html