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BUILDING CONVERGENCE OF ETHNICITY IN THE UNITARY STATE OF THE

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The Role of Government on Sustainable Development
BUILDING CONVERGENCE OF ETHNICITY IN
THE UNITARY STATE OF THE REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA
Tomi Setiawan1
1
Center for Agrarian Policy Study, Padjadjaran University
Jl Raya Bandung-Sumedang Km.21. Jantinangor 45363, West Java, Indonesia
Email: tomi.setiawan@unpad.ac.id
Abstract.
This paper is the result of a literature review to
examine ethnicity and threat of disintegration in
plural society. Plural society is a society
consisting of two or more communities and
groups that are culturally and economically
divided by having different institutional
structures. The problem facing Indonesia as a
pluralistic society is the relationship between the
government or public administration system and
the existing ethnic groups. And the origin and
continuity of ethnicity that includes ethnic
boundaries, the integration of ethnic populations,
and the institutional relations of ethnicity, are
generally concerned with competition for power
positions and economic resources. Building of
convergence in a plural society must be initiated
by the consciousness of the ethnic groups of
pluralism itself. In plural society, the government
has an important role to aid the develop justice
and equality. At last, the government plays the
main role as a source of unity, and provides a
focus for the common life of the whole community
through various public policies.
Keywords: convergence; ethnicity; role of
government.
1. INTRODUCTION
Indonesia (Dutch East Indies) in the past is
one of the real examples of a pluralistic society,
namely a society consisting of several groups or
social systems that live side by side, but without
mingling in one political unit (certain territorial
34
boundaries) (Furnivall, 2009). In a pluralistic
society the most prominent feature is the absence
of shared will at all. Cooperation is possible only
on certain matters that are considered important
as well as defense against external aggression. In
the context of "country", a pluralistic society is
usually divided into several provincial
confederations that unite with an agreement or a
formal constitution that regulates agreed matters,
and the rest of them live their own lives.
The state have as a slogan ‗Bhinneka
Tunggal Ika‘ (see Box 1. for detail) reflects the
actual reality of the Indonesian people, that
Indonesia is known as a plural society consisting
of approximately 7000 ethnic groups, where each
ethnic group retains its ethnic and cultural
identity, and covers its own ethnic territories.
Members of each ethnic group live in relatively
homogeneous ethnic communities, with their own
cultural identity and territorial boundaries, which
are spread throughout the Indonesian archipelago.
In his hometown, local ethnicity or indigenous
culture is dominant, which serves as a reference
system in selectively guiding the members of the
community in carrying out their daily activities,
as well as how they perceive their surroundings,
where they are a small part of it.
In the past, mixing of different ethnic
groups was probably only found in cities and
urban centers. But at this time, almost all regions
of ethnically Indonesia are fairly heterogeneous,
along with the arrival of migrants and from
different ethnic groups then living side by side

with local ethnic communities, not only in cities
or urban centers, but also in villages and inland
areas. Therefore, inter-ethnic relations become
more interactive than in the past. But then this
also often brings new problems in accommo-
dating cultural differences between migrants and
local communities, if later migrants are
economically more established than local
communities.
Box 1.
The sentence was taken from the philosophy of the
Nusantara Archipelago which since the days of the
Majapahit Kingdom has also been used as a motto of
unifying the Nusantara archipelago, which was
pledged by Patih Gajah Mada in Kakawin Sutasoma,
the work of Mpu Tantular:
Rwāneka dhātu winuwus wara Buddha Wiśwa,
Bhinnêki rakwa ring apan kěna parwanosěn,
Mangka ng Jinatwa kalawan Śiwatatwa
tunggal,
Bhinnêka tunggal ika tan hana dharmma
mangrwa (Strophe.139: 5).
Conceptually, ethnic and cultural differen-
ces in Indonesia can be seen based on the level of
economic development. As stated by Kennedy
(1943), there are four categories of community
culture. First, is the category of people living
from the results of hunting and food gathering.
People living in this culture are nomadic groups
where hunting and collecting forest products in
certain territorial areas are their top priority in
life. They have also been able to grow crops
using dry land farming techniques. Second, is a
group that has achieved economic growth in the
field of agriculture, but lacks an adequate portion
of the political area at the village level.
Communities that can be classified into this
category include, among others, Baduy, Tengger,
Kalimantan Dayak, Mentawai and most ethnic
groups in Irian Jaya.
Third, it is grouped based on the level of
advanced cultural complexity, such as artificial
irrigation, agriculture with intensive rice farming
techniques, written literature, religion from major
traditions (mostly Islam, except Balinese and
2nd ICSTCSD 2018 Proceeding
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Batak). In the past, this category of society was
led by nobles who led their native countries
(except Minangkabau and Batak). Communities
classified into this category are Javanese,
Sundanese, Madurese, Acehnese, Malay,
Minangkabau, Makassar-Bugis, and Batak. And
fourth, it can be found in urban centers, and
grouped according to the level of education and
ethnic culture, as the center of the social and
cultural system. In fact, it is this side that
distinguishes this category of society from rural
communities. These cultural differences further
deepen ethnic differences, because the perpetra-
tors use the ethnic culture as a reference, to
identify their ethnicity. As stated by Barth (1969),
ethnicity surfaced in times of social and
geographical contacts intensified between
members of different ethnic groups. This reality
can be considered true especially in relation to
economic interests and their usefulness in
competition for certain resources.
Related to the concept of ethnicity,
Oommen (2009) identify at least five different
perspectives in which ethnic groups and
ethnicities are conceptualized, namely: first,
ethnic groups are conceptualized as small. The
ethnic group shares the same culture with the
culture of their ancestors as a basis. However, in
today's world, society and groups are not limited
by lineage and kinship. Second, ethnic groups are
seen as groups that have the authority to define
themselves. The authority of the ethnic group is
based on subjective factors chosen by their
members from past history or current conditions.
The chosen cultural style helps in the creation and
maintenance of socio-cultural ties in relation to
ethnic groups interacting with each other.
Third, ethnic groups are seen as interest
groups that compete to benefit from a welfare
state. Groups such as race, religion, and language
are included in this definition which sees
ethnicity as a source used by marginalized
migrant groups. Fourth, ethnicity is considered as
an instrument of identity seeking by people with
35
The Role of Government on Sustainable Development
diverse racial and cultural backgrounds in society.
Fifth, ethnicity is conceptualized as a tool used by
people to seek psychological unity which is often
based on general similarity, namely blood
equality, both real and fictitious.
The problem faced by Indonesia as a
pluralistic society is centered on the relationship
between the government or the national system
and the ethnic groups. President Soekamo once
supported a unification policy, ending with a
rebellion, based on ethnicity, during his reign.
During the Soeharto era, policies regarding unity
and uniformity remained supported, even military
forces were used to suppress aspects of ethnicity,
religion and race as a means of mobilizing the
masses so as not to oppose government policies.
At the same time, the Soeharto government used
ethnicity and religion politically to gain support
and the community. President Habibie, who
succeeded Soeharto, was caught up in Soeharto's
ideas of democracy and the despotic and
militaristic approach, which produced erratic and
contradictory policies. In the end, this reality
resulted in an inter-ethnic bloody conflict in most
parts of Indonesia.
2. METHODS
The research methods used in this paper is
a literature study. Literature study method is a
series of activities related to library data
collection methods, reading and recording, and
managing research material (Creswell, 2010).
Literature study conducted by collecting data or
sources related to the topic raised in a study. This
literature study uses various sources, journals,
documentation books, internet and others
literature.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Ethnicity in the Process of Social
Interaction
In Stewart's view (2005) ethnicity is a
separate phenomenon that arises in social
interaction. The process of social interaction is
36
also diverse, depending on the types of
relationships that influence each other between
individuals and groups, with their social and
natural environment. These environments include
ethnic categories and cultural power systems that
provide important authority over political,
economic and social norms. These all function in
inter-ethnic relations, which in turn direct and
establish norms and positions, as determined or
valued by members of ethnic groups who care
about the environment. These environments also
offer alternative opportunities as well as re-
stricting individuals or groups who wish to
manage available resources, while creating
symbols used to achieve certain positions in
social and ethnic relations.
According to Barth (1969), the catego-
rization of certain ethnic groups is determined
through their basis, general identity, background
and origin. In this case, ethnic groups are seen as
a social category that functions as a collection of
reference systems to identify certain ethnic
groups - in inter-ethnic relations. Because ethnic
groups refer to a distinctive culture, attempts to
define such important concepts are appropriate
for the purposes of classification and metho-
dology. Culture is seen as a "blue print" for life,
as a collection of reference systems or forms
created through taste and knowledge of
something quite diverse. Many people use these
forms selectively, along with their interest in
these forms to produce meaningful understanding
of certain situations, and at the same time to
guide their actions in their environment, through
their activities. Such actions may be seen as a
directive to meet needs as well as a response to
certain strength structures in their environment.
Cultural and ethnic categories are used as a
reference system for such interpretations and
responses. Then, such an approach takes into
consideration social power for actors in
understanding their actions in certain structures of
strength and interaction.

Awareness of being part of a specific
ethnic community or social unit is a starting point
for members of certain ethnic groups to
understand their perspective on other social units,
such as religious organizations, political parties,
professions, or even countries, as an ethnic group
and through their affiliation, mobilization and
solidarity processes stated repeatedly that the
social unit was an ethnic group. These processes
always occur at certain times and places, and
often relate to other ethnic groups in fighting for
economic and political resources. The emergence
of ethnic associations in cities or urban centers is
basically politically nuanced and aims to claim
safe areas in these cities as ethnic areas, both
economically, socially and culturally. The same
thing also happened in the case of affiliation with
political parties, religious organizations,
professions, even organizations of bad people and
criminals. It is all seen as an ethnic and political
group for resources and domination.
3.2 Ethnicity and Resource Issues
In the previous explanation, Barth (1964)
has shown that the origin and continuity of
ethnicity which includes ethnic boundaries, the
incorporation of ethnic and institutional relations
of ethnic relations, is generally related to
competition for economic positions and re-
sources. In a homogeneous local ethnic commu-
nity, environmental resources and certain posi-
tions are allocated among its members, based on
the official local environment (ulayat rights) and
their customs (adat). Competition in fighting over
resources and position can hardly be found in
societies that are organized socially and
culturally. If newcomers, such as migrant
workers, are accepted into a particular commu-
nity, they must obey the rules that apply in the
community.
When migrants arrive and live in certain
communal areas, the total population of the
community will far exceed the available envi-
ronmental resources. The structure of certain
2nd ICSTCSD 2018 Proceeding
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power relations has changed, along with migrants
who have begun to enter economic sectors which
previously were exclusive land for local people or
they created economic activities (new markets)
that were different from traditional markets. The
structure of inter-ethnic relations between
migrants and members of local communities has
also changed. Local ethnic communities suffer,
because they lose their privileges in the economic
and political fields. Finally, the symbiotic
relationship between the two ethnic groups turned
into a struggle for resources, including position
and power. It was then that ethnicity was
reaffirmed for the purpose of maintaining and
strengthening ethnic boundaries to further
distinguish "our" vis a vis "them".
Ethnicity is used as an instrument to
uphold social cohesion and solidarity - from both
sides to fight for the market. If the market
struggle does not have certain rules that guarantee
justice for competing ethnic groups, then finally
all possible ways are done, such as efforts to
mutually disable access to resources and position,
and monopolize and control its allocation and
distribution. Along with the passage of time, the
results that will occur are division of labor and
economic specialization based on ethnicity. If a
stable competitive relationship has taken place,
then the pattern of new inter-ethnic relations will
follow. Therefore, a balance point in the environ-
ment can be established.
However, the point of balance may not last
long. When high-value economic resources and
office positions begin to become scarce, pressure
to eliminate other ethnic groups, while domi-
nating their allocation and distribution becomes
urgent. These interests may be caused by greed or
stimulated by political forces at the local and
national levels, to benefit in the fields of
autonomy, social or political. Because ethnic
grouping is hierarchical, ethnic members rely on
their leaders or certain patrons to direct their
actions in inter-ethnic relations through their
unity, society or social units in general. It is
37
The Role of Government on Sustainable Development
ethnic leaders who have the right to urge to
eliminate ethnic groups that disobey and
dominate economic resources and take over
positions in offices at local level politics, and this
pressure is realized through other issues they
develop by referring to the character of inter-
relations ethnicity, where they are an integral part
of it. For example, In the article Van Klinen.
2005. Pelaku Baru, Identitas Baru: Kekerasan
Antar Suku pada masa Pasca Soeharto, explained
that the Sambas Case, as well as the Ambon and
Sampit cases, can be seen as examples of how
competition for economic resources and positions
can turn into inter-ethnic bloody conflicts.
However, competition between ethnic groups
does not always lead to bloody conflicts. This can
be prevented if members of these ethnic groups
comply with applicable law and maintain social
order. The police, as law enforcers, should not
take sides as long as the competition or conflict
takes place, and there should be no outside
political, economic and religious support to one
or both ethnic groups that are competing and
conflicting.
As long as ethnic conflict occurs, ethnicity
becomes the main reference in identifying
themselves and their groups. Ethnic conflict in
Indonesia is basically often a conflict between
local ethnic groups and migrants. The impact of
the conflict included the loss of life, destruction
of the immigrant community and its environment,
and those who survived were forced to leave their
homes. In the most extreme conditions, it
becomes a bloody conflict, a total war with
uncountable loss of life, mass dislocation,
oppression, alienation and suffering caused by
hunger and torture. All migrant ethnic popula-
tions were expelled from their environment. In
the article of Alqadrie, Syarif Ibrahim. 2003.
Faktor Penyebab Konflik Etnis, Identitas dan
Kesadaran Etnis, serta Indikasi ke arah Proses
Disintegrasi di Kalimantan Barat. In this article
explained that ethnic conflict is basically a
conflict that leads to the destruction of each
38
ethnicity through the destruction of ethnic
symbols. Then, each party tries to destroy and
eliminate the existence of other parties. In fact,
babies and children resulting from cross-breeding
(between ethnic groups) were also killed during
the Singkawang and Sampit conflicts. This can be
seen as an act of annihilation of the evidence and
ethnic symbols of the opponent. In ethnic
conflict, ethnicity shifts from individual
phenomena to ethnic categories. Ethnic symbols
are targets that must be destroyed, because they
are seen as representations of hostile presence.
These symbols include members of ethnic groups
who are opponents, property and their properties.
3.3 Ethnicity and Threat of Disintegration
A social institution, with a set of norms,
interrelated roles and predetermined behavior is a
social entity that has a balance in the relations of
strengths of its elements. When one of the
elements changes, it will affect the other
elements, which ultimately threaten the point of
balance. Therefore, the social institutions of
interrelated norms and roles must be defined to
accommodate the changes that occur. This
uncertain situation is a situation of social
disorder.
When the whole system is not functioning
properly to guarantee the production process, the
system will experience social shocks and dis-
integration. Social disintegration refers to
conditions, where certain power structures and
their interactions with the environment do not
function properly, thus disrupting the structure of
agreement norms among members of different
ethnic groups, and leadership, which results in the
loss of one ethnic group in the ethnic conflict.
Ethnicity as a phenomenon that arises in
social interaction is a social institution. The
potential to organize the behavior of a particular
ethnic group in a "social setting" is ascriptive and
primordial. When they appear in social inte-
ractions, the differences between "me" and "you",
and "us" and "them" are formed. The actors

involved organize themselves in social categories
based on ascriptive attitudes and their symbols,
with reference to culture and its own ascriptive
ethnicity. In turn, this social category is
transformed into groups, groups and communities
as a group of organized activities, which are
based on self-explanations and by others.
In a pluralistic society like Indonesia, whe-
re ethnicity is a social fact, ethnic competition in
fighting over resources and position might create
a kind of fragile false balance from these groups.
They may develop ethnic communities that have
interdependence, institutionalize cooperation and
division of labor or position between them.
However, on the other hand, pluralistic societies
will also bring these ethnic groups from
competition towards bloody ethnic conflict, while
destroying the existing social order and social
integration at the local and national level. Diverse
societies can also be a problem if one ethnic
group succeeds in dominating the other group,
while simultaneously applying the group's rules
to the other. All of these scenarios depend on
several factors such as differences in political and
economic ethos, population numbers and growth,
and external support, both locally and nationally.
In Indonesia, where competition between
ethnic groups is organized ascriptively, it will be
seen that ascriptive loyalty is more dominant than
economic loyalty. The ascriptive organization,
namely ethnicity, is important in the competition
process for resources that involve internal loyalty
for social cohesion and political support and
external funding. Kinship, ethnicity and regional
networks can be created and activated to win the
competition. When competition turns into
conflict, political support and external funding are
important to overcome the destruction, or restore
the spirit of ethnicity in order to win the conflict.
In inter-ethnic conflict, the target of destruction
can include (up to) human lives, and ethnic
culture represented by symbols and property.
Ethnic culture is a reference for ethnicity
and a mechanism to maintain the boundaries of
2nd ICSTCSD 2018 Proceeding
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one ethnic group. The existence of ethnicity and
ethnic groups depends on ethnic culture. Ethnic
culture is basically regarded as a root, or pri-
mordial culture, because members of an ethnic
group learn and live their culture through the
imposition of parents, elders and their
communities. Ethnic culture is a set of values of
orientation, norms, language, religion and other
practical guidelines to be able to live in their
environment. In competition and ethnic conflict,
these cultures are activated and manipulated
selectively by ethnic leaders to understand their
changing environment and to understand
dominant issues. Such issues usually demand the
support and loyalty of group members, because
they include relevant facts, even though they are
distorted, for them, because they care about their
existence and honor as an ethnic group. In article
of Alqadrie, (2003) Faktor Penyebab Konflik
Etnis, Identitas dan Kesadaran Etnis, serta
Indikasi ke arah Proses Disintegrasi di
Kalimantan Barat, obtained an illustration that
the case of bloody ethnic conflict in Singkawang
was triggered by a series of acts of violence
committed by Madura criminals. The victims who
came from ethnic Malays witnessed acts of
violence committed by these criminals, as
authentic evidence of the ideas (stereotypes) they
had obtained about the Madurese community.
Then, the issues that were further developed in
this incident were that the Malays had organized
their group into a fighting army, to fight the
Madurese, to get rid of them from their homeland
and cleanse their world of the evil Madurese. The
police, who should prevent the conflict
escalation, cannot act appropriately, because they
are not trained to deal with such situations (but
are trained as criminals), or they take sides (to
one ethnic group) in the conflict.
3.4 Building Convergence of Ethnicity: A Role
of Government
The basis of convergence in ethnic
diversity according to Parekh (2008) can be seen
39
The Role of Government on Sustainable Development
at least from the arguments of Montesquieu and
Herder. For Montesquieu, cultural diversity is the
nature of human life that develops slowly and
absolutely. There are no two communities in
common. Each society has different customs,
practices, methods, legal systems, family
structures and forms of government, and each
encourages different desires, morals, goodness
and behavior, forms of excellence and a good
conception of life. Even when they have the same
laws and customs, these things have different
influences and play quite different roles.
Although all human beings are shared with the
general nature, Montesquieu thinks that each
society also develops different human capabi-
lities, desires, and so on, and gives rise to the
second nature of 'nationalism'. Its members grow
together, and feel home with socially acquired
properties as well as biological and natural
characteristics. Thanks to the diversity of national
characteristics, it is 'a huge advantage if [the law]
of one nation is suitable for the whole nation'.
Although all societies as social entities pursue
certain general objectives, each has its own
'unique goals'.
While for Herder (1969) each culture is
uniquely associated with the experience of a
community group, ancestors and historical de-
scendants, and reveals the way in which members
of the community group understand and
imaginatively interpret these experiences. The
natural environment of society plays an important
role in shaping its culture, by structuring the
world of its experiences in which it interprets and
organizes the creative imagination of humans. For
Herder, culture is a product of collective efforts
that the public is not aware of, and like all
creative actions there are always elements of
mystery such as why culture develops in such a
way and form. Intellectual and creative writers
play an important role in the process, but they do
come true when they provide a centralized and
deepest expression of the community and
articulation of expression.
40
Then in Herder's view, nature has placed a
'tendency for diversity in our hearts'. Every
culture has an identity of 'single, very good,
incomprehensible, identity that cannot be elimi-
nated', attaching a different vision of human life,
realizing different human capacities, instilling
different goodness and behavior, and having a
unique 'core of happiness',' center of gravity ','
spirit ',' ethos', or 'atmosphere'. It is free unity
integrated and moving according to its own
internal principles (Herder, 1969). In meta-
physical influences, Herder understands culture in
the image of a beautiful entity as a microcosm.
They are windowless and can be self-sufficient,
who see the world in their own perspective and
have the power in themselves and the vitality to
oppose and refract external influences. Each has
its own endpoint and develops in a direction that
is ordered by it. 'The future' determines the
present, and the present determines the past, as
the purpose of determining the preparation of the
facilities to be used.
In every society, the government has an
important role in fostering justice and to-
getherness. In a pluralistic society, the govern-
ment is a source of unity, provides a focus for the
common life of citizens, and is expected to set an
example to overcome narrow prejudices and
communal views. Government institutions should
(and must be seen) be fair in treating members of
different communities. As the only legal source
of justice in society, the government needs to
convince its citizens to obtain equal treatment in
all areas of life such as employment, justice in
criminal acts, education and public services. In its
negative form, Equality includes the absence of
direct or intentional discrimination, and indirect
or institutionalized discrimination. Direct discri-
mination occurs when the decision maker is
directed by prejudices against certain groups,
meanwhile, indirect discrimination occurs when
the rules and procedures they undergo contain
invisible discrimination bias and result in

systematic harm to certain communities or groups
of people.
While in its positive form, Equality
requires rights and obligations. All citizens must
enjoy the same rights, and should include not
only the fulfillment of civil, political, economic
and other rights but also including cultural rights.
The latter refers to the rights possessed by a
person or community to express, maintain and
instill their cultural identity. Because culture is
an integral part of the feeling of individual
identity and well-being, cultural rights are part of
human rights, and a good society must guarantee
the existence of cultural rights for all its citizens.
In addition, in every society, the existing
community usually determines its own cultural
nature and is able to unequivocally assert and
express its own cultural identity. equal oppor-
tunities should also be extended to minority
communities.
By giving a "sense of security" to minori-
ties to show identity and interact with the wider
community, cultural rights also demand loyalty
and goodwill and facilitate their unification.
Principles of justice govern important things for
a good life and relate to what is called Rawls
(2011) the basic structure of society. The basic
structure of society is not only about politics and
economics (as explained by Rawls) but also
culture, and therefore the principle of justice is
not only related to freedom and material
resources but also to cultural rights and
opportunities. Thus, political recognition is a
broader part of the justice and nuances of the
theory of justice, with an important difference
between freedom and material resources, recog-
nition that cannot be enjoyed individually or
distributed from the center and requires a more
complicated concept of justice.
The most important thing in building
convergence is decentralization of power.
Decentralization of power has a very important
role to ensure justice in a pluralistic society.
Because different communities regularly face
2nd ICSTCSD 2018 Proceeding
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each other in a normal life series at the local or
regional level, respect for diversity in that level
becomes a big problem and shapes perceptions
between one and the other and with the
government. It is easier for local and regional
bodies to accommodate these differences (rather
than the central government) because the
necessary adjustments are more readily identi-
fied, on a limited scale, not too expensive, and
usually free from public scrutiny. There is also
more room for experimentation so mistakes can
be easily corrected, and one area can learn from
the success of other regions. Thus, it is important
to build strong local and national government
units and use them to strengthen the culture of
civil society. In Varshney's (2001) explanation,
recent research shows that tensions between
community groups are less frequent and easier to
control when there is a network of relationships
between formal and informal community groups
that maintain social capital trust and cooperation.
4. CONCLUSSION
In the process of social interaction,
ethnicity has the potential to organize solidarity in
a descriptive manner, although competition for
resources and position can lead to conflict and
social disorganization. Then, ethnic conflict,
which can be a form of conflict to eliminate
others in a competition, can also lead to social
disintegration. This is not caused by ethnicity
itself. Social disintegration is the end result of
various factors. Internal factors include the
accumulation of hatred towards certain ethnic
groups and also the role of ethnic leaders in the
inter-ethnic warfare. While external factors
include the deterioration of the general economic
and political conditions and the ascriptive
character of society.
Building ethnic convergence must be
preceded by the awareness of ethnic groups on
the awareness of pluralism itself. In a pluralistic
society, the government has an important role in
helping the development of justice and equality.
41
 The Role of Government on Sustainable Development
The government holds a key role as a source of
unity, and provides a focus for the common life
of all people. The government has a role in
ensuring equality for cultural diversity that exists
in society. Because the basic structure of society
is not only about politics and economics but also
culture.
5. REFERENCES
Alqadrie, Syarif Ibrahim. (2003). Faktor
Penyebab Konflik Etnis, Identitas dan
Kesadaran Etnis, serta Indikasi ke arah
Proses Disintegrasi di Kalimantan Barat.
Jakarta : YOI-KITLV-LIPI
Anwar, Dewi Fortuna, et.al. (2005). Konflik
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