Plant nutrition notes

Plant 10.13 KS3 Green plants photosynthesise when it is light.

Nutrition FT Photosynthesis is summarised by the equation:
and Carbon dioxide + water [+ light energy] glucose + oxygen.
HT During photosynthesis:
• Light energy is absorbed by a green substance called chlorophyll which is found in
chloroplasts in some plant cells;
• This energy is used by converting carbon dioxide and water into a sugar (glucose);
• Oxygen is released as a by-product.
The rate of photosynthesis may be limited by:
• low temperature;
• Shortage of carbon dioxide;
• Shortage of light.
The glucose produced in photosynthesis may be converted into insoluble starch for storage.
Plant cells use some of the glucose produced during photosynthesis for respiration.
Plant roots absorb mineral salts including nitrate needed for healthy growth.
Light, temperature and availability of carbon dioxide interact and in practice any one of
them may be the factor that limits photosynthesis.
HT The energy released by plants during respiration is used to build up smaller molecules into
larger molecules:
• Sugars into starch;
• Sugars into cellulose for cell walls;
• Sugars, nitrates and other nutrients into amino acids which are then built up into
proteins;
• Sugars into lipids (fats or oils) for storage in seeds.
For healthy growth plants also need mineral ions including:
• Nitrate – for the synthesis of proteins;
• Phosphate – which has an important role in the reactions involved in photosynthesis and
respiration;
• Potassium – which helps enzymes involved in photosynthesis and respiration to work.
The symptoms shown by plants growing in conditions where mineral ions are deficient
include:
• Stunted growth and yellow older leaves if nitrate ions are deficient;
• Poor root growth and purple younger leaves if phosphate ions are deficient;
• Yellow leaves with dead spots if potassium ions are deficient.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Green Plants make food from simple raw materials, e.g. CO2, water, nitrates, etc. They make more food than they need, and the
surplus is stored. Animals eat plants for food, thus life is dependent on green plants, which are called producers. Plants make
carbohydrates by photosynthesis. Fats can be made from carbohydrates. Amino-acids can also be formed from photosynthetic
products provided the plants absorb nitrates. Proteins are built up from the amino-acids.

HOW PHOTOSYNTHESIS OCCURS

Plants absorb CO2 from the air and water from the soil. Chlorophyll, a green pigment in chloroplasts of leaf cells, absorbs light
energy. This energy is used to build up sugar from the CO2 and water. The sugar, being soluble, could cause adverse osmotic
effects. So it is converted to insoluble starch by the enzyme diastase and stored.

Photosynthesis can be summarised by the following equation:-

6CO2 + 6H2O + light C6H12O6 + 6O2

diastase

Starch
HOW CAN YOU TELL IF A PLANT IS PHOTOSYNTHESISING?

1. Demonstrate that the plant has produced sugar or starch.

2. Demonstrate that the plant has produced oxygen.

TESTING A LEAF FOR SUGAR

Grind up a piece of leaf with water. Filter off the debris. Transfer the filtrate to a test-tube. Add a little Benedict’s reagent.
Heat in a water-bath of boiling water. A red precipitate indicates sugar.

TESTING A LEAF FOR STARCH

Boil the leaf until it goes limp. Then boil the leaf in ethanol, heated by boiling water, not a naked flame (ethanol is
inflammable), to dissolve out the chlorophyll. Wash in water , then add a little iodine solution. A blue-black colour I dicates
the presence of starch.

The purpose of boiling the leaf in water is to enable the iodine solution to penetrate it. The reason for decolourising the leaf by
boiling in ethanol is to allow the blue-black colour to show up. Washing in water softens the leaf which is hardened by the
ethanol.

FACTORS NECESSARY FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The equation above shows that the following are needed for photosynthesis:-

1. Carbon dioxide: needed to make sugar.

2. Water: also needed to make sugar, and provides the oxygen evolved.

3. Sunlight: provides energy for photosynthesis.

4. Chlorophyll: a pigment in chloroplasts, which absorbs light energy.

In addition, the plant must be able to produce enzymes needed to bring about photosynthesis, e.g. diastase to convert sugar to
starch, and it must be warm enough for the enzymes to work.
 TO DEMONSTRATE THAT CARBON DIOXIDE IS USED DURING PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Background Information

Bicarbonate ion indicator solution changes colour depending on how much CO2 is present, e.g.

In equilibrium with air - cherry red

No carbon dioxide present - purple
Much carbon dioxide present - yellow

Method

1. Into each of four boiling-tubes, labelled A, B, C and D, put 2cm3 of aerated (cherry-red) bicarbonate ion indicator solution.

2. Into boiling-tubes B and D put a fresh leaf.

3. Stopper all four tubes with a rubber bung to prevent air entering or leaving.

4. Wrap tin foil round tubes C and D to exclude light.

5. Leave tubes A and B in bright light for half an hour, and tubes C and D in darkness, keeping all four tubes at the same
temperature, and shaking the four tubes every five minutes.

6. After half an hour examine each tube and record the colour of the indicator solution in the table.

Results Table

Tube Conditions Leaf present/absent Colour of indicator

A light absent

B light present

C dark absent

D dark present

Conclusions

1. Explain why tubes A and C did not change colour. …………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

2. Explain the colour change which occurred in tubes B and D. ………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
 TO SHOW THAT CARBON DIOXIDE IS NEEDED FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Method

1. Take two potted Geranium plants, A and B, and leave them in darkness for two days to remove starch from the leaves.

2. After two days place A under a bell jar, together with a beaker of potassium hydrogen carbonate solution to provide an
atmosphere of carbon dioxide, and B under a bell jar, together with a beaker of potassium hydroxide pellets to absorb
carbon dioxide.

3. Leave each set of apparatus in bright sunlight for at least six hours.

4. After six hours test a leaf from each plant for starch by the starch test procedure already described.

5. Record the results of the starch test in the table below.

Results

Plant Conditions Starch Test (+ or -)

A CO2 present

B CO2 absent

Conclusion

1. Does the result of this experiment suggest that CO2 is needed for photosynthesis? …………………………………………

2. Give a reason for your answer, using information from your results and knowledge of he properties of potassium hydrogen
carbonate and potassium hydroxide. …………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
 TO SHOW THAT LIGHT IS NEEDED FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

blue-black (starch present)

clear (starch absent)

EXPERIMENTAL LEAF LEAF AFTER STARCH TEST

Method

1. Place a potted plant such as Geranium in darkness for two days to de-starch the leaves.

2. After two days, attach a piece of black paper over part of one leaf to exclude light from that part (as shown in the
diagram).

3. Leave the plant in bright light for at least six hours.

4. After six hours remove the leaf and carry out the starch test.

Results

The part of the leaf covered by the black paper gave a negative result (no starch present), the parts of the leaf exposed to light
turned blue-black (starch present).

Conclusion

Because starch formed only where the leaf was exposed to light, obviously light is needed for photosynthesis to occur.

TO SHOW THAT CHLOROPHYLL IS NEEDED FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

green area (chlorophyll present) clear (no starch)

white area (no chlorophyll present) blue-black (starch present)

VARIEGATED LEAF LEAF AFTER STARCH TEST

Principle

Variegated leaves lack chlorophyll in parts, thus it is possible to test these leaves for starch and see if starch forms in areas
where chlorophyll is absent.

Method

1. Take a potted Geranium plant with variegated leaves and put it in darkness for two days to remove all starch.

2. After two days place the plant in bright light for at least six hours.

3. After six hours remove the chlorophyll as in previous experiments, then carry out the starch test.

Results

Starch was found only in the green part of the leaf tested.

Conclusion

Since no starch was found in the variegated part of the leaf which lacked chlorophyll, obviously this shows that chlorophyll is
needed for photosynthesis.
 TO SHOW THAT OXYGEN IS PRODUCED IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Method

1. Fill a 2litre flask to the brim with tap-water, then add a little potassium hydrogen carbonate to provide a good supply of
carbon dioxide.

2. Introduce a quantity of Elodea (Canadian pondweed).

3. Seal the flask with a rubber bung which has a filter funnel pushed through it. Make sure that the stem of the funnel does
not protrude below the bung, or gas will get trapped.

4. Fill the funnel with water, then place an inverted test-tube full of water into it (as shown in the diagram) to collect any gas
given off by downward displacement of water.

5. Leave the apparatus in bright light until the test-tube is full of gas.

6. Test the gas in the test-tube for oxygen by the glowing splint method.

Result

The gas in the test-tube caused the glowing splint to relight.

Conclusion

The gas given off by the pondweed during photosynthesis was oxygen.

HOW TO MEASURE THE RATE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Rate of photosynthesis is proportional to the rate of oxygen production. Thus, a good way to measure the rate of photosynthesis
is to estimate how much oxygen is produced in a given time. This can be done in two ways:-

1. Counting the number of oxygen bubbles given off in a minute by an aquatic plant.

2. Collecting the oxygen given out in a given period of time, and measuring its volume.

If either of these methods are carried out with the plant in different conditions, the best conditions for photosynthesis can be
determined.
CHLOROPHYLL

Chlorophyll is a complex mixture of related pigments containing magnesium. The chlorophyll pigments are attached to layers
of membranes, grana, in the chloroplasts. Chlorophyll will only form in the presence of Fe3+ ions. Thus leaves turn yellow if
Mg or Fe are absent

grana with chlorophyll attached

TO SHOW THAT CHLOROPHYLL IS A MIXTURE OF PIGMENTS

Method

1. Mince some fresh stinging nettle leaves in 90% acetone in a blender for 2 minutes.

2. Filter the extract through a Buckner funnel.

3. Build up a concentrated spot of the pigment 2cm from the bottom of a strip of chromatographic paper, making the spot as
small as possible.

4. Suspend the paper in a gas jar, with the bottom cm immersed in a solvent mixture of 1 part 90% acetone, 9 parts petroleum
ether.

5. Leave the paper for about half an hour, during which time the solvent rises up the paper, carrying the pigments with it at
different rates so they separate.

6. Dry the paper and examine.

Results

As the solvent and chlorophyll rise up the paper, the paper absorbs the different pigments at different rates. Thus, they separate
out into two green pigments, a yellow pigment and an orange pigment.

Conclusion

Chlorophyll is a mixture of several pigments.

LIGHT

Sunlight is a mixture of different colours, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. This may be shown by passing
light through a prism and projecting the light onto a screen.

Chlorophyll does not absorb all the colour in white light. This can be shown by using a spectroscope. This splits light into its
colour spectrum. If chlorophyll solution is placed in front of the instrument and light passed through, those colours absorbed by
the chlorophyll will be missing from the spectrum, causing absorption bands. These will appear at the red and blue ends of
the spectrum. Green is not absorbed, and this explains why chlorophyll is green in colour.

MORE INFORMATION ABOUT PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Experiments have been carried out which show that the oxygen produced by photosynthesis comes only from the water. Thus,
the equation for photosynthesis is only an approximation for what really happens. We now know that there are two main stages
in photosynthesis.

1. The light reaction

2. The dark reaction

In the light reaction, light energy is used to split water into hydrogen atoms and oxygen molecules. The oxygen molecules are
not needed and are evolved by the plant.

In the dark reaction the hydrogen atoms are used to reduce carbon dioxide, forming sugar. The sugar is then converted to
starch by diastase and stored.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The rate of photosynthesis may be measured by estimating the amount of oxygen given out in a given time. The more oxygen
given out, the faster the rate of photosynthesis. Various factors affect the rate of photosynthesis, the most important being:-

1. Light Intensity: photosynthesis increases as light intensity increases, up to an optimum, when other factors limit the rate
of photosynthesis.

2. Colour of Light: photosynthesis is faster in red and blue light, there is very little or no photosynthesis in green light.

3. CO2 Concentration: as CO2 concentration increases the rate of photosynthesis increases, up to an optimum, when other
factors come into play.

4. Temperature: temperature affects the rate at which enzymes work, thus, at low temperatures rate of photosynthesis is
slow.

Oxygen output can be measured by counting the number of bubbles given off in a minute by an aquatic plant. But this method
is inaccurate because bubbles may vary in size. Alternatively, the oxygen given off can be collected and measured, using a
micro-burette.
In land plants, the time for bicarbonate indicator solution to turn from red to purple may be used to estimate the rate of
photosynthesis.

SEE PRACTICAL WORK ON THE INVESTIGATION OF FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
COMPENSATION POINT

Plants, like animals, respire. Respiration involves absorbing oxygen and giving out carbon dioxide. Photosynthesis occurs
during the daytime, and involves absorbing carbon dioxide and giving out oxygen. Photosynthesis in the daytime is faster than
respiration, thus more carbon dioxide is absorbed than given out. Similarly, during daytime more oxygen is evolved than
absorbed.

The compensation point is the light intensity which produces a rate of photosynthesis whereby the amount of CO2 absorbed
and oxygen evolved is the same as the amount of CO2 given off and oxygen absorbed when the plant respires. In other words,
the compensation point is the light intensity when net gaseous exchange is zero.
WHAT THE PLANT DOES WITH SUGAR FORMED BY PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Glucose made during photosynthesis is quickly converted to starch and stored during the daytime. At night, starch is converted
to sucrose and moved in the phloem to other parts of the plant, e.g. roots, buds, ripening fruits, seeds, underground storage
organs, etc. In these parts the sucrose can be used in a variety of ways.

1. Respiration: sucrose, when broken down to glucose and fructose, can be used in cell respiration to provide energy for
growth, synthesis, active uptake, etc.

2. Storage: surplus sucrose can be converted to starch and stored in roots, stems, bulbs, seeds, etc. Sometimes the sugar is
converted to oil and stored in seeds. Some fruits store sugar, which helps to attract animals.

3. Protein Synthesis: plants can make amino-acids from simple carbohydrates derived from sugar, and from nitrogen
derived from nitrogenous salts obtained from the soil.

NITRATES AMMONIA
AMINO ACIDS PROTEINS
SUGAR SUGAR DERIVITIVES

4. Cellulose: Sugar can be converted to cellulose to make up the cell walls of new cells.

IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

1. Photosynthesis provides animals, including humans, with a natural food source.

2. Photosynthesis replenishes the atmosphere with oxygen, which is used by animals, etc. when they respire.

Without photosynthesis, life as we know it would cease.

METHODS FOR IMPROVING CROP YIELD IN GREENHOUSES

Knowledge of the limiting factors affecting rate of photosynthesis is useful to commercial plant growers. If there is more
photosynthesis in the same time period, then more material, e.g. carbohydrate, protein, etc, is made by the plant, making
bigger plants and providing more food.

Light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature all affect the rate of photosynthesis. If they are all increased, rate
of photosynthesis increases. Lack of one of the three factors can limit photosynthesis even of the other two are increased. Thus,
if CO2 concentration and temperature are increased (which should speed up photosynthesis), lack of light may limit the
process.

Methods for increasing the limiting factors of photosynthesis, and thus increasing yield, include:-

1. Increasing CO2 Concentration: this may be achieved by:-

a. burning carbon fuels (which also increase temperature).
b. releasing CO2 from cylinders.
c. keeping caged animals in the greenhouse.
d. Keeping hydrogen carbonate solutions in the greenhouse.

2. Increasing Temperature: this may be achieved by:-

a. having central heating in winter (but this adds to costs).
b. Insulating against cold.

3. Increasing Light: this is achieved by having artificial lighting at night.

Crop yield can also be increased by adding artificial fertilisers to the soil, e.g. nitrates, phosphates, etc. Fertilisers only increase
yield if they are absorbed by the roots. Uptake of mineral ions can be limited by the absorbing area of the roots, rate of
respiration, aeration of the soil, temperature, etc.

When deciding on how to improve yield, cost must be taken into account. Thus, artificial lighting may cost more than the extra
profit made from the additional yield.
 LEAF STRUCTURE IN RELATION TO PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis occurs mainly in the leaves of plants. Leaves show various adaptations to enable them to carry out
photosynthesis efficiently. These include:-

1. Large surface area: for maximum absorption of light and CO2. Achieved by having many leaves.

2. Thin leaves, often only 1mm thick to reduce the distance CO2 has to diffuse to the cells. To prevent leaves from drooping,
veins (vascular bundles) support them, keeping them flat.

3. Leaf position: leaves are held in a position to get maximum light. By facing the light and fitting snugly, little light passes
between them (diagram 1). Large plants with many leaves avoid upper leaves shading lower ones by having top leaves
with edges facing the sun and the lower leaves held flat (diagram 2).

Diagram 1 Diagram 2

SIDE VIEW SURFACE VIEW

4. Transparent epidermis: the epidermis holds the leaf together and prevents excessive water loss. By being transparent,
light can pass through easily.

5. Stomata: pores, mainly on the lower leaf surface, pierce the epidermis and allow CO2 to enter and allow water vapour out
during transpiration.

6. Mesophyll cells with chloroplasts: the cells between the upper and lower epidermis make up the mesophyll. This is
organised into an upper palisade layer packed with chloroplasts and a lower spongy layer with fewer chloroplasts. Most
photosynthesis occurs in the palisade layer.

7. Air spaces: spongy mesophyll cells fit loosely together with air spaces between them. CO2 diffuses freely through the
stomata into the air spaces, then on to the cells and enters them via the moist cell walls (moist surfaces assist diffusion).

8. Vascular tissue: the veins (vascular bundles) are made up of xylem and phloem. The xylem transports water and
dissolved salts into the leaf, and gives support. The phloem transports sucrose and other soluble products the leaf makes
away from the leaf to other parts of the plant.

STRUCTURE OF THE LEAF

The following diagram shows a section through the leaf. The leaf blade, lamina, is held in position by a stalk, the petiole. The
leaf is constructed as follows:-

1. It is bounded by the epidermis, tight-fitting cells covered by a waxy cuticle to prevent water loss. The lower epidermis is
perforated by stomata for gaseous exchange.

2. Between the upper and lower epidermis is the mesophyll, divided into an upper palisade layer where most of the
photosynthesis occurs, and a lower spongy layer of loose-fitting cells, with fewer chloroplasts, and air-spaces between
the cells.

3. Between the palisade and spongy layers are vascular bundles surrounded by a bundle sheath.
MOVEMENT OF MATERIALS THROUGH THE LEAF

In daytime CO2 in the air needed for photosynthesis diffuses into the leaf via the stomata. It diffuses in the air-space system to
the cells, dissolves in the water on the cell walls and enters the cells. Oxygen, produced by photosynthesis, apart from that used
for respiration, diffuses out in the opposite direction.

Water vaporises in the leaf and the vapour diffuses out via the stomata. This process is transpiration. Water loss by
transpiration can be controlled (see notes on transpiration).

At night there is no photosynthesis, but respiration continues. Therefore oxygen in the air diffuses into the leaf via the stomata
and CO2 diffuses out.

Water and dissolved minerals are brought into the leaf via the xylem vessels of the vascular bundles. Sucrose is transported
from the leaf in the phloem sieve tubes.

STOMATA

STOMATUM – SURFACE VIEW SECTION THROUGH STOMATUM

Stomata are bounded by guard cells, which differ from other epidermal cells by having chloroplasts. The cell wall is thicker
around the stomatal pore, so that if water enters the guard cells they bend, push each other apart and open the pore. The
mechanism controlling this is not fully understood, but one theory is as follows:-

1. In day time the chloroplasts make sugar which is not converted to starch.

2. The sugar lowers the water potential of the guard cells so that water enters by osmosis, causing them to expand and push
each other apart, opening the pore.

3. At night sugar is converted to insoluble starch. This causes a rise of water potential in the guard cells, so water leaves by
osmosis and the guard cells lose turgor pressure and they collapse inwards, closing the stomatal pore.
Why sugar forms in daytime and starch at night is not understood. Maybe, because CO2 is used in day time there is a relatively
high pH which favours activity of enzymes forming sugar from starch. At night, when there is more CO2 (from respiration),
this lowers pH and favours the enzymes which convert sugar to starch.

By the ability to open and close, stomata are important in controlling the rate at which water vapour escapes from the leaves
and the rate of gaseous exchange.

TO DETERMINE THE LEAF AREA OF A PLANT

1. Select a large plant, e.g. a shrub, whose leaves are approximately equal in size.

2. Detach a leaf, lay it on squared paper and trace round it with a pencil.

3. From the number of squares which the leaf covers, work out the surface area of the leaf (if a square is more than half
covered count it, if less than half covered do not).

4. Repeat stages 2 and 3 with several other leaves from the plant and calculate the average leaf size.

5. Count the number of leaves on the plant, then multiply the number of leaves by the average size of a leaf (as determined
above) to obtain the total surface area of the plant.
 LOOKING AT STOMATA ON A LEAF
Materials and Apparatus

Microscope with an eye-piece graticule

Calibration slide, glass slide and cover-slip
A fresh leaf
Nail varnish and paint brush
Forceps

Method

1. Determine the area of the field of view as seen by the low power of the microscope, using the eye-piece graticule and
calibration slide to measure the diameter, and the formula nr2 to calculate the area. Your teacher will explain how the
graticule and calibration slide are used.

2. Paint a thin layer of nail varnish over a small area of the lower surface of the leaf.

3. When the nail varnish is dry, peel it off with a pair of forceps. The nail varnish will have made an exact replica of the leaf
surface.

4. Put the strip of nail varnish in a drop of water on a slide and cover it with a cover-slip.

5. Examine the preparation using the low power magnification of the microscope, then count the number of stomata you can
see in the field of view.

6. Estimate the area of the leaf as in the previous experiment.

7. Estimate the total number of stomata the leaf has. To do this, divide the small area of the field of view (as calculated in
stage 1) into the total area of the leaf (as calculated in stage 6) and multiply this figure by the number of stomata you saw
when using the microscope.

8. Complete the box below to express your results.

9. Draw two or three stomata, together with some other epidermal cells.

Results Table

Diameter of field of view (mm)

Area of field of view (mm2)
Number of stomata seen
Area of entire leaf (cm2)
Number of stomata on entire leaf surface
Number of stomata per cm2

Further Work

By using this technique the number of stomata per cm2 can be determined from different types of leaf, e.g. evergreen leaves,
deciduous leaves, etc.
 THE DISTRIBUTION OF CHLOROPLASTS AND STARCH GRAINS IN A LEAF
The diagram shows a small part of a vertical section through a leaf of a plant. Starch grains (light coloured) and chloroplasts
(dark coloured) are shown in the cells. A grid has been added to the drawing to enable the starch grains and chloroplasts to be
counted easily.

1. Count the number of chloroplasts and starch grains at each level through the leaf, and tabulate your results.

2. Construct a graph of your results. Plot the number of starch grains and chloroplasts at each level as a single point, using
the horizontal axis for the number of chloroplasts and starch grains (dots for chloroplasts, crosses for starch grains).
Inspect the scatter of the points on the graph and rule a straight line of best fit between them to indicate the main tend of
the points.

3. Which of the following relationships between the distribution of chloroplasts and starch grains does the line indicate?

a. Positive
b. Negative
c. No relationship

Positive Negative No Relationship

4. What features of photosynthesis do the results (your table and graph) show?
 MINERAL NUTRITION IN PLANTS
In addition to CO2 and water, needed for photosynthesis, plants need various mineral elements for healthy growth.
Photosynthesis cannot occur without magnesium and iron, both needed to make chlorophyll. Without nitrogen proteins
cannot be made. Some mineral elements are needed in large quantities, i.e. macro-elements, others, micro-elements (trace
elements) are needed in small amounts.

HOW MINERAL SALTS ENTER THE PLANT

Mineral ions dissolved in soil water, enter the plant, via the root-hairs, by two processes:-

1. Passive Uptake: Mineral ions diffuse into he root hairs, then pass inwards by diffusion to the xylem. This
method is relatively unimportant because it relies on a diffusion gradient, i.e. a high concentration of ions outside the
plant and concentration inside.

2. Active Uptake: Energy is expended in absorbing mineral ions into the root hairs, and inwards to the xylem. Ion
carriers in the cell membranes move the ions inwards. This explains why certain elements are present in cells at
greater concentrations than in the soil. The energy for active uptake comes from cell respiration. The diagram below
illustrates one way active uptake is thought to occur.

MINERAL REQUIREMENTS OF PLANTS

Macro-elements are required in relatively large quantities. The table below summarises the mineral elements needed, why
needed, and deficiency effects.

ELEMENT % DRY WEIGHT WHY NEEDED DEFICIENCY EFFECT

Nitrogen 3.5 Needed to make proteins Poor growth, yellow leaves
Potassium 3.4 Increases hardiness Yellow edges to leaves, early death
Calcium 0.7 Needed for cell formation Poor buds, stunted growth
Poor growth, leaves dull green with
Phosphorus 0.4 To make ATP, nucleic acids, etc.
Curly brown edges
Magnesium 0.3 Contained in chlorophyll Yellow leaves
Sulphur 0.3 Needed to make some proteins Yellow leaves
Iron 0.08 Needed for chlorophyll formation Yellow leaves

Micro-elements, needed in small quantities (toxic in high concentrations) include:-

Copper, needed as an enzyme activator, if deficient, shoots die back.

Molybdenum, needed as an enzyme activator, if deficient, plants show poor growth.
Zinc, may be needed as an enzyme activator, if deficient leaves become malformed.

TO INVESTIGATE MINERAL DEFICIENCY IN PLANTS

Principle

Plants can grow in mineral culture solution, i.e. a mixture of mineral ions in the correct proportions, dissolved in distilled
water. By growing a plant in a culture solution deficient in one mineral element, then comparing its growth with a control plant
grown in the complete culture solution, the effect of mineral deficiency can be determined.

Method

1. A complete culture solution was made up and put in bottle A, and distilled water was put into bottle B. These two
bottles are used as controls.
2. Culture solution minus nitrogen was put into bottle C, minus magnesium in D, minus calcium in E, minus phosphorus
into F and minus iron into G.
 3. All the bottles were covered with tin-foil to exclude light (otherwise algae would grow and use the minerals).
4. A seedling plant was put in each bottle, making sure each plant was about the same size, with the same number of
leaves.
5. The plants were allowed to grow for 1 – 2 months in a greenhouse. The culture solutions were aerated to provide
oxygen for root growth. After this time the plants were examined and their appearance recorded.

Results

The following diagrams represent likely results. Look also at the plants obtained after the experiment was carried out, and
record the appearance in a table like the one given.

A B C D E F G
Complete Distilled No nitrogen No magnesium No calcium No phosphorus No iron
medium water

SOLUTION STEM GROWTH ROOT GROWTH COLOUR OF LEAVES

Complete normal normal green
Distilled water very poor little growth yellow, little growth
No nitrogen little growth stunted pale green
No magnesium poor growth restricted yellow
No calcium restricted restricted green
No phosphorus restricted Poor growth pale green
No iron restricted reduced yellow

Conclusion

Obviously the lack of any one of the essential mineral elements results in abnormal growth. However, the results of the
experiment are observations. It would be better if some quantitative measurements were made. In the space below suggest what
measurements could be made, and how you would set about carrying them out. Think about amount of growth.
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WHERE SOIL MINERAL ELEMENTS COME FROM

Soil mineral elements come from two sources:-

1. Humus, the decayed particles of plants and animals.

2. Soil particles, broken down pieces of rock.

HOW SOIL IS KEPT FERTILE

In nature, soil is kept fertile by the cycling of elements, such as the nitrogen cycle. In crop-growing fields, soil is kept fertile
by:-
 1. Leaving fields fallow once every few years, which allows the chemicals to build up again naturally.
2. Crop rotation: different crops remove different minerals from the soil at different rates, so rotation helps to prevent
complete depletion.
3. Leguminous crops: growing leguminous crops (clover, beans, etc) from time to time enriches the soil with nitrates.
(see notes on nitrogen cycle).
4. Fertilisers: chemicals can be added to the soil, replacing those used by crop plants.

WHAT ARE FERTILISERS?

A fertiliser is any substance containing plant mineral nutrients needed for plant growth. The main types of fertiliser are:-

1. Organic Fertilisers: a) Brown manure, e.g. farmyard manure (dung and urine of animals mixed with straw),
compost (partly decayed remains of garden waste).
b) Green manure, e.g. plants which are ploughed back into the soil (leguminous plants are
especially useful).

2. Inorganic Fertilisers: Commercially produced preparation of inorganic elements in liquid or powdered form.