BIOLOGY MARKING SCHEME

PAPER I- PRE JOINT 2015.

1. A candidate is required to explain the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane and

then explain the mechanism of transport across the cell membrane.

Sample answer.

Structure of the plasma membrane:

The plasma membrane is composed of a bilayer of phospholipids. A molecule of phospholipid

consists of two fatty acids and a phosphate group attached to a glycerol component. The fatty

acid tails represent a hydrophobic region of the molecule, while the glycerol-phosphate head is

hydrophilic. The phospholipids are arranged into a bilayer formation with the hydrophilic heads

pointing to the outside and the hydrophobic tails pointing toward the inside.

Embedded in the phospholipid bilayer are various proteins and, in animals cells, cholesterol

molecules which are arranged to form a mosaic pattern. This mixture of molecules accounts for

the fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane, that is, a highly flexible lipid boundary

impregnated with various other molecules. (Explanation 05 marks, diagram 02.5 marks)

Interactions of plasma membrane with the outside environment:

The plasma membrane is a selectively permeable membrane. Small molecules, like O2 and CO2,

readily diffuse through the membrane. The movement of larger molecules is regulated by

proteins in the plasma membrane.

There are several kinds of these proteins. Channel proteins provide passage for certain dissolved

substances.

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Transport proteins actively transport substances against a concentration gradient. Th recognition

proteins, and other glycoproteins, provides adhesion or participates in cell-to-cell interactions.

Receptor proteins recognize hormones and transmit their signals to the interior of the cell.

Various substances can be exported into the external environment by exocytosis. In exocytosis,

substances are packaged in vesicles that merge with the plasma membrane. Once they merge

with the membrane, their contents are released to the outside. In an opposite kind of procedure,

food and other substances can be imported by endocytosis. In endocytosis, the plasma membrane

encircles the substance and encloses it in a vesicle. ( A candidate may also explain in terms of

the mechanism of transport across the cell membrane, the bulk transport, passive

transport and active transport and facilitated diffusion Total = 07.5 marks.)

2. A candidate is required to summarize the process of aerobic respiration involving

starch, proteins and lipids by identifying the necessary stages until when energy is

released from each food substance.

Sample answer.
Starches are polymers of glucose. Various enzymes break down starches to glucose, which in
turn enter the glycolytic pathway to form pyruvate.. The steps of the glycolytic pathway are
summarized as
1. 2 ATP are added. The first several steps require the input of energy. This changes glucose in
preparation for subsequent steps.
2. 2 NADH are produced. NADH, a coenzyme, forms when NAD+ combines with two energy-
rich electrons and H+ (obtained from an intermediate molecule during the breakdown of
glucose). As a result, NADH is an energy rich molecule.
3. 4 ATP are produced.
4. 2 pyruvate are formed.
The so formed pyruvate enters the kreb’s cycle and the electron transport chain to generate ATP

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In summary, glycolysis takes 1 glucose and turns it into 2 pyruvate, 2 NADH, and a net of 2 ATP
(made 4 ATP, but used 2 ATP). (04 marks).
The Krebs

The Krebs cycle involves the following sub stages:

1. Pyruvate to acetyl CoA. In a step leading up to the actual Krebs cycle, pyruvate combines
with coenzyme A (CoA) to produce acetyl CoA. In that reaction, 1 NADH and 1 CO2 are also
produced. This can be regarded as an intermediate step between Glycolysis and Krebs cycle.
2. Krebs Cycle: 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 ATP, CO2. The Krebs cycle begins when acetyl CoA
combines with OAA (oxaloacetate) to form citrate. There are seven intermediate products. Along
the way, 3 NADH and 1 FADH2 are made, and CO2 is released. FADH2, like NADH, is a
coenzyme, accepting electrons during a reaction. Because the first product made from acetyl
CoA is the 3-carbon citrate (citric acid), the Krebs cycle is also known as the citric acid cycle or
the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle.
The CO2 produced by the Krebs cycle is the CO2 animals exhale when they breathe. (04 marks)

Lipids are broken down to glycerol and fatty acids. Both of these components undergo enzymatic

reactions that eventually produce acetyl CoA. The acetyl coenzyme A then enters the Kreb’s

cycle as it is for the case of glucose.

Proteins are broken down to amino acids. Each of the various amino acids produces different

products when broken down. Some of these products are converted to acetyl CoA; others are

converted to Oxalo acetic acid or other Krebs cycle intermediates. This continues as it is in the

case of glucose and lipids to generate ATP. (04 marks).

The next and last sub step after the Krebs cycle is the electron transport chain. This involves

what is known as oxidative phosphorylation.

Oxidative phosphorylation is the process of extracting ATP from NADH and FADH2.
Electrons from NADH andFADH2 pass along an electron transport chain. The chain consists of
proteins that pass these electrons from one carrier protein to the next. Some carrier proteins, such

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as the cytochromes, include nonprotein parts containing iron. Along each step of the chain, the
electrons give up energy used to phosphorylate ADP to ATP. NADH provides electrons that
have enough energy to generate about 3 ATP, while FADH2 generates about 2 ATP. (03 marks).
( A candidate may write in his/ her own language but more importantly explanation of the
stages involved in energy production and the conversion of lipids and protein to acetyl
coenzyme A should be briefly explained).

3. For this question a candidate should describe the biochemical pathways for C 4 and
CAM and how these pathways provide an advantage to C3 plants.

C4 provides two advantages—it minimizes photorespiration and reduces water loss through
leaves. You could begin by discussing the problems with rubisco (it fixes O 2 as well as CO2) and
how CO2 is spatially separated in bundle sheath cells so that it is isolated from O 2 in the
mesophyll cells. Specifically, describe how PEP carboxylase fixes CO 2 and how CO2,
incorporated into malate, is shuttled from mesophyll cells to the bundle sheath cells where O 2 is
absent. In the bundle sheath cells, rubisco fixes CO 2 without competition from O 2. Thus, the
efficiency of photosynthesis increases and photorespiration is avoided. In addition, by increasing
the efficiency of photosynthesis, stomata need not remain open as long and, as a result, water is
conserved. For CAM, discuss the temporal separation of CO2—how CO2, in the form of malic
acid, is transported to the vacuole during the night and how it is later transported to chloroplasts
during the day. Because CO2 is taken in at night, stomata are closed during the day and, as a
result, water loss is reduced, especially in hot climates.
Note: For both CAM and C4, a disadvantage is that these pathways require additional energy
(ATP). (But this is not part of the answer). (10 marks).

4 (a). There are three points during meiosis and sexual reproduction where genetic material is
rearranged to create genetic variation. First, crossing over during metaphase I results in an
exchange of genetic material between nonsister chromatids of homologous chromosomes.
Chromosomes, previously of either paternal or maternal origin, now contain genetic material
from both parents. Second, chromosome tetrads randomly align across the metaphase plate in
metaphase I. As a result, chromosomes migrating to one pole are a random mixture of paternal
and maternal chromosomes. Third, the zygote is a combination of a randomly selected egg and a

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sperm. As a result of these random arrangements of chromosomes, daughter cells are genetically
variable.

(b). Low levels of estrogen signal the beginning of the menstrual cycle by triggering a negative
feedback response. The hypothalamus (a portion of the brain involved in maintaining
homeostasis) initiates the response by secreting gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH).
GnRH, in turn, stimulates the anterior pituitary to release follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
and luteinizing hormone (LH). As part of the ovarian cycle, FSH stimulates the development of
the egg within the follicle (completing meiosis I) and also stimulates the follicle to produce
estrogen. In a positive feedback reaction to rising estrogen levels, the anterior pituitary secretes
additional LH (after stimulation by the hypothalamus). This spike of LH in the middle of the
cycle causes ovulation, the release of the egg (actually the secondary oocyte) from the follicle.
After ovulation, the follicle, now called the corpus luteum, continues to produce estrogen and
progesterone. These hormones regulate the menstrual cycle by stimulating the thickening of the
endometrium (the inner lining of the uterus). In response to continued high levels of
progesterone, a negative feedback response causes the anterior pituitary to stop production of LH
and FSH. As a result, the follicle stops producing estrogen and progesterone, and the
endometrium is sloughed off.

5 (a). As the enzyme concentration increases the rate of the reaction increases linearly, because
there are more enzyme molecules available to catalyse the reaction. At very high enzyme
concentration the substrate concentration may become rate-limiting, so the rate stops increasing.
Normally enzymes are present in cells in rather low concentrations. (02 marks).

(01 mark)

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(b) The rate of an enzyme-catalysed reaction shows a curved dependence on substrate
concentration. As the substrate concentration increases, the rate increases because more substrate
molecules can collide with enzyme molecules, so more reactions will take place. At higher
concentrations the enzyme molecules become saturated with substrate, so there are few free
enzyme molecules, so adding more substrate doesn't make much difference. (02 marks).

(01 mark)

(c) Inhibitors inhibit the activity of enzymes, reducing the rate of their reactions. There are two
forms of inhibitors that affect the rate of enzyme controlled reactions; competitive inhibitors
and non-competitive inhibitors.

A competitive inhibitor molecule has a similar structure to the normal substrate molecule, and it
can fit into the active site of the enzyme. It therefore competes with the substrate for the active
site, so the reaction is slower.

A non-competitive inhibitor molecule is quite different in structure from the substrate molecule
and does not fit into the active site. It binds to another part of the enzyme molecule, changing the
shape of the whole enzyme, including the active site, so that it can no longer bind substrate
molecules. Non-competitive inhibitors therefore simply reduce the amount of active enzyme (just
like decreasing the enzyme concentration).

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6. Functions of plant hormones.

Hormones Functions

Gibberellins Promote stem elongation, especially in dwarf

plants

Cytokinins Promote cell division and differentiation

Ethylene Induces leaf abscission and promotes fruit

ripening

Abscisic acid Inhibits leaf abscission and promotes bud and

seed dormancy.

Auxins Promotes plant growth and phototropism

7. (i) The pressure, and thus the amount of air decreases from sea level to higher attitudes. The
adjustment that occur if one ascends slowly to higher attitudes include:

 A progressive increase in the red blood cell and haemoglobin content of the blood to
increase its oxygen carrying power.
 An increase in the ventilation rate to allow an intake of oxygen.

 An increase in the cardiac output to increase the amount of oxygen uptake

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 All these events cause what is known as acclimatization, the slow change in the
physiology of an organism as a result to its exposure to a new environment.

(ii) The adjustment during muscular exercise include the following:

 Dilation of the arterioles in the actively respiring tisues which result in an increased blood
flow to the muscle.
 An increase in the level of adrenaline in the blood stream before and during the early
stages of the sprint.

 An increase in the breathing rate during the sprint to allow the uptake of oxygen to favour
aerobic respiration.

 An increase in the metabolic rate to generate more ATP needed for the exercises.

(iii). The adjustments during diving include the following:

 During sudden diving, there is a total oxygen deprivation. In such conditions, bradycardia
occurs. This is the sudden decrease in the cardiac frequency. As a result of this, the
arterioles generally constrict with the exception of those serving vital organs such as
brain and the heart to ensure that oxygen is sent to these vital organs

8. The process of removing excess amino acids taken from the diet starts in the liver by involving
two stages, namely deamination and detoxification. Deamination is the removal of the amino
group from each excess amino acids where as detoxification is the conversion of toxic and
harmful ammonia into harmless product, urea for transport to the kidneys. The process of urea
formation occurs in a cyclic process known as the ornithine cycle. During this process, two
molecules of ammonia combine with one molecule of carbon dioxide to form urea. The kidneys
then removes urea in the form of urine through a process called urination. ( 05 marks).

Note: A canditate is required to include the details of the ornithine cycle including the
diagram but not necessarily to include the details of the processes occuring in the kidneys to
form urine. The candidate was required only to briefly explain how excess amino acids are
removed.

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9. A candidate is required to state what the cell doctrine is and what is contained in the cell
doctrine before starting to explain how the mature red blood cells and the nerve cell contradict
the cell doctrine.

The cell doctrine or the cell theory is a collection of ideas that attempt to describe the origin,
behaviors nature and functions of a cell. The main ideas of the cell doctrine are:

(i) All living organisms are made up of cells.

(ii) Every new existing cell comes from pre-existing cells through a process called cell
division

(iii) All metabolic processes including heredity occur within the cell.

How does the mature red blood cell contradict with the cell doctrine?

Mature red blood cells do not have nuclei where the hereditary materials (DNA) can be located.
Mature red blood cells also lack important organelles such as mitochondria where physiological
processes such as respiration may occur. The cell is restricted only to one function of
transporting oxygen. At the same time, mature red blood cells are incapable of producing new
ones by cell division but instead they are broken in the liver and new ones are formed in the bone
marrow. It is evident therefore that, the origin, structure and functions of the mature red blood
cell contradict the cell doctrine.

How do neurons contradict the cell doctrine?

Nerve cells are formed by a process called cell differentiation and not by cell division. Neurons
therefore never undergo cell division and they are irreplaceable. The existence of nerve cells in
this way contradicts the cell doctrine.