CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM IN FISH

Introduction:

Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms. Polysaccharides

serve for the storage of energy (e.g., starch and glycogen), and as structural
components (e.g., cellulose in plants and chitin in arthropods). The 5-carbon
monosaccharide ribose is an important component of coenzymes (e.g., ATP, FAD,
and NAD) and the backbone of the genetic molecule known as RNA. The related
deoxyribose is a component of DNA. Saccharides and their derivatives include
many other important biomolecules that play key roles in the immune system,
fertilization, preventing pathogenesis, blood clotting, and development

Carbohydrate:
A carbohydrate is an organic compound comprising only carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen, usually with a hydrogen:oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water); in other
words, with the empirical formula Cm(H2O)n (where m could be different from n).
Some exceptions exist; for example, deoxyribose, a sugar component of DNA, has
the empirical formula C 5H10O4. Carbohydrates are technically hydrates of carbon;
structurally it is more accurate to view them as polyhydroxy aldehydes and
ketones. The term is most common in biochemistry, where it is a synonym of
saccharide. The carbohydrates (saccharides) are divided into four chemical
groupings: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and
polysaccharides. In general, the monosaccharides and disaccharides, which are
smaller (lower molecular weight) carbohydrates, are commonly referred to as
sugars.[6] The word saccharide comes from the Greek word (sákkharon), meaning
"sugar." While the scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the
names of the monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix -
ose. For example, grape sugar is the monosaccharide glucose, cane sugar is the
disaccharide sucrose, and milk sugar is the disaccharide lactose

Carbohydrate Metabolism:
The functions of metabolism are:
o To release and use energy from foods
o To synthesize one substance from another
o To prepare waste products for excretion
o Vitamins and minerals are "keys" to releasing energy

Steps of carbohydrate digestion process are given below-

There are numerous metabolic pathways, or reactions from beginning to end,
which occur in our cells to keep every life process continuing. Anabolic pathways
are those which build compounds or synthesize substances for the body, while
catabolic pathways result in breaking down compounds. Intermediates are
compounds which are formed as pathways proceed. An example of an
intermediate in energy production is water-it is recycled through the body as a
source of metabolic water. The byproducts of energy production in humans are
carbon dioxide gas, water, and heat.

Glucose is the key food molecule for most organisms, and it is the central
substance in carbohydrate metabolism. During digestion, carbohydrates are
hydrolyzed to the monosaccharaides glucose, fructose, and galaxies, which are
absorbed into the bloodstream through the lining of the small intestine.
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the main energy source for cells, and is the goal
of energy production from the nutrients we consume. The mitochondria is the
major site for ATP production in the cell, and is often referred to as the
"powerhouse" of the cell because of this. It is an aerobic cell organelle that is
responsible for most energy production in eukaryotic cells. The inner
mitochondrial membrane is the site where oxidative phosphorylation occurs. The
enzymes of the citric acid cycle are located in the matrix space of the
mitochondrion.

Anaerobic respiration occurs when no oxygen is present. Aerobic respiration is

the oxygen-requiring degradation of food molecules and production of ATP, and
is the one we shall be concerned with in carbohydrate metabolism.

There are three basic steps involved with carbohydrate metabolism:

1.Glycolysis
2.Citric Acid Cycle (Kreb's Cycle)
3.Electron Transport Chain/Oxidative Phosphorylation

Glycolysis:

Glycolysis is the pathway for the catabolism of glucose that leads to pyruvate. A
net of two molecules of ATP per molecule of glucose are produced by substrate
level phosphorylation. (Phosphate transfers from organic compounds to ADP,
forming ATP). Two molecules of ATP are consumed in the conversion of glucose
to fructose-1,6-biphosphate. The first substrate-level phosphorylation of
glycolysis is a phosphoryl group transfer from 1,3-biphosphoglycerate to ADP.
The second is a phosphoryl group transfer from phosphoenolpyruvate to ADP.
NAD+ is also reduced to NADH as glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is oxidized. The
reactions of glycolysis and an interactive glycolytic pathway are available.

Citric Acid Cycle:

Pyruvate from glycolysis enters into the Citric Acid Cycle . This cycle occurs in the
mitochondria of the cell in aerobic conditions. The pyruvate loses a carbon
dioxide group, forming acetyl-CoA, the compound which forms a link for many
other pathways and helps build other compounds. The citric acid cycle pathway
consists of eight reactions that process incoming molecules of Acetyl CoA. The
carbon atoms leave the cycle in the form of molecules of carbon dioxide. The
hydrogen atoms and electrons leave the cycle in the form of reduced coenzymes
NADH and FADH2. The cycle is regulated by three allosteric enzymes in response
to cellular levels of ATP. One Acetyl CoA molecule entering the citric acid cycle
produces three molecules of NADH, one of FADH2, and one of GTP.

Oxidative Phosphorylation/Electron Transport Chain:

The electron transport chain is the primary site for ATP synthesis, and occurs in
the mitochondria. This pathway involves a series of reactions that pass electrons
from NADH and FADH to molecular oxygen. Each carrier in the series has an
increasing affinity for electrons. Four of the carriers, known as cytochromes,
contain iron, which accepts and then transfers the electrons. As NADH and
FADH2 release their hydrogen atoms and electrons, NAD+ and FAD are
regenerated for return to the citric acid cycle.

There are three sites within the electron transport chain where the decrease in
free energy is sufficient to convert ADP to ATP. Oxidative phosphorylation is the
process by which NADH and FADH2 are oxidized, with concomitant production
of ATP. Two molecules of ATP are produced when FADH2 is oxidized, and 3
molecules of ATP are produced when NADH is oxidized. The synthesis of ATP
occurs because of a flow of protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane.
The complete oxidation of one glucose molecule by the citric acid cycle and
oxidative phosphorylation yields 36 molecules of ATP, vs. two molecules of ATP
by glycolysis.

Conclusion:

Monosaccharides are the major source of fuel for metabolism, being used both as
an energy source (glucose being the most important in nature) and in
biosynthesis. When monosaccharides are not immediately needed by many cells
they are often converted to more space-efficient forms, often polysaccharides. In
many animals, including humans, this storage form is glycogen, especially in liver
and muscle cells. In plants, starch, is used for the same purpose.
Reference:
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate
2. https://www.google.com.bd/search?output=search&sclient=psy-
ab&q=steps+of+carbohydrate+metabolism&btnG=