MA 603: LS15

MA 603 T OPOLOGY-I: L ECTURE S LIDES 15

Instructor: Swadesh Kumar Sahoo

Department of Mathematics
Indian Institute of Technology Indore
Simrol, Indore 453 552

September 8, 2021

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E XAMPLES 15.1
• Let X = Rn and x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ∈ Rn . Then recall that
the quantity q
kxk = x12 + · · · + xn2
defines a norm called the Euclidean norm.
• The Euclidean metric d on X is defined by
q
d(x, y ) = kx − y k = (x1 − y1 )2 + · · · + (xn − yn )2 .

The basis elements for the metric topology induced by the

Euclidean metric d on R2 are circular regions.

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• The square metric ρ on X is defined by

ρ(x, y ) = max{|x1 − y1 |, · · · |xn − yn |},

and the basis elements for the metric topology induced by

the square metric ρ on R2 are square regions.

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T HEOREM 15.2
Let (X , dX ) and (Y , dY ) be metrizable spaces. Then f : X → Y
is continuous if and only if for a given  > 0 there exists a δ > 0
such that
dX (x, y ) < δ =⇒ dY (f (x), f (y )) < 
i.e, y ∈ BdX (x, δ) =⇒ f (y ) ∈ BdY (f (x), )
for all x, y ∈ X .

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P ROOF OF =⇒ PART
• If there is no confusion, we write

BdX (x, δ) = B(x, δ) and BdY (f (x), ) = B(f (x), ).

• Suppose first that f is continuous. Then inverse image of

every open set in Y is open in X .
• In particular, for given x ∈ X and  > 0, the set

f −1 (B(f (x), ))

is open in X containing the point x, since B(f (x), ) is open

in Y .

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• Then, there exists a δ > 0 such that

B(x, δ) ⊂ f −1 (B(f (x), )).

• Thus, if y ∈ B(x, δ) then y ∈ f −1 (B(f (x), )). It then follows

that f (y ) ∈ B(f (x), ), as desired.

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P ROOF OF ⇐= PART
• Suppose that the -δ condition is satisfied. Then we show
that f : X → Y is continuous.
• For this, we assume that V is an open set in Y and show
that f −1 (V ) is open in X .
• Let x ∈ f −1 (V ) be a point.
• Then f (x) ∈ V . Since V is open in Y , there exists an -ball
B(f (x), ) centered at f (x) contained in V .
• By the given -δ condition, there is a δ-ball B(x, δ) centered
at x such that

B(x, δ) ⊂ f −1 (B(f (x), )) ⊂ f −1 (V ).

• That is, the δ-ball B(x, δ) is contained in f −1 (V ), and hence

f −1 (V ) is open in X . 

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M ORE E XAMPLES (N ON - METRIZABLE SPACES )

R ECALL : E XAMPLE 14.12
Indiscrete topological space having more than one element is
not metrizable.
P ROOF ( MORE PRECISE )
• If possible, let us assume that there exists a metric d on X
such that T = Td , the topology induced by d.
• Since X has more than one element, we may select
x, y ∈ X such that x 6= y .
• Hence, d(x, y ) = r > 0.
• Since x ∈ B(x, r ), B(x, r ) 6= ∅. Also, since y 6∈ B(x, r ),
B(x, r ) 6= X .
• Thus, B(x, r ) ∈ Td different from ∅ and X .
• This contradicts to the fact that B(x, r ) 6∈ T = {∅, X }. 
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E XAMPLE 15.3
The topological space (X , T), where X = {a, b} and
T = {∅, {a}, X }, is not metrizable.

P ROOF
• On contrary let there exist a metric d on X such that
T = Td , the topology induced by d.
• Since a 6= b, d(a, b) > 0. Let d(a, b) = r > 0.
• Since X = {a, b}, it follows by the definition of a metric ball
that Bd (b, r ) = {b} and thus {b} ∈ Td .
• This contradicts to the fact that {b} 6∈ T. 

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E XAMPLE 15.4
The cofinite topological space (N, T) is not metrizable. In fact,
any infinite topological space X with the cofinite topology is not
metrizable.

P ROOF
• On contrary assume that there exists a metric d on X such
that T = Td the topology induced by d.
• Consider two distinct points m, n ∈ N. Then say
d(m, n) = r > 0.
• Then we see that complements of the distinct balls
B(m, r /3) and B(n, r /3) are finite sets, since the metric d
induces the cofinite topology.

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P ROOF ( CONTD ...)

• The inclusion B(n, r /3) ⊂ B(m, r /3)c implies that B(n, r /3)
is finite.
• Since B(n, r /3)c is also finite, B(n, r /3) ∪ B(n, r /3)c = X
should be finite.
• Here we get a contradiction to the fact that the whole set X
is infinite. 

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Q UESTION 15.5
Does there exist any metric d that induces the topology in Rl ?
In other words, we ask: is the space Rl metrizable ?

A NSWER : N O
It will be proved/discussed later.

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D EFINITION 15.6 (S EQUENCE )

A sequence (xn ) or (x1 , x2 , . . .) of points of a set X is simply a
function from N → X . This space is denoted by X ω .

D EFINITION 15.7 (C ONVERGENT SEQUENCE IN METRIZABLE

SPACE )
Let (X , d) be a metrizable space. A sequence (xn ) in X is said
to be convergent to a point x ∈ X if for every  > 0 there exists
a positive integer n0 such that xn ∈ Bd (x, ) for all n ≥ n0 .

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D EFINITION 15.8 (C ONVERGENT SEQUENCE IN ARBITRARY

TOPOLOGICAL SPACE )
A sequence (xn ) in X is said to converge to a point x ∈ X if for
every open set O containing x there exists a positive integer n0
such that xn ∈ O for all n ≥ n0 . If the sequence (xn ) converges
to x, we write xn → x.

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E XAMPLE 15.9
• Let (X , T) be a discrete topological space.
• Let (xn ) be a sequence in X .
• We know that for every point p ∈ X , the singleton set {p} is
open in X containing p.
• If xn → p then by definition, the set {p} must contain an for
all n ≥ n0 for some n0 ∈ N.
• Thus, we conclude in a discrete topological space X that
xn → p if and only if the sequence (xn ) is of the form
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn0 −1 , p, p, p, . . .).

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Note that a sequence need not converge at all. But if it does

converge, next result shows that it converges to only one point
if X is a Hausdorff space (or T2 -space).
T HEOREM 15.10
Let (X , T) be a Hausdorff space and (xn ) be a sequence in X . If
xn → x in X then the limit is unique.

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P ROOF
• Suppose on contrary that xn → x and xn → y
simultaneously for two distinct points x, y ∈ X .
• Let Ox and Oy be respectively disjoint open sets in X
containing x and y (this is possible, as X is Hausdorff).
• Then by definition of convergence, there exist n1 , n2 ∈ N
such that

xn ∈ Ox for all n ≥ n1 and also xn ∈ Oy for all n ≥ n2 .

• This means that xn ∈ x ∩ Oy for all n ≥ n0 = max{n1 , n2 },

contradicting to the assumption that Ox ∩ Oy = ∅. 

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E XAMPLE 15.11
There exists a topological space where limit of a sequence is
not unique.Recall that indiscrete topological spaces are not
Hausdorff.
• Let (X , T) be an indiscrete topological space.
• Then X is the only open set containing any point p ∈ X .
• Thus, if (xn ) is a sequence in X , then it converges to every
point of X and hence limit is not unique.
• In particular, if X = {a, b} and T = {∅, X } then the
sequence (xn ) = (a) converges to a as well as b.

L EMMA 15.12 (T HE S EQUENCE L EMMA )

Let (X , T) be a topological space and A ⊂ X . If (xn ) is a
sequence of points in A converges to a point x ∈ X then x ∈ A.
The converse is not true in general.

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– End –

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