MA 603: LS16

MA 603 T OPOLOGY-I: L ECTURE S LIDES 16

Instructor: Swadesh Kumar Sahoo

Department of Mathematics
Indian Institute of Technology Indore
Simrol, Indore 453 552

September 11, 2021

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E XAMPLE 16.1
• Let X = {a, b} and T = {∅, {a}, X }.
• Then the sequence (b, b, b, . . .) does not converge to a,
since the open set {a} containing a does not contain the
point b.
• However, it converges to b since the only open set X
containing b contains the sequence (xn ) = (b) for all n ≥ 1.

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E XAMPLE 16.2
There exists a non-Hausdorff space in which every convergent
sequence has a unique limit.

S OLUTION
• Consider the topological space (R, Tc ), where Tc is the
co-countable topology. That is, open sets are nothing but
the sets whose complements are countable.
• The space (R, Tc ) is non-Hausdorff as each pair of
non-empty open sets intersects each other.
• Indeed, if there exist two disjoint open sets O1 and O2 then
obviously O1 is contained in O2c .
• Since O2c is countable, O1 is countable.
• It then leads to the impossible fact: R = O1 ∪ O1c is
countable.

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S OLUTION ( CONTD ...)

• The only convergent sequences are eventually the
constant sequences (exercise!).
• So, the limits of the convergent sequences are unique.
Indeed,
• if αn = (α) is a constant sequence converges to β 6= α,
then by the definition of convergence, the open set O \ {α}
containing β contains the constant sequence αn = (α).
• This is not possible.

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R ECALL : L EMMA 15.12 (T HE S EQUENCE L EMMA )

Let (X , T) be a topological space and A ⊂ X . If (xn ) is a
sequence of points in A converges to a point x ∈ X then x ∈ A.
The converse is not true in general.

P ROOF
• Let xn ∈ A and xn → x for x ∈ X .
• Let Ox be an open set containing x.
• Then by the definition of convergence of a sequence, there
exists a positive integer n0 such that xn ∈ Ox for all n ≥ n0 .
• Thus, every open set containing x intersects A.
• It follows that x ∈ A.

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C OUNTEREXAMPLE FOR THE CONVERSE PART

• Consider the topological space R with the co-countable
topology.
• Let A = R \ Q, the set of irrationals.
• Since the set of irrationals are dense in R, every open set
containing 0 must intersect A and hence 0 ∈ A.

C LAIM
there does not exist any sequence of points of A that converges
to 0.

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• On contrary, we assume that there exists a sequence (xn )

of points of A such that xn → 0.
• Thus, by definition, every open set containing 0 must
contain the points xn for all n ≥ n0 for some n0 ∈ N.
• However, we see that the open set R \ {xn : n ∈ N}
contains 0 and does not contain any xn .
• Note that we cannot choose (xn ) = (0), as xn ’s are
supposed to be in A, the set of irrationals whereas we have
0 6∈ A. 

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However, the next result shows that the converse part of the
above lemma holds true when the topological space is
metrizable.
T HEOREM 16.3
Let X be a metrizable space and A ⊂ X . If x ∈ A, then there is
a sequence (xn ) of points of A that converges to x.

P ROOF
• Let d be a metric for the topology of X .
• For each n ∈ N, consider the (1/n)-balls Bd (x, 1/n) and
choose xn ∈ A ∩ Bd (x, 1/n).
• We now show that xn → x.

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P ROOF ( CONTD ...)

• Let O be open in X containing x.
• Then there exists an -ball B(x, ) ⊂ O.
• Choose n0 ∈ N so that 1/n0 < .
• Then B(x, ) contains xn for all n ≥ n0 , since

1 1
d(xn , x) < ≤ < ,
n n0

and hence O contains xn for all n ≥ n0 . 

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T HEOREM 16.4 (S EQUENTIAL C HARACTERIZATION OF

C ONTINUITY )
Let X be metrizable and Y be arbitrary topological spaces. A
function f : X → Y is continuous if and only if xn → x in X
implies f (xn ) → f (x) in Y .

P ROOF OF =⇒ PART
• Assume first that f : X → Y is continuous.
• Given xn → x, we wish to show that f (xn ) → f (x).
• By definition of convergence sequence, we have to
consider an arbitrary open subset V of Y containing f (x)
and show that f (xn ) ∈ V for all n ≥ n0 for some n0 ∈ N.

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P ROOF ( CONTD ...)

• Let V be an open set of Y containing f (x).
• Then f −1 (V ) is open in X containing x.
• Since xn → x, there exists a positive integer n0 such that
xn ∈ f −1 (V ) for all n ≥ n0 .
• Thus, f (xn ) ∈ V for all n ≥ n0 .

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P ROOF OF ⇐= PART
• Conversely, assume that xn → x in X implies f (xn ) → f (x)
in Y .
• To prove the continuity of f we use the sequence lemma
(Lemma 15.2), Theorem 16.3 and the fact that for every
subset A ⊂ X , one has f (A) ⊂ f (A) (as this is one of the
characterizations of continuity already discussed).
• That is to show, if x ∈ A then f (x) ∈ f (A), as f (x) ∈ f (A) for
x ∈ A.

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P ROOF ( CONTD ...)

• Let x ∈ A be arbitrary.
• Then f (x) ∈ f (A).
• By Theorem 16.3 there exists a sequence (xn ) of A such
that xn → x in X (here we used the condition that X is
metrizable).
• Now, by our assumption, f (xn ) → f (x).
• Since xn ∈ A, we have f (xn ) ∈ f (A).
• By the sequence lemma f (x) ∈ f (A). This proves that
f (A) ⊂ f (A) and hence f is continuous. 

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D EFINITION 16.5 (P OINTWISE CONVERGENCE )

Let (fn ) be a sequence of functions from an arbitrary set X into
a topological space Y . The sequence (fn ) is said to converge
pointwise to a function f : X → Y , if for every x0 ∈ X we have
limn→∞ fn (x0 ) = f (x0 ).

I N PARTICULAR ,
if (Y , d) is a metric space, then (fn ) converges pointwise to f if
for every  > 0 and every x0 ∈ X , there exists n0 = n0 (x0 , ) ∈ N
such that
d(fn (x0 ), f (x0 )) <  for all n > n0 .

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D EFINITION 16.6 (U NIFORM CONVERGENCE )

Let X be a set and (Y , d) be a metric space. The sequence of
functions fn : X → Y is said to converge uniformly to the
function f : X → Y if for a given  > 0 there exists an
n0 = n0 () ∈ N such that d(fn (x), f (x)) <  for all n ≥ n0 and for
all x ∈ X .

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E XAMPLE 16.7
• Recall that the sequence of functions fn : [0, 1] → R
defined by f (x) = x n converges for each x ∈ [0, 1], but not
uniformly. Indeed,
• The sequence of functions fn converges to
(
0 if x < 1
f (x) =
1 if x = 1.

• But there exists a sequence of points xn close to 1 for

which f (xn ) does not tend to 1; for instance
(1 − (1/n))n → 1/e 6= 1.

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T HEOREM 16.8 (U NIFORM L IMIT T HEOREM )

Let X be a topological space and Y be a metric space. Let
fn : X → Y be a sequence of continuous functions. If fn → f
uniformly, then f is continuous.

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– End –

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