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3 Postulates :
1. Lumped Approximation
Current is always
measured by inserting an
Ammeter through 1 point
of a device terminal or wire.
Assumption 1
1. All conducting wires are perfect
conductors (zero resistance).
2. All circuit interconnections are perfect.
Consequence
Two terminals joined by a wire is
equivalent to a single terminal.
≡
j
wire
k
Quantum Mechanical Tunneling
makes perfect contacts
Since the 2 metal prongs of an
electrical plug has a thin oxide layer
(perfect insulator) on all sides, the perfect
contact established when it is plugged into a
socket is due to a quantum-mechanical
phenomenon called tunneling.
Reference Current Direction
and Voltage Polarity
Since the current i(t) entering an
electrical terminal k and the voltage vjk(t)
across a pair of terminals j and k in a
typical electrical circuit can assume a
positive value at one instant of time, and a
negative value at another instant of time, it
is necessary to assign (arbitrarily) a
current reference direction for each
terminal current, and an a pair of voltage
polarity reference, across every pair of
terminals.
If the calculated current (resp., voltage) at
some instant of time turns out or be a
negative number, it simply means that the
actual current (resp., voltage) is opposite in
direction (resp., polarity) to the arbitrarily
assigned reference at that instant of time.
4 possible reference assignments
for a 2-terminal device
j j
+ im + im
v jk v jk
- -
k k
j j
- im - im
v jk v jk
+ +
k k
v jl vkl
iγ v jk
+ - + -k
j
l iα iβ
- -
v jl vkl
iγ
+ +
l
i1 k
1 1 2 2
+ i1 i2 i2 + n
+ + 1 + ik
i1
v1 + in
+
v1 v2
2
- - - - -
3 (datum) n+1 (datum)
Voltage is always
measured by connecting a
Gaussian surface.
KCL
i3 i4
D3
i1 i6
D1 D2
i8
i2 i5 i7
KCL
Gaussian Surface 1
i3 i4
D3
i1 i6
D1 D2
i8
i2 i5 i7
Gaussian Surface 1: i1 − i 3 + i8 = 0
Nodes
Definition
Any terminal (i.e., wires) attached to a
Remarks:
1. We can always draw a sufficiently small
sphere centered at each node of a circuit
such that the sphere is pierced only by
the currents entering the node.
2. A sphere is the simplest Gaussian
surface.
KCL
i3 i4
D3
i1 i6
D1 D2
i8
i2 i5 i7
Gaussian Surface 2
i3 i4
D3
i1 i6
D1 D2
i8
i2 i5 i7
Gaussian Surface 2: i 3 + i 5 + i 7 = 0
KCL
Gaussian Surface 3
i3 i4
D3
i1 i6
D1 D2
i8
i2 i5 i7
Gaussian Surface 3:
i1 − i3 + i 4 − i 6 + i8 = 0
Cut set
Definition:
A subset of currents ia, ib …, im from a
physically connected circuit forms a cut set iff the
following 2 conditions are satisfied:
1. Cutting (say, with a plier) all “m” terminals
(wires) would physically disconnect the circuit
into 2 or more components.
2. Cutting only m-1 terminals (wires) from (the
subset of currents would not physically
disconnect the circuit.
Remarks:
1. Given any cut set {ia, ib …, im }, we can always draw
a Gaussian surface pierced only by {ia, ib …, im }.
2. Once a Gaussian surface is chosen, we define the
direction of each current entering the surface to be the
positive orientation of the cut set.
3. A cut set with an assumed positive orientation is said
to be an oriented cut set.
KCL
Positive orientation
i3 i4
D3
i1 i6
D1 D2
i8
i2 i5 i7
i3 i4
D3
i1 i6
D1 D2
i8
i2 i5 i7
i3 i4
D3
i1 i6
D1 D2
i8
i2 i5 i7
times t.
v jk (t ) = e j (t ) − ek (t )
KVL
Corollary 1
(around closed node sequences)
v + v4
1 -3+ D3
2
D4
- e3 -vD +
5
5
4
e1 e2 + 3 e4
v3−5
+
-v v8 +
D8
7
D
- v7
D6
6
+
-
-
5 e5 = 0
KVL ⇒ v = e − e
1 1 3 v5 = e4 − e3
v2 = e2 − e4 v6 = e5 − e1 = −e1
v3 = e2 − e1 v7 = e4 − e5 = e4
v4 = e2 − e3 v8 = e2 − e5 = e2
Consider Loop formed by closed
node sequence
1 2 5 1 :
−v3 + v8 + v6
=0
6
3 2
4 5
6
e6
datum
node
+ +
v
- v3 v1
+ -
9
+ v10 -
- 1 e1
v8 + +
v2
- -
e4 + v7 + v4 - e5
- 3 2
e3 e2 5
4
- v5 +
- v6 +
KVL
v1 = e6 − e5 = −e5 , v4 = e2 − e5
v2 = e1 − e5 , v5 = e5 − e2
v3 = e6 − e1 = −e1 , v6 = e2 − e4
e2
2
v1 + -
- v3
1
D
e1 + e3 +
D3 D4 v5
D5
1
+ 3 -
v4
+
D2
v2
-
4
- 4
e4 = 0
KVL
v1 = e2 − e1
v2 = e1 − e4 = e1
v3 = e3 − e2
v4 = e3 − e4 = e3
v1 + v2 − v4 + v3
+-
v4 v6
3
-- v5 ++
2
4 5
v4 − v5 + v6 = 0
Loop
Definition
A closed node sequence (na, nb, …,
sequence.
KVL
+ +
D3 v3 v1
- D1
-
1 e1
+
v2
D2 -
e4 3 2 e5
e3 e2 5
4
v1 − v2 − v3 = 0
6
e6
datum
node
+ +
D3 v3 v1
- D1
-
1 e1
+
v2
D2 -
e4 3 2 e5
e3 e2 5
4
2
5
4 3
2
5
4 3
1
2
5
4 3
6 3
5 4
6 3
5 4
Kuratowski’s Theorem
A necessary and
sufficient condition for G to
be a planar graph is that it
does not contain either Basic
Nonplanar Graph 1 or Basic
Nonplanar Graph 2, as a
subgraph.
Remark
A graph G is said to be
planar iff G can be redrawn
on a plane with no
intersecting branches except
at the nodes.
Mesh
D1
1
D3 D4 D5
3
2
D2
D8
7
D
D6