GREEK AND ROMAN HISTORY

Consolatay12013@gmail.com

Course Outline: Greek Roman History

Instructor: Prof. Samuel A. Nyanchoga

Purpose

The course is designed to introduce learners the history of the Greeks and Romans

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the course learners should be able:

 Define civilization and outline its characteristics

 Describe the origin of Greek Civilization
 Discuss the major characteristics of the Greek Civilization
 Examine the influence of the Greek Civilization
 Describe the origin of Roman Civilization
 Discuss the major characteristics of the Roman Civilization
 Examine the influence of the Roman Civilization

Course Content

Meaning of civilization, characteristics of civilization, Relationship between civilization and culture and
race, origin of Greek civilization, characteristics of Greek society before the emergence of city states,
emergence of city states, Greek expansion and conflict with Persia, internal conflicts-Peloponnesian war,
Greek Influence abroad, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Hippocrates, Herodotus, Thucydides, Pythagoras;
Roman civilization, early history, the early republic, wars with Carthage, late republic, the principate,
Roman law, cause of the Roman decline .

Teaching methodologies
Lectures, tutorials, presentations, library research, video shows and group work discussion

Instructional Materials

Chalkboard, handouts and internet

Course Assessment
Individual assignments, continuous assessment tests, term paper and final or end of semester
examination

1
Grading

CAT-30 Marks

Final examination -70 Marks

Reading Guide

Austin, M.M (1981). The Hellenistic World from Alexander to the Roman Conquest. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.

Bagnall,R.S. (1981). The Greek Historical Documents: The Hellenistic period. Chicago California Press.

Ogilvie, R.M.(1976) Early Rome and Etruscans. California: Atlantic heights

Mommsen, T (1975) The History of Rome. Chicago

Ralph, P et al (1997) World Civilization. Norton and Company: New York

TOPIC ONE

CIVILIZATION, CULTURE AND RACE

Civilization

The word comes from a Latin word civilis in reference to a citizen., citizens willingly bring themselves
together in political social, economic and religious organizations the terms implies organization .
Civilization denotes a process of collective differentiation from a world characterized by barbarism,
savagery and permittivity. Societies that are judged to have achieved self differentiation are called
civilized. Oxford English dictionary defines civilization as the process of being civilized, a developed or
advanced state of human society.

The Main Features of Early Civilizations

Cities: “more extensive and more densely settled than any previous settlements”;

Full-time specialists: craftsmen, transport workers, merchants, officials, priests, “who did not secure
their share directly by exchanging their products or services;

Concentration of a surplus: “as a tithe or tax to an imaginary deity or divine king”;

Truly monumental public buildings, which distinguish each known city from any village and also
symbolize the concentration of the social surplus;
2
 The presence of a ruling class: which includes, civil and military leaders, officials and priests, who absorb
(or control) a major share of the concentrated surplus;

Technical expertise: specifically systems of writing and numerical notation;

Exact and predictive sciences: mathematical sciences, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, the use of a
calendar.

Specialists in representative art: “full-time sculptors, painters, engravers, who draw likeness of persons
and things in quite distinctive and sophisticated styles”;

Regular foreign trade: the exchange of part of the concentrated social (and economic) surplus for
“industrial materials”, involving comparatively long distances and large volumes;

Members form a community: which possesses a true “organic solidarity” based on “functional
complementarity and independence” – “social solidarity” is exemplified in a core ideology (temple or
sepulchral shrine) and a dominant state organization

Diamond Stanley in search of primitive: A critique of civilization

Common features of civilization:

 Existence of permanent settlements
 Existence of large scale production – agriculture
 Ruling class
 Social classes including slaves and labour force
 Existence of military
 Existence of social institutions to mediate human behavior

In summary a civilization is a complex culture that has the following characteristics

 Advanced cities
 It has a large group of people living together
 It is a centre of trade

 Specialized workers
 Traders, government officials, priests, artisans

 Complex institutions
 Government to maintain law and order
 Religion economy

 Record keeping
3
 Tax collection documents
 Passage of laws
 Storage of grains (records)
 Writing/scribes

5. Advanced technology – plough, invention of wheel, weapons

The Opposite of Civilization

The opposite of civilization is barbarism, savagery, wilderness wildness. These are terms used to refer to
those viewed as being outside civilization

 “Barbarous” – barbarian comes from a Greek word meaning “foreign”

 Savage comes from Latin word “meaning of the woods”

 Barbarity – cruel and inhuman

 Savage – quality or condition of being savage; act of cruelty

Culture

Culture refers to the customs and beliefs i.e. a way of life of a particular group, country or society in a
particular time/period. The common features of culture are:

 Human variation is both biological and cultural

 Culture and human behaviour (gesture, body movement, emotions, cognition etc)
 Culture as central mechanism of human adaptation
 Learning culture through a process of socialization i.e. initiation rites from childhood to adulthood
 Cultural ecology – involving food getting activities hunting, gathering, fishing, farming (i.e. relationship
between culture and environmental adaptation)
 Culture as a basis of social organization i.e. kinship, ethnicity, in modern and urbanized societies
introduces new forms of social organization and identity

Race

Race is a term used to denote the possession of some distinct and inheritable qualities in particular
groups of human beings. The supposed attributes that concern us here are both psychic and physical
attributes. Racism use of the physical attributes as basis of differentiating one group from another or
even discriminating against them

4
The forms of classification are employed one based on the study of the skull and the other based on
superficial characteristics such as skin colour, hair etc.

Relation between Culture, Race, Environment and Civilization

Civilization is cumulative fruit of the continuous actions/activities of human generation Civilization is

founded on culture and materials.

Cultural progress means progress of the civilization. The collapse of means collapse of civilization.
Culture is the foundation of civilization and in turn civilization brings modernity, integration and
development to culture

Civilization occurs where culture contributes to evolution and advancement of mankind.

Humans and Environment

Human and environmental interaction

a) Humans have interacted with environment – climate and terrain to produce civilization.

Culture and Civilizations

Cultures have interacted through trade, migration and conquest

Cultures have shared ideas religious, political and economic

Race and Civilization

When race is put forward as a feature productive of civilization, the assumption is that there is a relation
between racial qualities and development of civilization. In this context the:

The Nordic have contributed to Indic, the Hellenic, the western, Russian orthodox and Christian
civilization

Alphine have contributed Sumerian the Hellenic the western Iranic Egyptian and minoan

The Mediterranean – Egyptian, Sumeria, Minoan, the Syriac, Hellenic, Arabic, the western civilization

Social psychological factors are advanced as factors productive of civilization

Race theorists ignore or down play the importance of other races in development of civilization.

Examples of world Civilizations

5
 Mesopotamia 3500 BC; Egypt 31000 BC; India 2500 BC; Crete 2000 BC; China 3500BC etc.

These civilizations have the following common characteristics

 They are called river valley civilizations

 Depended on local agriculture

 Remarkable achievement in writing
 Organization of society into large scale cities
 Development of technology beyond the human and animal muscle power
 External contracts trade

a) River valley civilizations

River valleys like those of (Mesopotamia) Tigris and Euphrates, the Indus valley (India), the Nile Valley
(Egypt) and China; the world first civilizations developed

b) Mesopotamia

The Fertile Crescent is the land that lies between the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea. In this land
the Rivers Euphrates and Tigris flowed southwards to the Persian Gulf. This land was to be known as
Mesopotamia. The Tigris and Euphrates flooded Mesopotamia each year with a thick bed of silt that
enabled farmers to plant wheat and barley.

c) Egypt
To the west of the fertile crescent in Africa another river flowed to the Sea – Mediterranean Sea.
Originating on mountains and plateaus of Burundi, Tanzania, Uganda and Ethiopia. The waters of Nile
flowed through Egypt into the Mediterranean Sea. Every year (in July) the river flooded the lands of
Egypt with deposits of fertile black soil enabling farmers grow wheat and barley and tend their crops
through an intricate network of irrigation out of this arose the Egyptian civilization

d) India

Further East in India another civilization arose in 2500 BC

Hondu Kush, Kara Kuram and Himalaya ranges separates South-Asia from the rest of continent (Indian
sub continent – Pakistan, India, Nepal and Bangladesh). From these mountains emerge two rivers the
Indus and Ganges. These rivers water the land stretching 1500 miles known as Indus-Ganges plain before
entering the Indian Ocean

6
 The rivers allowed inhabitants to develop trade with distant inhabitants including Mesopotamia they
engaged in farming too

China

Chinese civilization started 3500 years ago China’s East is the Pacific Ocean. From the West of China two
major rivers Huang He (Yellow River) and Yangtze flowed to the Pacific Ocean. Early settlements
developed a long the river systems. The flooding of yellow river deposited yellow silt that nurtured the
early Chinese civilization that included domestication of animals (sheep) and plants (wheat)

GREEK HISTORY
 The Greek civilization dates back to the 8 th century BC. The early inhabitants were called the
hellenes a name given to them by the Romans .The later inhabitants were called Aegens but they were
hellenised –speak Greek. They also shared a common religious heritage; laying the foundation of a strong
identity.
 The Characteristics of Greek society in the dark ages 1150 to 800 BC.

 The Greek society was organized into a simple village life that was autonomous. The ruler of each
village was called basileus for king. There were also village warriors for protecting the villages. There
neither formal legal institutions nor assemblies. Socially everybody lived in their own land .There few
slaves obtained through war.
 In religion they were polytheistic with many gods; Zeus was the god of skies who brought rain;
Poseidon was the god of seas; Aphrodite was the goddess of love; Ares god of war; Hade god of the
underworld etc.

 Economically Greek society engaged in cultivation and rearing of animals. Economic activities
included weaving cultivation of cereals, manufacturing ie wagon making swords .The mode of
exchange was barter trade.
 The Emergence of City States
 About 800bc village communities started to grow into city states or larger units called polis such as
Athens Sparta, Thebes, Corinth, on the main land. Other grew of the islands of Aegen such as Naxos,
Samos, and Miletus on the shores of Asia minor
 The city sates varied in population and size. Sparta and Athens were the largest in population and
territory.
 Factors that contributed to the growth of city states
 Trade the Greeks established links with western Asia; Cyprus, Syria and Mesopotamia and Egypt
They obtained grains from Egypt, silver and timber from Syria.
Trade increased the wealth of city states. There was also internal trade between Athens sand Sparta
involving pottery and olive oil from Athens and Sparta.

 Military

7
 The Greeks had developed skills in military and warefare. They were also disciplined in military terms.
They had military weapons such as hemlet, bodyarmour, war chariots etc. these enabled to conquers
their enemies and protect their cities.
 Independence
The Greeks shared common goals and interests of autonomy. They gradually begun to acquire gods,
festivals and distinguished from their neighbors.
 Geography
The geography of the region contributed to rise of Greek city states. It consisted of narrow valleys which
forbade exapnsion and new immigrants. From Example Athens was separated by mountains from its
neighbors
 Kinship and Language
Kinship and language separated and intensified a sense of independence .Kinship promoted a sense of
unique independence.
 Leadership
The Greek city states had from the beginning had village leadership of kings
Resources such as minerals and land
 Literacy because of the Greek alphabet literacy was widespread, records were kept and estate
management became easier.
 Greek colonization was commercial purpose to southern Italy and Sicily etc.

Greek City States

Sparta
The city state of Sparta grew in about735 BC. The orginal inhabitants were the Laconian but later
conquered by Spartans known as the Dorians. They were military strong. They did not mingle with local
laconian but chose to remain soldiers . They also colonized the Messenians whom they used for
agricultural labour.
Spartan Government
The Spartan government was characterized with the following institutions
 Kingship: They retained ancient hereditary kingship whereby they had two kings based on the two
influential families of the Spartan society. One headed the military and other normal functions of the
society.
 Council of elders: They numbered thirty chosen from a pool of elders aged over sixty by the citizen
assembly. This was inclusive of the two kings. They were the wisest. The work was to propose motions
to be voted on by the citizen assembly.
 Citizen assembly: they numbered 8000. It regulated the activities and functions of kings. They also
ratified motions passed proposed to them by council of elders.
 The panel of magistrates numbered five; they were replaced annually by vote from the assembly.
They implemented motions passed by the assembly, performed judicial business and negotiated with
outsiders.
 Military: this most important institution in Spartan society. The Spartan boys from age 12 were
taken away from their parents and trained for military purpose. They stayed in barracks. Weak infants
were immediately put to death.

8
 There was the class of unfree born numbered 400,000. They were called helots who worked in
farms.
 The economy was basically agricultural, engaged in trade and used iron currency for trade
purposes.
 In ancient Sparta, the purpose of education was to produce a well-drilled, well-disciplined marching
army. Spartans believed in a life of discipline, self-denial, and simplicity. They were very loyal to the state
of Sparta. Every Spartan, male or female, was required to have a perfect body.

 The Spartan system of education was organized by the state and each boy was assigned to a group
known as the Agela. They lived in a communal style and were made to undergo a curriculum of training
that was rigorous and often painful. Enormous discipline was placed on these children as they passed
through the hands of teachers, gymnastic coaches and military instructors. The goal of this program was
to produce men who were not only physically fit but psychologically disciplined. The Spartan male's
education did not end till he reached the age of thirty. In this educational regime, literacy and the arts
were not a priority.
 In Sparta, girls also went to school at age 6 or 7. They lived, slept and trained in their sisterhood's
barracks. No one knows if their school was as cruel or as rugged as the boy’s school, but the girls were
taught wrestling, gymnastics, and combat skills.

Athens

 State grew from about 750 to 600 BC.

 It was hereditary system ruled by an aristocratic class.
 In about 594 BC the economic crisis led to change of system of government to democratic one to
give more privileges and rights to the ruling class.
 One of the most important political changes was to elect magistrates based on geographical regions
rather by families.
 The assembly of all citizens composed of 40,000 thousand men excluded women was given the
mandate to elect the magistrates and generals
 There was also the council of 500 men which had executive and administrative powers and was
replaced every year.
 The magistrates had judicial functions and served for two years.
 There were also the generals who were heading the Athenian government.
 The Athenian democracy excluded women, aliens and slaves. Slaves were involved in mining of
silver in Attica and other domestic duties.
 Women in the Athenian society were relegated to domestic duties and child rearing
 Economically Athens engaged in mining, pottery, armament, and craft industry.

Greek Expansion

The factors that led to Greek expansion were:

 to acquire more land in Sicily, and Corsica Sardinia, Massilia, in southern France
 Trade
9
 Military

The Impact of Greek Expansion

 Spread of Greek influence in places such as Lydia, Spain and Sardinia i.e in fashion
 Trade Greek products were found in places such as Carthage and western Sicily
 Greeks started working as mercenaries and skilled craftsmen in places as Persia
 Conflict with Persia over territorial claims:The conflict with Persia led to war with Persia in which
Persia was defeated in 480 BC. The Greek city states formed the Delian league a confederation of the
Greek city state. The command was given to Athens to make sure that all the city state paid the war
tributes to support the war effort against Persia. This made Athens more powerful. When eventually
Persia was defeated Athens continued to receive war tribute but Corinth and Sparta were not happy with
this arrangement and this led to internal conflict that lasted for 27 years. On one side was Sparta,
Macedonia and Corinth and the other was Athens, Ionian cities and other islands. Athens lost the war in
404 BC and made peace with Sparta. But again Sparta was defeated by Thebes and there after there was a
gradual decline of the Greek city states.

Influence of the Greek Civilization

 Democracy: This was the corner stone of Greek civilization that replaced the family as the form of
governance institution. The Greek citizens were given the mandate to elect their own leaders.
 The Greek philosophy: the under lied the Greek civilization.
 Architecture: their architecture spread to surrounding areas e.g. Lydia and Babylon
 Trade: trade with their neighbor led to spread of Greek items of trade e.g. pottery, olive oil, and
silver.

Greek Philosophy

 Socrates was the wisest philosopher. He advanced truth and ethics. Wisdom is of essence to
understanding reality.
 Plato born in 429 BC, established school called academy in Athens talked about ideas and related
them to material objects.
 Plato talked about moral philosophy and virtuous living
 His political philosophy in the republic Plato talked of a republic in which majority of people
namely farmers, trader and artisan are governed by intellectual guardians who would serve as soldiers
and the wisest of them become philosopher kings. Plato did not advocate for liberty and equality.
 Aristotle born 384; he believed in objective reality of material objects.
 Interested in logic, metaphysics, ethics and politics
 Interested in moral philosophy
 Politics is the exercise of the common good.
 Aristotle argued that Man is by nature a political animal

10
 The best form of government was not democracy but a combination of monarchical, aristocratic
and democratic elements.
 Hippocrates (460-377) was the father of scientific medicine laid the found for clinical diagnosis-
causes of diseases.
 Herodotus 484-420 was regarded as the father of history. He introduced a methodology of studying
history through logical inquiry into the causes of events.
 Thucydides 460-400 introduced scientific history by rejecting myths and legends in favour of the
most reliable evidence.
 Pythogras credited with mathematical discovery particularly the Pythogras theorem.

 CAT ONE

1. Explain the meaning of the following terms:

 Civilization (2 marks)
 Race (2marks)
 Culture (2 marks)

2. State and explain five characteristics of a civilization (10 marks)

3.Explain the relationship between civilization, culture and race (10 marks)

4. What was the original name of the Greeks and their homeland?(2 marks) What were its two
characteristics? (2 mark)s

5.State and explain five characteristics of the Greek society before the emergence of city States. (10
marks)

6.State and explain five factors that led to the emergence of the Greek city states. 10 marks

7.State and explain in detail the five characteristics of the Spartan government. 15 marks

8.“Sparta was known for its military strength while Athens was for its Democracy” Explain the meaning
of this statement (15 marks)

11
 9. State and explain five factors that led to the Greek expansion overseas (10 marks)

10. State and explain five effects of the Greek expansion overseas (10 marks)

The Roman History

Origins

The City of Rome was founded in 753 BC by Romulus and Remus, The twin sons of god Mars. The son
were abandoned and raised She –Wolf. They decided to build a city at river Tiber near the Alps and in the
midpoint of the Mediterranean Sea.

Foundations

Three groups namely the Latins, Greeks and Etruscans contributed to the foundation of the Roman
civilization.
i) The Latins were farmers and settled at river Tiber in a place called Latium. They were the first
Romans
ii) The Greeks settled in southern Italy and Sicily and introduced commercial activities and growing of
cash crops such as olives and grapes. They also introduced religious set up. The Greek king of gods; zeus
became Jupiter while Hera the Queen god became Juno among the Romans.
iii) The Etruscans in the northern part of Italy influenced the Roman civilization in metal work, writing
and architecture. The Etruscans because of their technological base controlled much of the political life of
early Roman society. They expanded agriculture and cities. Most of their kings were tyrants and last one
was Tarquin who was overthrown by the Roman aristocrats in 509BC. The Romans after overthrowing
the monarch went ahead to establish a republic. A republic is derived from a Latin word “res publica”
which means public affairs. A republic is a form of government in which power rests with citizens who
have a right to vote to select their leaders.

Early Republic

Early Roman Republic

There were several social classes in the Roman society
The patricians who were the aristocrats or ruling class, they owned a lot of land .
The was the plebeians who included the farmer, artisans and merchants
The Patricians had enormous powers. They formed the senate while the Plebian formed the tribune to
protect its rights from the patrician who were powerful
In 451 BC the plebeians forced the creation of the written law to protect the rights of citizens
Government under republic had the features of monarchy with the king
Aristocracy with nobles
Tribunes signifying people democracy
In the place of king were two consuls who commanded the government and the military
12
They were elected for one year and had limited powers. The consul had veto powers to overrule the
decision made by the other consul
The Senate
The senate was the aristocratic branch of government consisting of 300 members. Membership was life
and it had enormous powers
Centuriate Assembly
This consisted of all citizen soldiers. The centuriate assembly appointed the consuls and made laws later
the plebeians made the laws because they were the majority.
Legions: comprised of 5000 soldiers further divided into smaller units of 80 called century.

Expansion of Rome through Conquest.

From 264 to146 Rome waged war against Carthage. The wars were to be known as Punic wars. The First
Punic war from246 to241 Rome defeated Carthage and took control of Sicily that was rich in agriculture.
The second Punic war from218 to 216 Carthage won against Rome under its military strategist Hannibal.
In the third Punic war from149 to 146 the Romans won under General Scipio in which the city of
Carthage was destroyed. This enabled Rome to take control of Macedonia, Greece and Anatolia.

The Internal Effects of Roman Expansion

The rich landowners faced opposition from many soldiers returning from war and were demanding for
land.
Soldiers instead of their commitment to the republic begun to fight for pay.
There were divisions within the military as individuals rose and begun to challenge the ideals of the
republic. There were Tiberius and Gaius but they were killed by the senate. Other military leaders such
as Lucius, Cornelius Sulla begun to fight among themselves for power.

Emergence of Julius Caesar

In the conflict Julius Caesar emerged as a leader and by 59Bc he was elected as Consul. He was expected
to rule for one year but with support of the military masses, and senate he ruled for life.
He begun to iniate reforms by granting citizenship to many people in the provinces and helped the poor
to acquire land and jobs. Caeser time was Rome experienced peace and prosperity. This was known as
Pax Romana. The economy was based on agriculture. The Common coinage Denarius was established.
Rome traded with China, Russia, India and Spain. The empire extended to Spain, Mesopotamia, North
Africa, and Britain. Caesar established sound government with civil servant who collected taxes.

His popularity was disliked by the senate and nobles who plotted to kill him. Among them Marcus
Brutus, Gaisus Cassius stabbed him in the senate chambers in44BC.
Civil War After the death Julius Caeser
Civil war broke in the Roman republic. Caeser nephew Octovian and military general Mark Anthony ruled
for ten years. But mark Anthony fell in love with Cleopatra the Queen of Egypt and followed her there.
Octovian accused him of trying to rule Rome from there. There two went to war and Mark Anthony was
defeated in31 BC and committed suicide.
Reform Period
13
 Diocletian 284AD
Doubled the size of the army
Agricultural reform
Civil service reforms
Regarded Christianity as threat and decreed persecution.
Constantine 314 AD
Transferred the capital city from Rome to Byzantium and later named it Constantinople
By 376 AD Rome declined due to internal decay.
Expansive nature of kingdom

The Roman Concept of Citizenship and Law

i) Sovereignty: The Roman constitutional theory stated that sovereignty rested with the people
because they had greater say in the republic. The members of the tribune were elected through the
popular vote. Members of the tribune were made available to citizens day and night day and night who
felt unjustly treated by magistrates. The senate made laws and regulated the work of magistrates
ii) The Citizens were enfranchised and this prevented violent revolutions
iii) Accountability: leaders went through rigorous selection process.
iv) The Roman concept of law: the Roman law evolved gradually with the publication of ten tablets in
450 BC. The Roman law was both written and unwritten. There three divisions namely the civil law
which was the law of Rome and its citizens. This included statues of the senate, decrees of emperors,
ancient customs etc. The law of the people and international law authorized slavery and ownership of
private property. The natural law based on philosophy and affirmed that all men are equal and are
entitled to certain basic rights that government has no authority to transgress.
v) The Most important aspects of Roman law were; a person is considered innocent until proven
guilty; person had right to equal treatment under law; the burden of proof rested with the accuser than
the accused; a person should be punished for actions and not thoughts; any law that is grossly unfair
should be set aside

Roman Influence Abroad

Roman art and sculpture of stone and painting was widespread
Literature and learning the roman historians such as Livy and Tacitus wrote roman history in a more
accurate manner
Language: Latin language remained widespread and influenced French, Spanish Portuguese Italian and
English languages.
Architecture, engineering and technology: the arch, dome and concrete used to build structures and were
more widespread.
Citizenship- under modern civilization rights of citizens borrowed from the Roman civilization
Models of government –Republican government of USA borrowed the Roman civilization.

Decline of Rome
Because of internal conflicts Rome begun to decline under Aurelius in 180AB
14
Piracy disrupted trade in Mediterranean sea in precious metals such as gold.
Decline in Agriculture begun to decline due to poor technology and use of slave labour
Military Upheavals
Germanic tribes and Persian tribes begun to attack Rome
Use of mercenaries to fight for Rome led to loss of loyalty to the empire.
Internal problems and poverty led to decline of patriotism

15