The IES Journal Part A: Civil & Structural Engineering

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Research on floating wind turbines: a literature

survey

C. M. Wang , T. Utsunomiya , S. C. Wee & Y. S. Choo

To cite this article: C. M. Wang , T. Utsunomiya , S. C. Wee & Y. S. Choo (2010) Research on
floating wind turbines: a literature survey, The IES Journal Part A: Civil & Structural Engineering,
3:4, 267-277, DOI: 10.1080/19373260.2010.517395

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Published online: 20 Oct 2010.

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 The IES Journal Part A: Civil & Structural Engineering
Vol. 3, No. 4, November 2010, 267–277

REVIEW PAPER
Research on floating wind turbines: a literature survey
C.M. Wanga, T. Utsunomiyab, S.C. Weec* and Y.S. Chooc
a
Engineering Science Programme and Department of Civil Engineering, National University of Singapore, Kent Ridge, Singapore
119260, Singapore; bDepartment of Civil and Earth Resources Engineering, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan; cDepartment of Civil
Engineering, National University of Singapore, Kent Ridge, Singapore 119260, Singapore
(Received 1 June 2010; final version received 6 July 2010)

This article presents a literature survey of research and development on floating wind turbines. The various,
proposed conceptual designs for floating platforms used for floating wind turbines are described and the working
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principles of these various floater concepts are outlined. This is followed by an overview of the research work that
has been undertaken pertaining to floating wind turbine technology by several research institutes and the academic
community. The research work undertaken to date is reviewed categorically according to the proposed floater
concept (spar-buoy type, TLP type, semi-submersible type, pontoon type and others) as per sections 3–7. Based on
the research work undertaken thus far, recommendations for future work are suggested.
Keywords: floating wind turbine; literature review; spar; TLP; semi-submersible; pontoon

1. Introduction also triggered much research on offshore wind

The urgent concern about global warming from the
emission of greenhouse gases has provided a strong
impetus for engineers and scientists worldwide to
research alternative renewable and clean energy.
Mankind could be weaned from the ‘dirty’ burning
of oil, gas and coal for the ever increasing energy
demands to power development and modern living by
switching to renewable and clean energy that are
harvested from the sun, waves, tides, currents and
winds. Solar energy and wind power are the fastest
growing renewable energy technologies. In this article,
we shall focus on the harvesting of wind power using
wind turbines (or aero-generators).
Denmark, The Netherlands, Germany, Spain and
the United States are currently the world leaders
in wind energy technology. These countries have
mega wind farms. Each wind farm comprises a few
hundred wind turbines that are spread over hundreds
of square kilometres. For example, the Roscoe wind
farm in Roscoe, Texas, United States has 627 wind
turbines and covers over 100,000 acres of land. These
wind farms are, however, unsightly and they swallow
up valuable land for agriculture and urban develop-
ment. Recognising these concerns, Professor William
E. Heronemus (1972) proposed the use of large-scale
offshore floating wind farms. Although Heronemus’
vision of offshore wind farms dates back to 1972, it was
not until the mid 1990s that the commercial offshore
wind industry was established. The new industry has
turbines. Already some countries, like the United
Kingdom and China, are considering constructing
huge wind farms offshore to take advantage of the
generally steadier and stronger winds found in the sea
(note that the power obtained from the wind is
proportional to the cube of the wind speed). Moreover,
the wind turbines can be larger than those on land
because they can be transported to the site by sea (note
that the power obtained from the wind is proportional
to the swept area of the wind turbine blades). In
addition, floating wind turbines have less restrictive
acoustic requirements and are not visible if their
distance L from the shoreline is L 4 Ö(2HR) where
H is the hub height and R the radius of the Earth
(Sclavounos 2008). The status, plans and technologies
for offshore wind turbines in Europe and North
America are presented in an excellent review paper
by Breton and Moe (2009).
Offshore wind turbines may be bottom founded or
of the floating type. Generally when the water depth is
shallow or moderately deep (i.e. less than 50 m), it is
more economical to have bottom founded wind
turbines, i.e. driven monopiles or conventional con-
crete gravity bases as foundations. A large number of
such bottom founded offshore wind turbines are found
off the coast of Denmark (e.g. the Horns Rev 2
offshore wind farm). For large water depths and soft
seabeds, floating wind turbines are attractive due to a
cheaper anchor installation than the cost of a fixed

*Corresponding author. Email: a0066467@nus.edu.sg

ISSN 1937-3260 print/ISSN 1937-3279 online

Ó 2010 The Institution of Engineers, Singapore
DOI: 10.1080/19373260.2010.517395
http://www.informaworld.com
 268 C.M. Wang et al.

foundation. Floating wind turbines can be used in
water as deep as 700 m and obviate the need for tall
towers and specialised materials designed for deep
water (Hansen 2006). Moreover, floating wind turbines
allow deployment further offshore to tap greater wind
power and eliminate unpleasant visual impact. The
economics of the floating wind turbines in deep waters
will be determined by the additional costs of the
floating structure and power distribution system which
are offset by higher offshore winds and close proximity
to large load centres. One would expect to see such
floating wind turbines being constructed in the near
future as Musial et al. (2004) have demonstrated that
with significant system optimisation, the large-scale
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coupled, integrated dynamic response analysis
in combined wind and wave loading needs to be
developed. The interaction of the floater and
wind turbine system requires further study. The
survivability, reliability and availability of the
system have to be demonstrated.
To address all these areas of research is beyond
the scope of this article. This article emphasises the
research and development made on the floater. The
objective of this article is to provide a literature survey
of the researches done on this subject. In the article, we
first present the different types of floating wind
turbines. Then we review the research investigations

deployment of offshore floating wind turbines can be done thus far on these different forms of floating wind
brought into an economical range for the industry. turbines and furnish some recommendations on future
However, there are inherent engineering challenges research work.
associated with floating offshore wind turbines as
Musial et al. (2004) have cautioned. A steep learning
curve still has to be surmounted, and a firm under- 2. Types of floating wind turbines
standing of bottom found offshore wind turbine Drawing from the design classifications of floating
technology is necessary before endeavouring to pro- offshore platforms for the offshore oil and gas
ceed to the afloat condition. For a brief treatise on the industry, floating wind turbines can also be categorised
engineering challenges associated with floating off- into four main types. They are:
shore wind turbines, recourse is sought to an excellent
conference paper by Butterfield et al. (2005). . Spar-buoy type
Through a cursory review of academic literature . Tension-leg platform (TLP) type
pertaining to floating offshore wind turbines, one can . Semi-submersible type (Column stabilised)
observe and identify, in a very broad and generic . Pontoon-type (Barge-type).
sense, three areas of active research and development
(R & D): As shown in Figure 1, the spar wind
turbine comprises the floating foundation (or some-
(1) R & D into the interfacing, buffering and times referred to as the floater), the tower and the
smoothing of the intermittent/fluctuating elec-
trical output with the grid. This is for the case
where transmission cables are run to shore.
Where transmission lines are not intended to be
laid, the focus is on the usage of power
generated which is essentially an energy balance
problem. Whether to store the energy and in
what manifestation (e.g. hydrogen) or to utilise
(e.g. produce potable water).
(2) R & D into the design of turbo-machinery for
the afloat condition. Adapting and modifying
land-based wind turbines, not only just for the
marine environment as in the case of bottom
founded offshore wind turbines but also for the
afloat condition is imperative. Gearing, drive
train, rotor and nacelle tolerance to roll, pitch,
surge and heave motion have to be addressed.
Additionally, nacelle yaw and rotor blade pitch
control mechanisms have to be modified to suit
new design specifications and requirements.
(3) R & D into the design of the floater. Figure 1. Spar-buoy type floating wind turbine
Sophisticated simulation tools capable of fully (Utsunomiya et al. 2010).
 The IES Journal Part A: Civil & Structural Engineering
rotor-nacelle assembly (RNA). The floater may be
towed in the horizontal position to calm waters near
the deployment site. It is then upended, stabilised, and
the tower and the RNA mounted by a derrick crane
barge before finally being towed by escort tugs in the
vertical position to the deployment site for connection
to the mooring system. The floating foundation
(consisting of a steel and/or concrete cylinder filled
with a ballast of water and gravels to keep the centre of
gravity well below the centre of buoyancy) ensures the
wind turbine floats in the sea and stays upright since it
creates a large righting moment arm and high inertial
resistance to pitch and roll motions. The floater is
ballasted by permanent solid iron ore ballast, concrete
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or gravel from a chute. Alternatively, the ballast tanks
may be injected with grout. It should be remarked that
the spar type is difficult to capsize. The draft of the
floating foundation is usually larger than or at least
equal to the hub height above the mean sea level for
stability and to minimise heave motion. Therefore, it is
necessary to have deep water for deployment of this
spar-type floating wind turbine as adequate keel to sea-
bed vertical clearance is required for the mooring
system to be effective. The spar floating wind turbine is
usually kept in position by a taut or a catenary spread
mooring system using anchor-chains, steel cables and/
or synthetic fibre ropes. Alternatively, it may be
moored by a single vertical tendon held at the base
by a swivel connection that allows the wind turbine to
revolve as the wind changes direction (as proposed by
Figure 2. (a) TLP-type floating wind turbine (Suzuki et al. 2009b) and (b) offshore oil and gas mini-TLP.
269
the company SWAY available from: 5http://www.
sway.no/4). This free-yawing effect is similar to the
weathervaning mechanism found in a Floating Pro-
duction Storage and Offloading vessel (FPSO) turret
mooring in the offshore oil and gas industry. Although
favourable because the wind turbine will always face
the direction of oncoming wind thus optimising power
generation, the single vertical tendon may not provide
for a degree of redundancy in the event of failure,
resulting in unrestrained drifting of the floater. The
first full scale size spar floating turbine has been
deployed off the south-west coast of Karmoy Island,
Norway by Statoil in the Hywind demonstration
project. This demonstration project will operate for a
period of at least 2 years, the objective being to gain
knowledge on practical aspects of the operation and
maintenance of floating wind turbines. The turbine has
a 2.3 MW rating, a rotor diameter of 82.4 m, a hub-
height of 65 m, a floating foundation draft of 100 m,
weighs 5300 tonnes, and is moored by 3 taut mooring
lines in deep water.
The TLP type comprises a floating platform
structure to carry the wind turbine as shown in
Figure 2a. In the offshore oil and gas industry, the
conventional TLP platform comprises a square pon-
toon with columns on which the topside deck rests. A
smaller version of this conventional hull form is the
mini-TLP which has been adopted by the TLP-type
floating wind turbine (see Figure 2b). Unlike the spar-
type which needs to be assembled in water, this TLP
 270 C.M. Wang et al.

wind turbine may be assembled and commissioned

onshore thereby avoiding the logistical difficulties of
offshore assembly. The fully fitted up platform is towed
to the deployment site thus precluding the need to
charter and mobilise expensive heavy-lift vessels or
derrick crane barges for offshore construction. The
floating platform is held in position by vertical tendons
(also called tethers) which are anchored either by a
template foundation, suction caissons or by pile driven
anchors. The pretensioned tethers provide the righting
stability. This type of floating wind turbine has a
relatively less dynamic response to waves when
compared to the spar-buoy type, the semi-submersible Figure 3. Semi-submersible type floating wind turbine
type or the pontoon type but is subject to a (Principle Power, Inc).
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phenomenon known as ‘pull down’ which is an

increase in draft as the platform is offset from its
equilibrium position. A TLP wind turbine has since
been installed off the coast of Puglia, southern Italy
by Blue H Technologies (5http://www.bluehgroup.
com/4). This large scale prototype is used to test the
assembly, transportation and installation of the TLP-
type wind energy converter as well as to serve as a
metering platform with sensors to measure site specific
data. The turbine can generate 80 kW, uses a two
bladed rotor and is deployed in a water depth of
108 m.
The semi-submersible type comprises a few large
column tubes connected to each other by tubular
members. A wind turbine may sit on one of the column
tubes or there could be wind turbines sitting in all the
columns. Alternatively, the wind turbine may be
positioned at the geometric centre of the column tubes
and supported by lateral bracing members. The
column tubes provide the ballast and they are partially Figure 4. Semi-submersible type floating wind turbine
filled with water. When in the afloat condition, the (Ishihara et al. 2007).
water-plane area of the columns primarily provides
floatation stability, hence the term ‘column stabilised’.
This design is good in providing stability to the wind
turbine and its relatively shallow draft allows for site
flexibility. The semi-submersible floating wind turbine
is kept in position by mooring lines. This type of
floating wind turbine may be constructed onshore.
Until now, there is no semi-submersible floating wind
turbine in operation. Principle Power Inc. is promoting
the semi-submersible type which consists of three
column tubes with patented horizontal water entrap-
ment heave plates at the bases as shown in Figure 3.
The heave plates primarily serve to reduce heave and
pitch motion without increasing floating platform size.
Water is pumped from one column tube to the other so
as to keep the entire semi-submersible on an even keel.
Its specifications are 5 MW power rating, 125 m rotor
diameter, 100 m hub height, 400 tonne turbine, 400
tonne tower and 25 m draft. Figure 6 shows another Figure 5. NMRI concept of pontoon-type wind turbine
concept design of semi-submersible type as proposed 5http://www.nmri.go.jp/4.
 The IES Journal Part A: Civil & Structural Engineering
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Figure 6. Prof Ohta’s concept of pontoon-type wind
turbine with rotor shroud nozzle.
by Ishihara et al. (2007a,b). It has three wind turbines
seated on three tubular columns.
The pontoon-type has a very large pontoon
structure to carry a group of wind turbines. The large
pontoon structure achieves stability via distributed
buoyancy and by taking advantage of the weighted
water plane area for righting moment. The pontoon-
type may be moored by conventional catenary anchor
chains. However, the setback of the pontoon-type wind
turbine is that it is susceptible to the roll and pitch
motions in waves experienced by ocean-going ship-
shaped vessels and may only be sited in calm seas, like
in a harbour, sheltered cove or lagoon. The National
Maritime Research Institute (NMRI) in Tokyo has
made some studies on such pontoon-type floating wind
turbines. Design concepts of NMRI and that of Prof
Ohta from Kyushu University are shown in Figures 5
and 6, respectively.
It should be remarked that there are clearly hybrid
types of floating wind turbines, for example a
combination of spar floater and tension leg mooring
system. Also, there is an interesting concept of a
sailing-type floating wind turbine (see Figure 7) that
was studied at the National Institute for Environ-
mental Studies, Japan (2007). The floating wind power
plant has no mooring system but navigates with sails
and azimuth thrusters. The self-sailing and self-
propelled mobility allows the wind farm to move to a
location that maximises the generation of wind power
as well as to weather route from storms. The slender
lower and upper hulls are lightweight composites to
minimise construction costs and enhance the propul-
sive performance. Wind power generated is utilised in-
situ for the electrolysis of water to produce hydrogen
271
Figure 7. Sailing-type floating wind turbine (Picture
courtesy of National Institute for Environmental Studies,
Japan).
which is offloaded to shuttle tankers, thus precluding
the need for transmission cables to shore.
3. Research into spar-type floating wind turbine
Tong (1998) presented the conceptual design for
FLOAT which is a spar-type floating wind turbine.
The FLOAT system aims to enable the economical
generation of electricity from wind power in offshore
locations, typically between 100 and 300 m water
depth. The technical and economic aspect of installing
an offshore wind farm based on the FLOAT concept is
addressed as well as issues with regard to legal,
environmental, fabrication and installation operations
are considered.
Nielson et al. (2006) and Skaare et al. (2007)
developed simulation models for integrated dynamic
analysis of the spar-type floating wind turbines
proposed as Hywind and compared their numerical
results with model scale test results. They considered
various environmental conditions and wind turbine
control schemes. They showed the importance of the
effect of pitch-angle control of blades on the dynamic
response of the floating wind turbine for wind speeds
above the rated wind speed. This indicates that the
modelling of aero-hydro-servo dynamic coupling is
necessary for proper dynamic response analysis.
Suzuki and Sato (2007) investigated the effect of a
stabilising fin attached at the base of the floating
foundation in reducing the pitch motion of the floating
spar wind turbine. The concept is analogous to roll
stabilisation fins and bilge keels on ship-shaped vessels.
The fin can reduce the rotational motion of the wind
turbine about the vertical axis (due to non-uniform
wind load) because the fin provides additional hydro-
dynamic mass. Moreover, the fin assists in moving the
 272 C.M. Wang et al.
natural periods of roll, pitch and yaw away from the
wave period range by the added mass to avoid
resonance.
Moriya et al. (2007) conducted an experiment to
investigate the dynamic response of a spar-type
floating wind turbine under combined wind and wave
environmental loads. Sato and Suzuki (2006) consid-
ered only three degrees of freedom, i.e. surge, heave
and pitch. Therefore, variations of loads or the effect
of the gyro-moment of the rotor rotation was not
taken into consideration. Matsukuma and Utsuno-
miya (2008) performed a motion analysis of a spar-
type floating wind turbine under steady wind con-
sidering rotor-rotation. The wind loads acting on the
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rotor blades are calculated using the blade element
momentum theory. As a result, the motion of yaw,
sway and roll are generated due to the effect of the
gyro-moment for the rotor-rotation. For the same type
floating turbine, wave response was examined experi-
mentally using 1/100 scale models and compared with
numerical simulations carried out by Nishida et al.
(2008). Utsunomiya et al. (2009a) continued the study
by determining the motion of a prototype spar wind
turbine under regular and irregular waves and a steady
horizontal force that simulates the steady wind
condition. The prototype wind turbine is 2 MW, has
an 80 m rotor diameter and a hub height of 55 m. The
floating foundation has a 60 m draft and circular
sections of diameter 12 m at the lower part, 8.4 m at
the middle part and 4.8 m at the upper part.
Experimental tests using a 1/22.5 scale model were
carried out in the deep sea wave basin at the NMRI.
The numerical and experimental results agree well.
Further experimental tests on the stepped-type floating
cylinder by Utsunomiya et al. (2009b) moored at
different positions showed that smaller heave and pitch
motions are obtained when the stepped cylinder is
moored at the upper position when compared its
uniform cylinder counterpart. More recently, Utsuno-
miya et al. (2010) carried out a sea experiment on a 1/
10 scale model of a hybrid (i.e. concrete and steel
construction for the floating foundation) spar-type
wind turbine. The site is 30 m off the coast of Sasebo,
Japan. Valuable test results on the six degree of
freedom motion of the tower base were obtained.
These results validate the numerical method and
computer code for the dynamic analysis of spar-type
floating wind turbines under wave and wind forces.
In Utsunomiya et al.’s (2009a) simulation code,
Morison’s equation is used for the evaluation of the
wave force on the spar floating turbine. As a moving
body, the relative velocity formulation is used (see e.g.
6.2.4. of Det Norske Veritas, 2006). The added mass
coefficients are calculated by the linear diffraction
theory. The water particle velocities and accelerations
are evaluated at the instantaneous positions along the
centre axis of the floating body (not on the body in still
position). The extrapolated linear wave theory is used
for integration of the wave forces along the floating
body. The inertia coefficient is set as CM ¼ 2.0 and the
drag coefficient as CD ¼ 1.2. The vertical forces acting
on the bottom surface and the horizontal plane
surfaces at the stepped parts are evaluated by dynamic
pressure evaluated from the linear wave theory. The
added mass force in the vertical direction is evaluated
by an empirical formula based on the volume of a
semi-sphere. The drag force acting in the vertical
direction is also evaluated empirically by using the
relative velocity formulation with CDV ¼ 2.0. The
equations of motion for the spar-type floating wind
turbine as a six degree of freedom rigid body are solved
in the time domain. The mooring lines are modelled as
linear springs and the restoring forces calculated. In
order to include the effect of damping from the
mooring lines, the damping force acting in each
mooring line is calculated by an empirical formula
given by Fdamp ¼ 2x Ö(Mku), where x ¼ 0.01, M is the
total mass, k the spring coefficient of the mooring line,
and u the velocity of the mooring line end attachment
point in the direction of the mooring line.
Suzuki et al. (2009a) presented different scenarios
of progressive drifting of spar floating wind turbines
that are closely spaced in a wind farm so as to
minimise installation costs. An accidental drifting of a
floating turbine may lead to collision or contact made
between moorings of neighbouring wind turbines.
They evaluated the risk of each scenario and
discussed the effect of arrangement of wind turbines
in a wind farm and the safety factors to be used in the
design of moorings.
Karimirad and Moan (2010) carried out structural
dynamic response analyses of a spar-type wind turbine
in the extreme survival condition. Their technical
paper focused on the determination of extreme
responses for Ultimate Limit State design checks.
Numerical simulation for coupled wave and wind
induced motion and structural response in harsh
conditions for a parked floating wind turbine were
undertaken. The critical structural responses were
predicted by coupled aero-hydro-elastic time domain
simulation. From the predicted results in their study, a
wide banded, Gaussian process was observed and the
wind induced resonant responses (mainly platform
pitch resonance) were dominant.
4. Research into TLP-type floating wind turbine
Withee and Sclavounos (2004) performed fully coupled
time-domain simulations of the system responses for a
1.5 MW wind turbine mounted on a TLP floater under
 The IES Journal Part A: Civil & Structural Engineering
wind and wave forces. They presented the simulation
results for surge free decay tests carried out to estimate
the damping arising from the turbine rotor and the
wave and viscous damping arising from the buoy. They
found that the two damping mechanisms were
comparable in magnitude and that the damping arising
from the turbine rotor appears to obey a distinctly
linear law. Typical system responses and rotor blade
root bending moments for a particular wind speed
were also given.
Lee (2004) carried out frequency domain response
analysis of both TLP and Spar Buoy types of floating
wind turbines in order to compare the performances of
the two floater concepts. He found the TLP type to be
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relatively soft in surge and sway but extremely stiff in
the rotational modes whereas the spar-type was found
to be stiff in surge and sway but softer in the rotational
modes.
Suzuki et al. (2009b) developed a conceptual design
of a TLP-type floating structure for offshore wind
farms. The design is based on their past experience in
the design and fabrication of TLP which takes into
consideration the stability of the structure, mooring
forces and ease in maintenance. From their dynamic
analysis of the TLP floating wind turbine, they found
that the proposed TLP has excellent characteristic
features in dynamic response and was able to satisfy
the extreme operating environmental conditions, re-
sonance with the wind turbine system and earthquakes.
Weinzettel et al. (2009) performed a life cycle
assessment of a floating offshore wind turbine based on
the Sway concept TLP type floater. The preliminary
life cycle assessment considered the environmental
impact of the floating wind turbine and highlighted the
importance of the decommissioning scenario whereby
materials are recycled to mitigate detrimental effects on
the environment.
Bae et al. (2010) performed a rotor-floater-tether
coupled dynamic analysis on a mini TLP-type offshore
floating wind turbine. The time domain numerical
simulation included blade-rotor dynamics, mooring
dynamics and platform motions. The dynamic cou-
pling between the rotating blades and the floater, in
addition to, the mooring-floater dynamic coupling was
considered and assessed. When compared with the
uncoupled analysis results, more pronounced rotor-
dynamics effects at high frequencies in the coupled
simulations was observed, which has implications on
fatigue life. The paper sought to convey that the
numerical tool and methodology was applicable to the
design of new offshore floating wind turbines in
irregular waves, dynamic winds and steady currents.
Nihei and Fujioka (2010) investigated the motion
characteristics of a TLP-type offshore wind turbine in
waves and wind. They performed experimental tests on
273
a 1/100 scale model in a wave basin. The floater motion
characteristics, tensions in the tendons and bending
moments of the tower were measured. Their experi-
ments indicated that in the case of applied waves and
wind, the wind has the beneficial effect of stabilising
the floater pitch motion and decreasing the vibration
of the mooring lines. An estimate of the reduction of
electricity generation resulting from static heel was also
given. The authors stressed that the reduction due to
pitch motion, as distinguished from static list, was not
considered.
5. Research into semi-submersible floating wind
turbine
Henderson and Patel (1998) presented analytical and
numerical design tools for evaluating the performance
of semi-submersible floating wind turbines. They
addressed the principal problems that include the
determination of an optimum hull-form for the
floating structure and of developing analysis tools for
the interaction of the motion in waves of the platform
with the turbine aerodynamic performance as well as
the blade and hub loads. They also discussed
secondary issues such as platform weathervaning, its
mooring system and the means for energy transmission
to shore.
Zambrano et al. (2006) applied a Fourier spectrum
based model of Gulf of Mexico storm conditions to a
six degree of freedom analytic simulation of a moored,
floating offshore structure fitted with three wind
turbines. The resulting heave, surge and sway motions
were calculated using a Newtonian Runge-Kutta
method. The forces due to wind, waves and mooring
line tension were predicted as a function of time. The
WAMIT program was used to develop the wave forces
on the platform. A constant force coefficient was used
to estimate wind turbine loads.
Shimada et al. (2007) and Ishihara et al. (2007a,b,
2008) studied the dynamic response of a semi-
submersible type under waves as shown in Figure 4.
The semi-submersible structure carries three wind
turbines. Their papers present basic characteristics of
the wave-induced motion of the semi-submersible
floating structure from numerical computations and
1/150 scaled rigid model experiments in a wave tank.
In the numerical computations, nonlinear damping
effect due to hydrodynamic drag forces (modelled by
the Morison’s formula) and inertia forces (by using
Srinivasan’s model) are considered in the equation of
motion, where the linear hydrodynamic forces are
obtained from the Green’s function model. As a result,
the response characteristics around the resonant
frequency region were successfully improved. In
addition, the structural stability for severe wave
 274 C.M. Wang et al.
conditions and the long-term fatigue limit state were
also investigated. Ishihara et al. (2009) carried out a
water tank experiment to study the influence of heave
plates on the dynamic response of a semi-submersible
type floating wind turbine. They found that the heave
plates help to increase the natural period of heave,
thereby resulting in a reduction of heave response at
rated and extreme sea states.
In a three part paper presented at the OMAE
Conference 2009, Cermelli, Roddier and their associ-
ates conducted a feasibility study for the WindFloat
technology for a semi-submersible floating wind
turbine. As shown in Figure 3, the WindFloat is a
three-legged floating foundation for very large offshore
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wind turbines. It is designed to accommodate a wind
turbine, 5 MW or larger, on one of the columns of the
hull with minimal modifications to the tower, nacelle
and turbine. The first part (Roddier et al. 2009)
focused on the design basis for wind turbine floating
foundations. The authors pointed out that the design
of the hull for a large wind turbine must draw on the
synergies with oil and gas offshore platform technol-
ogy, while accounting for the different design require-
ments and functionality of the wind turbine. In the
second part, Cermelli et al. (2009) carried out
hydrodynamic analysis of the hull of the floating
foundation. They presented (i) the numerical hydro-
dynamic model of the platform and its mooring
system, (ii) a wave tank testing of a scale model of
the platform with simplified aerodynamic simulation
of the wind turbine and (iii) FAST, an aerodynamic
software package for wind turbine analysis with the
ability to be coupled to the hydrodynamic model. In
the third part, Aubault et al. (2009) discussed the
structural assessment of a column-stabilised floating
foundation. They focused on the methodology for
estimating the strength and fatigue of the structural
components. They assumed that structural loading on
the underwater elements of the platform, such as the
columns and the water entrapment plates is mostly
dependent on wave loading. They concluded that the
truss bracing members or the interface between the
wind turbine tower and the columns must be analysed
due to the importance of aerodynamic loading on their
design.
6. Research into pontoon-type floating wind turbine
Based on the buoyancy stabilised concept, NREL and
MIT collaborated in a pontoon-type (or barge-type)
floating wind turbine. The pontoon-type is adopted
because of its simplicity in design, fabrication and
installation. Jonkman and Buhl (2007) presented fully
coupled aero-hydro-servo-elastic simulation tools for a
preliminary loads analysis of a 5 MW pontoon-type
wind turbine. The analysis aims to characterise the
dynamic response and to identify potential loads and
instabilities that would be detrimental to such a
pontoon-type design. They found that coupling
between the turbine response and the pontoon pitch
motion produces larger extreme loads in the floating
turbine tower and blades. The pontoon was found to
be susceptible to excessive pitching in extreme wave
conditions. The compliance of the floating pontoon
wind turbine did, however, reduce a tower side-to-side
instability that occurred in land-based turbines. They
suggested some design modifications to reduce the
pontoon motions and to eliminate the instabilities.
Wayman and Sclavounos (2006) also presented meth-
ods for the coupled structural, hydrodynamic and
aerodynamic analysis of the floating pontoon type in
the frequency domain.
For greater stability, the National Maritime
Research Institute (NMRI) proposed a grillage-pon-
toon-type floating wind turbine system where two wind
turbines are placed at opposite ends of the pontoon
(see Figure 5). Note that a three-wind turbine concept
was initially proposed but due to strength problems,
the number of wind turbines was reduced to two. The
pontoon has a length of 187 m, width of 60 m and a
depth of 6–14 m. The hub height of the wind turbine is
80 m and its rotor diameter is 120 m. The floating
wind turbine is kept in place by mooring lines. Yago
et al. (2007) performed experimental wave basin test
and numerical analysis of the floating wind turbine and
concluded that this design concept is feasible for
implementation in future.
Iijima et al. (2010) described their numerical
procedure for the fully coupled aerodynamic and
hydroelastic time-domain analysis of an offshore
floating wind turbine system including rotor blade
dynamics, dynamic motions and flexible deflections of
the structural system. Their floater concept comprised
two parallel longitudinal box girders connected at
forward and aft ends as well as amidships by transverse
box girders. Two turbine towers are mounted on the
floater, one at each end. The dynamic coupling
between the rotating blades and the structural system
under wind and wave loads was taken into account.
The results were compared with the uncoupled cases
(wind only or waves only) to investigate the coupling
effects in terms of structural stress response as well as
motion response. Interestingly, Iijima et al.’s paper
mentioned a certain gyroscopic effect due to yaw
motion that is not yet fully understood.
7. Research into other forms of floating wind turbine
Dumpleton (1985) carried out tests on a ship-mounted
inclined axis wind turbine (IAWT) with single blade
 The IES Journal Part A: Civil & Structural Engineering
rotor with the ship on a swinging mooring. The tests
highlighted several technical challenges at the time and
the conceived conceptual idea of using a ship-shaped
hull form with IAWT has not been observed in current
literature.
Sclavounos et al. (2008) presented a coupled
dynamic analysis of floating wind turbines that enables
a parametric design study of floating wind turbine
concepts and mooring systems. Pareto optimal designs
are presented that has a favourable combination of
nacelle acceleration, mooring system tension and
displacement of the floating structure supporting a
5 MW wind turbine. All concepts are selected so that
they float stably while in tow to the offshore wind farm
Downloaded by [Indian Institute of Technology Madras] at 23:23 25 January 2016
site and prior to their connection to the mooring system.
A fully coupled dynamic analysis is carried out on the
wind turbine, floater and mooring system in wind and a
sea state based on standard computer programs used by
the offshore and wind industries. They found that Pareto
optimal structures are generally either a narrow deep
drafted spar, or a shallow drafted barge ballasted with
concrete. The mooring systems include both tension leg
and catenary mooring systems.
Manabe et al. (2008) presented the development of
the floating structure for the Very Large Mobile
Offshore Structure (VLMOS) sailing-type wind farm.
The paper was fundamentally a feasibility study on the
subject floating wind farm concept which added
credence to the viability and possible realisation of
the concept. Interestingly, the structural design of the
VLMOS sailing offshore wind farm was based on
hydroelastic response analysis which is evidence of
Japanese researchers’ efforts to tap on VLFSs to realise
floating wind farms.
Kourogi et al. (2008, 2009) carried out resistance
tests and oblique towing tank tests with a 1/100 scale
model of the (VLMOS) sailing-type floating wind
farm (see Figure 7) in order to improve the
navigation simulation and to investigate the interac-
tion among the many wind shaped struts or between
the lower semi-submersible hull and struts. They also
carried out experiments to evaluate seakeeping
performance.
Tsujimoto et al. (2009) developed an algorithm for
the optimal routing of a VLMOS sailing-type wind farm.
The logic code was developed to search for optimal
routes within the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of
Japan to maximise the acquired wind energy of the
sailing-type wind farm. The navigational simulations
predicted that a sailing type wind farm would require
more wind energy compared to a stationary wind farm.
The efficiency of the optimised routes was also
evaluated.
Vita et al. (2010) put forward a new concept for
deep sea offshore vertical axis wind turbines (VAWTs).
275
The concept utilises a cylindrical foundation rotating
in the water. The 2D Navier–Stokes solver EllipSys2D
was used to investigate the interaction between the
rotating foundation and a water flow stream passing
the turbine. The novel concept has peculiar features
such as a two-bladed Darrieus rotor, a tower that
extends underwater that also functions as a spar buoy
and a submerged generator at the tower bottom.
Ronold et al. (2010) emphasised on the importance
of developing standards for the design of floating wind
turbine structures. They described how Det Norske
Veritas was in the process of updating their offshore
standard, DNV-OS-J101, ‘Design of Offshore Wind
Turbine Structures’ to cover floating wind turbine
structures. A DNV Guideline for Offshore Floating
Wind Turbines has been established, as mentioned in
their paper. Their paper presented the highlights of the
new DNV Guideline for Offshore Floating Wind
Turbine Structures.
8. Concluding remarks and recommendations for
future work
Wind power is one of the fastest growing energy
technologies and it appears that it will become a major
generator of electricity worldwide. Floating wind
farms located far out in the deep sea will draw on
more wind power than land-based wind farms in the
near future.
Recommendations for future work include:
. Owing to lack of operational experience, semi-
empirical structural design requirements may be
inadequate and a first principle approach to the
design methodology should be sought.
. Development of design criteria, offshore stan-
dards and recommended practices for the float-
ing offshore wind turbines.
. Where semi-empirical rules in the petro-
leum industry offshore standards and recom-
mended practices are referred to in design, these
should be supplemented by dynamic assessment
tools.
. A feasibility study on a commercial, utility
scale floating wind farm should be undertaken,
factoring in technical and economic aspects of
implementation using current cost estimates as
well as future, reduced cost estimates to predict
lead time for technology to mature to industry
level.
. Economical design of floating wind turbine
system (presently the floating wind turbine
system is rather expensive). Try to envision cost
reduction measures by standardisation and mass
production.
 276 C.M. Wang et al.
. Establish cost-effective infrastructures for tow-
ing, installation and maintenance of large scale
floating offshore wind farms to avoid bottlenecks
when commercial scale projects can finally be
implemented viably.
. Develop power transmission and interconnection
systems suitable for large scale floating offshore
wind farms consisting of multiple floaters.
. Environmental impact assessment of floating
wind turbines with respect to the ecosystem.
. Investigate present trends in maritime laws, rules
and regulations related to the implementation of
offshore floating wind power farms and identify
legal key issues.
Downloaded by [Indian Institute of Technology Madras] at 23:23 25 January 2016
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