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Towers for Offshore Wind Turbines

Article · June 2010

DOI: 10.1063/1.3464894

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The 10th Asian International Conference on Fluid Machinery Paper ID: AICFM0076
21st – 23rd October, Kuala Lumpur Malaysia

Towers for Offshore Wind Turbines

Kurian V.J.1, Narayanan S.P.1 and Ganapathy C.2

1
Department of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS,
31750 Tronoh, Perak, kurian_john@petronas.com.my, narayanan_sambu@petronas.com.my
2
Formerly Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS,
Ganapathy25437@yahoo.co.uk

Abstract

Increasing energy demand coupled with pollution free production of energy has found a viable solution in wind energy.
Land based windmills have been utilized for power generation for more than two thousand years. In modern times wind
generated power has become popular in many countries. Offshore wind turbines are being used in a number of countries to
tap the energy from wind over the oceans and convert to electric energy. The advantages of offshore wind turbines as
compared to land are that offshore winds flow at higher speed than onshore winds and the more available space. In some
land based settings, for better efficiency, turbines are separated as much as 10 rotor diameters from each other. In offshore
applications where only two wind directions are likely to predominate, the distances between the turbines arranged in a line
can be shortened to as little as two or four rotor diameters. Today, more than a dozen offshore European wind facilities with
turbine ratings of 450 kw to 3.6 MW exist offshore in very shallow waters of 5 to 12 m. Compared to onshore wind turbines,
offshore wind turbines are bigger and the tower height in offshore are in the range of 60 to 80 m. The water depths in
oceans where offshore turbines can be located are within 30 m. However as the distance from land increases, the costs of
building and maintaining the turbines and transmitting the power back to shore also increase sharply. The objective of this
paper is to review the parameters of design for the maximum efficiency of offshore wind turbines and to develop types
offshore towers to support the wind turbines. The methodology of design of offshore towers to support the wind turbine
would be given and the environmental loads for the design of the towers would be calculated for specific cases. The marine
corrosion on the towers and the methods to control the corrosion also would be briefly presented. As the wind speeds tend
to increase with distance from the shore, turbines build father offshore will be able to capture more wind energy. Currently
two types of towers are considered. Cylindrical tubular structures and truss type structures. But truss type structures have
less weight and flexibility in design. The construction of the offshore towers to harness the wind energy is also presented.
The results will include the calculation of wind and wave forces on the tower and the design details for the tower.

Keywords: Wind energy, offshore, tower, turbines, wind speed.

1. Introduction
Onshore wind energy has been utilized for power generation since two thousand years ago. In modern times, wind energy is
mainly used to generate electricity, primarily through the use of wind turbines. A wind turbine can be compared to a fan
operating in reverse: rather than using electricity to produce wind, the turbine uses the wind to generate electricity. Wind flows
over the airfoil-shaped blades of wind turbines, causing lift (similar to the lifting force on airplane wings), causing the turbine
blades to turn. The blades are connected to a drive shaft that turns an electric generator to produce electricity. Wind turbines
will be used to harness the kinetic energy of the moving air over the oceans and convert it to electricity. Offshore winds are less
turbulent (because the ocean is flat relative to onshore topography), and they tend to flow at higher speeds than onshore winds,
thus allowing turbines to produce more electricity. Because the energy produced from the wind is directly proportional to the
cube of the wind speed, increased wind speeds of only a few miles per hour can produce a significantly larger amount of
electricity. For instance, a turbine at a site with an average wind speed of 26 km/h would produce 50% more electricity than at a
site with the same turbine and average wind speeds of 22 km/h. There is a lack of suitable sites on land compared to offshore for
many countries [1]. In sea, the winds are more stable (periods of calm are extremely rare and short) and hence the turbine will
generate electricity more uniformly. Lesser turbulence in sea wind means lower mechanical fatigue load and longer life times for
turbines. In many countries, the offshore resources are enormous and may be several times the national requirements.

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 Wind energy is the fastest growing energy worldwide at about 20 to 30% per year. The worldwide installed capacity of
onshore grid-connected wind power is about 40 GW. Turbine sizes have increased over the past two decades. In the mid 1980s,
the rotor (blades and hub) diameter was about 20 m; today, rotor diameters are 100 m or more (bigger than the wingspan of a 747
aircraft), with the rotating blades covering an area the size of a football field.

A wind park or wind facility is a cluster of wind turbines used for harnessing wind energy. Wind parks have become sound
investments and also cause fewer disturbances to the landscape than scattered solitary turbines. They are also easier and cheaper to
connect to the electricity grid [2].

The first offshore wind facilities were installed in the early 1990s in Europe where there was limited land available for onshore
wind energy production [3]. The Vindeby Facility in Demark (Fig. 1), completed in 1991, has eleven 450 kW turbines that
provide a total capacity of 4.95 MW. Since then, the trend has been to move wind turbines offshore to take advantage of higher
wind speeds; smoother, less turbulent airflows; larger amounts of open space; and the ability to build larger, more cost-effective
turbines. Today, more than a dozen offshore European wind facilities with turbine ratings of 450 kW to 3.6 MW exist offshore in
very shallow (depths of 5 to 12 m) waters. Because of these shallow depths, the offshore turbines installed to date have been
able to use conventional land-based designs with upgraded electrical and corrosion control systems, and foundations (concrete
bases or steel monopads) to anchor them to seabed.

Fig. 1 First offshore wind facility Vindeby in Denmark [4]

The estimated cost of offshore wind energy varies depending on the project. Some studies indicate that the cost of offshore
wind turbine systems is significantly more than land based systems [5]. The higher cost arises from the higher cost of foundations,
installation, operation and maintenance. The typical breakdown of the costs for a wind farm in shallow water is shown in Fig.2.

Fig. 2 Cost breakdown for offshore wind plant in shallow water [5]

2. Offshore Wind Energy Resources

Offshore wind turbines are being used in a number of countries to harness the energy of the moving air over the oceans and
convert, it to electricity. Offshore winds tend to flow at higher speeds than onshore winds, thus allowing turbines to produce
more electricity. Much of this potential energy is near major population (and energy load) centers where energy costs are high
and land-based wind development opportunities are limited. Many offshore areas have ideal wind conditions for wind facilities.

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Denmark and the United Kingdom have installed large offshore wind facilities to take advantage of consistent winds.
Tricklebank et al [6] reports that UK’s commitment towards reducing CO2 emissions can be achieved by development of
renewable energy technologies such as wind. The wind resources in UK are sufficient enough to meet the target of generating 10%
of UK electricity from renewable resources by 2010 and 20% by 2020. Today, just more than 600 MW of offshore wind energy is
installed worldwide, all in shallow waters (<30 m) off the coasts of Europe. Proposed offshore wind projects through 2010
amount to more than 11,000 MW, with about 500 MW each in the United States and Canada, and the remainder in Europe and
Asia.

3. Offshore Wind Energy Technology

Offshore wind facilities today are generally developed and operated as follows. Once a suitable place for the wind facility is
located, piles are driven into the seabed. For each turbine, a support structure and a tower to support the turbine assembly, to
house the remaining plant components, and to provide sheltered access for personnel are attached to the piles. Rotor blades are
made using a matrix of fiber glass mats impregnated with polyester or epoxy. After the turbine (generally a three-bladed rotor
connected through the drive train to the generator) is assembled, wind direction sensors turn the nacelle (a sheet that encloses the
gearbox, generator, and blade hub) to face into the wind and maximize the amount of energy collected (Fig. 3). Wind moving
over the blades makes them rotate around a horizontal hub connected to a shaft inside the nacelle. This shaft, via a gearbox,
powers a generator to convert the energy into electricity [7]

Fig. 3 Wind turbine tower

Offshore turbines have technical needs not required of onshore turbines due to the more demanding climatic environmental
exposure offshore. Offshore turbines look similar to those onshore with several design modifications. These include
strengthening the tower to cope with wind-wave interactions, protecting the nacelle components from sea air, and adding brightly
colored access platforms for navigation and maintenance. Offshore turbines are typically equipped with corrosion protection,
internal climate control, high grade exterior paint, and built-in service cranes. To minimize expensive servicing, offshore
turbines may have automatic greasing systems to lubricate bearings and blades and pre-heating and cooling systems to maintain
gear oil temperature within a narrow temperature range. Lightning protecting systems minimize the risk of damage from
lightning strikes that occur frequently in some offshore locations. There are also navigation and aerial warning lights. Turbines
and towers are typically painted light blue or grey to help them to blend into the sky. The lower section of the support towers
may be painted with bright colors. (e.g. yellow) to aid in navigation and to highlight the structures for passing vessels.

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4. Design Loads
The loads on the structure depend on weight of the turbine blades, the machinery, the weight of the tower and the functional
loads. In addition the environmental loads such as wind, wave and current loads play an important role. Design standards have
been published by various bodies such as American Petroleum Institute, Det Norske Veritas, ISO, Germanisher Lloyd, German
Institute of Standardization, Norwegian Technology Centre and the Department of Energy(UK).

4.1 Wind loads

The wind load applied on the turbine tower comprises of the effects of the direct wind pressure on the tower and the wind
turbine. Therefore in designing the tower, calculations are made to reflect each characteristic load and suitable safety factor.
Loads that occur simultaneously are combined whenever necessary. The wind turbine loads have two components namely
stationary and cyclic. The cyclic loads are aerodynamic loads from a uniform, steady wind speed and the stationery loads arise
from the centrifugal forces. A stationary but spatially uneven flow field over the swept areas causes cyclic load changes on the
turning rotor. Further, the mass forces that result from the rotating rotor blade weight cause periodic, non-stationery loads. In
addition to the stationary and cyclic loads, the rotor is exposed is exposed to non-periodic and random loads caused by wind
turbulence. The variables to be considered are direct wind pressure, gust factor and force coefficient. The static lateral wind
load along the tower height is calculated by the direct wind pressure on the projected area that varies with the diameter. The
wind shear force, the overturning moment along the tower height and the tower deflection along the height are computed using
formulae. If site specific wind loads and directions are used, the design of the tower becomes more economical. Also the optimum
hub height for the location will result in increased production [2].

4.2 Wave and Current loads

Wind tower in sea would be subjected to forces from waves, and water current [8]. When the waves impinge on structures,
their energy is transferred as loads on the structure. The wave forces are calculated for slender structures using simplified linear
theory and based on the Morison equation. The wave loads comprise of the inertia component and the drag component and they
depend on the wave height, wave periods and water depth at the location. Since the wave loads depend on the water depth the
shallow water and deep water structures are influenced by the wave loads. The shape of the structure influences the drag and the
inertia coefficients. The wave loads decrease exponentially towards the sea bottom. The loads due to the water current are
dependent on the square of the velocity of the current and similar to wind loads and calculated using drag coefficients of members.

4.3 Ice Loading

Polar areas are attractive for wind farms since several kilometers of open sea and strong winds are obtained. However severe
environmental actions are present including drifting ice which causes dynamic loading. Conical structures fixed to the towers at
the water level (Fig. 4) promote bending failure of the ice sheet. These measures are adopted for offshore platforms as well [9].

Fig. 4 Conical Structures attached to oil platform [9]

4.4 Dynamic behavior

A designer is required to study the dynamic characteristics of the tower with the help of simulation or modeling to understand
dynamic properties of the tower [10]. It is necessary to understand the extent to which the flexibility in the foundation plays a
role as a design parameter in influencing the dynamic behavior of the tower. The dynamic magnification effects can directly
influence the fatigue loads to be considered in the tower design. It is necessary for the designer to design the tower frequency
such that it avoids excitation of the resonant oscillations that result from rotor thrust fluctuations at the blade passing frequency or
at the blade rotational frequency. Larger and heavier turbines will inevitably experience longer periods of natural oscillation.
Offshore wind turbines are also bigger than onshore turbines (to take advantage of the steadier offshore winds and economies of
scale). A typical onshore turbine installed today has a tower height of about 60 to 80 m, and blades about 30 to 40 m long; most

4
offshore and onshore wind turbines are at the top end of this range. Offshore turbines installed today are generally between 2
and 4 MW, with tower heights greater than 60 m and rotor diameters of 75 to 105 m. Turbines of up to 5 MW are being tested.

5. Pylons for Wind Turbines

Large majority of onshore wind towers have been constructed using tapered steel tubes formed from seam welded rolled plates
with flange bolted connections at the terminations. Taller towers were built up from separate lengths determined by limitations of
transport and lifting. Pylon is the portion between the nacelle and the level of the highest wave crest. The pylon sections are
manufactured in factory under controlled conditions. Diameters larger than 5m and wall thickness greater than 60 mm are required
for deeper water [6].

Steel monopiles have natural frequencies falling comfortably in between the blade passing frequency (2 s) and wave excitation
zone (6 s). Newer taller steel towers will have longer natural periods of oscillation with natural periods in the wave excitation zone
(6 s and above). Thus when larger and heavier turbines are used, the pylons will have longer periods. The blade passing
frequencies generally lie below 2 s.

Concrete has so far been predominant in foundation applications namely to form gravity foundations or pile caps. Only limited
number of pylons has been constructed using concrete, and these are onshore. With increasing height, diameter and loading
concrete may become competitive. Slip forming can be used for constructing tapering towers of any height. Prefabrication is
preferred because of the higher costs of offshore operations and also since in-situ construction takes relatively long time [11].
They are produced onshore in a dry dock and transported to the final location.

6. Typical Support Structures

Support structures of offshore wind towers [12] can be categorized by their configuration and method of installation as
described below. The support structure is anchored to the sea bed using various types of foundations namely Gravity Caissons,
Driven Pipe Pile, Cast in place concrete piles etc. These and their associated water depths are shown in Figs.4 and 5.

Fig. 4 Offshore wind turbine foundation types [13]

6.1 Gravity structure

These foundations resist the over turning loads solely by means of their own gravity [14]. They are typically used at sites
where installation of piles in the underlying seabed is difficult, such as on a hard rock ledge or on competent soil sites in relatively
shallow water. Gravity caissons are typically concrete shell structures. These structures are competitive when the
environmental loads are relatively low and the dead load is significant or when additional ballast can be provided at a reasonable
cost.

6.2 Monopile

This is a simple design in which the wind tower, made of steel pipe is supported by the monopile either directly or through a
transition piece (Fig. 6). The monopile consists of a steel pipe pile up to 6m in diameter with wall thickness as much as 150mm.
Depending on the subsurface conditions, the pile is typically driven into the seabed by either large impact or vibratory hammers,
or the piles are grounded into the sockets drilled into rock. Compared to the gravity base foundation, the monopile has minimal
and localized environmental impact. By far the monopile is the most commonly used foundation for offshore wind turbines in

5
shallow water depths. Monopiles are flexible. When the water depth increases, the required section properties will be governed by
dynamic considerations than by strength and fatigue [15]. They have to be stiffer to avoid large natural periods resulting in large,
heavy and expensive to install structures.

Fig. 5.Offshore wind turbine towers [14]

Fig. 6 Monopile Offshore wind Fig. 7 Guyed Monopile towers [15]

turbine tower [21]

6.3 Guyed Monopile Towers

The limitation of excessive deflection of a monopile in deeper water is overcome by tying the monopile with tensioned guy
wires [15](Fig. 7). Guyed towers have considerable advantages over other alternatives. The dynamic characteristics are better,
they are relatively lighter and economical, and easy to install and remove. As an example, in reference [15] it is shown that a
guyed support structure for a 4.5 MW machine in 50 m water depth is approximately 550 tons, which is less than a third of the
expected weight of an equivalent tower on tripod design. Also a guyed support structure for a 3 MW machine in 20 m water depth
weighed approximately 50% of an equivalent tower-on-monopile design [16].

6.4 Tripods

Where guyed towers are not feasible, tripods can be used to limit the deflections for the wind towers. The pre-fabricated
frame is triangular in plan view and consists of steel pipe members connecting each corner. A jacket leg installed at each corner
is diagonally and horizontally braced to a transition piece in the centre (Fig. 8). The tripod braced frame and the piles are
constructed onshore and transported by barge to the site. These foundations do not require any seabed preparation.

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 Fig. 8 Tripod tower

6.5 Braced Lattice Frame

The lattice frame, which is a modification of the tripod frame, has more structural members. The jacket consists of a 3-leg or
4-leg structure [17] made of steel pipe that is interconnected with bracing to provide the required stiffness.

6.6 Lattice (Truss type) Towers

Truss type structures offer cost advantages since significantly less material is used compared to tubular and tubular jacket
structures. Other advantages include less force from wave, smaller foundation and flexible design. However the manufacturing
costs will be higher. Figure 9 shows Tubular-jacket tower and truss towers. Figure 10 shows the truss substructure used to connect
the tower and foundation in two demonstration 5 MW wind turbines in the Beatrice Project [17][18].

6.7 Suction Buckets

This design consists of a center column connected to a steel bucket through large-reinforced shear panels that distribute the
loads from the centre of the column to the edge of the bucket (Fig. 11). The steel bucket consists of a steel skirt extending down
from a horizontal base resting on the soil surface. The bucket is installed by means of suction and behaves as a gravity
foundation, relying on the weight of the soil cased by the steel bucket. The stability of the system is ensured because there is not
enough time for the bucket to be pulled out of the soil during a wave passage. As the bucket is pulled up, a cavity is formed
between the soil surface and bottom of the bucket which creates a suction pressure that resists the uplift loads.

7
Fig. 9 (a) Tubular-Jacket tower Fig. 10 Beatrice Projects Fig. 11 Suction Bucket tower [6]
(b) Truss tower

6.8 Floating Tension Leg Platforms

These types of structures are essentially deep water structures developed for offshore platforms (Fig. 12). These structures
are floated to the site and submerged by means of tensioned vertical anchor legs. The base structure helps to control the motion
of the system. Installation is simple because the structure can be floated to the site and connected to anchor piles. The structure
can be subsequently lowered by use of ballast tanks and /or tension systems. The entire structure can be disconnected from the
anchor piles and floated back to shore for major maintenance or repair of the wind turbine.

6.9 Spar Type Platforms

Spar platforms are deepwater structures for oil and gas production in water depths of about 100 m (Fig. 13). This concept
can be applied for offshore wind turbines in deeper waters. As the industry is looking for developments towards deeper waters,
this type of structures can be used for offshore wind turbines.

Fig. 12 TLP Offshore wind energy tower Fig. 13. Wind Turbine on a Spar Buoy

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 7. Foundations for Offshore Wind Turbines

The foundations constitute a significant fraction of the overall installed cost (varies between 15% and 40%) [19]. The
foundations for wind turbines have significant differences in comparison to oil platforms. The vertical loadings are much smaller,
the horizontal loads and overturning moments are larger compared to vertical loads, the water depths are smaller and multiple
installations are required. Since the wind farms are located over large area, less detailed site information may be available.

Pile foundations (Fig. 14(a)) and gravity bases are proven technology for offshore applications. Pile foundation can be single
or multiple piles. Pile itself is simple and cheap suited for other than soft material. But they are expensive to install due to the need
for heavy pile driving equipment. Piles are difficult to remove and at the end of its life may have to be cut off at the sea bed level.
Concrete gravity bases are expensive, installed by floating out and suited for soft material. Suction caissons inexpensive, easy
removal and suited for sands and soft clays. The suction caisson (Figs. 14b, 14c) offer economies in installation and removal.

When a caisson is installed the weight of the structure acting on it is insufficient to push it into the sea bed (Fig. 15). When
suction is applied by pumping out the water inside the caisson, this creates a pressure differential which pushes the caisson to its
full depth. Removal of the caisson at the end of the life of the structure is carried out by reversing the installation procedure. When
an overpressure is applied inside the caisson, it pushes out from the sea bed.

Fig. 14 Foundations for offshore developments[17] Fig. 15 Suction assisted installation of a caisson foundation[6]

8. Transport of Wind-Generated Energy

Undersea collection cables connect multiple turbines [20] in the wind facility and transport the electricity from them to a
transformer where the combined electricity is converted to a high voltage for transmission via undersea cables to a substation.
There the electricity is connected to the onshore electricity grid. Alternative approaches, such as using the wind to produce
hydrogen (through the analysis of desalinated seawater), which would be shipped to shore for later use, are also being investigated.

9. Conclusion
1) The wind energy is a pollution free source of energy and it is found that the production cost of wind energy today is
comparable to the cost of other forms of energy, though the production cost was prohibitive in the initial development
stage in the global energy scenario. The offshore wind energy has been exploited in Europe and USA and is expected to
grow substantially in the coming decades.

2) Taking the advantage of the vast developments in offshore constructions in oil and gas, coupled with the success of wind
energy exploitation in land in many countries, offshore wind energy exploitation has good prospects for developments in
future.

Acknowledgments
The encouragement, support and facilities provided by the Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, is gratefully acknowledged.

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