INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

WORKING PARTY ON FOSSIL FUELS

COAL INDUSTRY ADVISORY BOARD

Roadmapping
Coal’s Future

ZERO EMISSIONS TECHNOLOGIES FOR FOSSIL FUELS

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY
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 ROADMAPPING COAL’S FUTURE - 3

INTRODUCTION
Worldwide, the use of coal as an energy source remains crucial to the economies of
many developed and developing countries. Particularly with the latter, as
industrialisation and urbanisation spread and national energy requirements soar, coal
looks set to retain its position as a secure, reliable source of energy, particularly for the
generation of electricity.
Coal-fired power generation accounts for 39% of the world’s total electricity production
and in some countries, such as the USA, Germany, Poland, Australia, South Africa,
China and India, it is very much higher due to its cost competitiveness. While use in
some European countries remains static or is in decline, significant increases in coal-
fired generation capacity are taking place in many of the developing nations, such as
China and India, where large capacity increases are planned to make use of abundant
coal reserves – far more abundant than oil and gas reserves. Coal-fired power plants
have a long working life and, with the extensive investments being made in many parts
of the world, coal is likely to remain an important source of energy well into this
century. In many countries, policies to increase the diversity of energy supplies are
being promoted to improve security within truly competitive energy markets. In this
respect, coal has an important role to play – providing coal users are able to respond
positively to the environmental challenges associated with the use of fossil fuels.

Climate change is an issue of global proportion. There is a body of evidence

and increasing acceptance that a number of greenhouse gases are responsible
for the global warming that leads to this change, the most significant contributor
being carbon dioxide (CO2) produced by the burning of fossil fuels. The latter
provide a large proportion (around 80%) of the world’s energy needs and will
continue to do so for the foreseeable future (Figure1). To ensure that substantial
reductions in atmospheric CO2 emissions can be made during the present century
and beyond, widespread deployment of technological solutions will be required.

The International Energy Agency1 (IEA) is playing a major role in addressing

this subject. Recognising the potential of CO2 capture and storage technologies,
the IEA’s Working Party on Fossil Fuels2 (WPFF) launched its strategy for Zero
Emissions Technologies (ZETs) in 2001. With this concept, almost all
conventional pollutants produced by the burning of fossil fuels will be eliminated
and used in by-products or, in the case of CO2, captured and stored in geological
formations, thus preventing its emission to atmosphere.

1 Further details on the IEA’s activities can be obtained at www.iea.org

2 The IEA’s WPFF can be contacted via its Chair: Barbara.McKee@hq.doe.gov
4 - ROADMAPPING COAL’S FUTURE

The IEA Coal Industry Advisory Board3 (CIAB) has prepared this brochure on
technology roadmapping to complement a series of earlier WPFF/IEA brochures4
that examine various aspects of its ZETs strategy. This brochure focuses on the
technology pathways leading to ZETs based on clean coal technologies (CCTs)
– a significant, but feasible, leap forward that demands a co-ordinated response
by industry and governments.

Figure 1 World primary energy demand5

7,000

6,000

5,000

4,000
Mtoe

3,000

2,000

1,000

0
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030

11% 11%
2% 23% 2% 22%
coal
5%
oil 7%
gas
nuclear
hydro 21% 25%
other
36% 35%

2000 2030

3 The CIAB website (www.ciab.org.uk) contains useful publications on coal-related matters

4 All seven public information brochures are available to download from the publications section of
www.iea.org (click on “Browse all IEA papers by year and subject”, then select “Clean Fossil Fuels”
in the subject search and “2003” in the year search)
5 World Energy Outlook 2004, Paris: International Energy Agency, 2004
 ROADMAPPING COAL’S FUTURE - 5

CHALLENGES AHEAD
Although coal remains hugely important for the economies of many countries, a major
challenge is to reduce its environmental impact. Effective methods already exist for
the control of some pollutants such as sulphur and nitrogen oxides (SO2 and NOx)
and particulates, but, despite dramatic improvements made during the past decade,
there remains continued pressure to reduce emissions still further. In the future, there
will be growing pressure to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2).
There is much concern about the quantities of CO2 emitted from fossil fuel-burning
power plants for electricity production. Indeed, these are responsible for around one-
third of total global emissions of CO2 and are candidates for the application of emerging
CO2 capture and storage techniques. Although, with a very few exceptions, such control
techniques have not yet been adopted, the technological solutions exist that could be
adapted and applied for reducing CO2 emissions from coal-fired power plant. One
significant challenge is large-scale application at an affordable cost. Identifying
appropriate power technologies and effective monitoring of the stored CO2 constitute
additional challenges. Moreover, a specific legal framework has to be created and market
rules established that would allow CO2 abatement costs to be recovered.
As electricity demand continues to rise, developing and developed countries alike can
be expected to continue using their abundant coal reserves; if action is not taken, CO2
levels will rise. The eventual goal must be to achieve the deployment of energy
technologies that produce little or no emissions. It is widely accepted that no single
technology will be capable of maintaining a secure, cost effective energy supply in
IEA countries, and providing a greater share of the world’s population with access to
modern energy services, while making a substantial reduction in GHG emissions.
The energy systems of tomorrow will rely on a mix of advanced, clean, efficient
technologies for energy supply and use. Energy efficiency demands further effort and
the use of renewable energy will grow substantially from its small base; but, to meet
the predicted increase in global energy demand, whilst reducing emissions, will also
require a concerted effort to limit CO2 emissions from fossil fuel use. Coal will continue
to play a major role in energy supply over the coming decades, with strong growth in
developing countries. In order to reduce its environmental impact, development and
application of Clean Coal Technologies (CCTs), designed to minimise the emissions
of various undesirable species from coal-fired power plants, should continue. Further
development of CCTs will lead to a number of technology options (so-called Zero or
Near-zero Emissions Technologies – ZETs) that emit very low levels of all emissions.
6 - ROADMAPPING COAL’S FUTURE

RD&D PLANNING WITH TECHNOLOGY

ROADMAPS
The environmental challenges, coupled with concerns about the future security
of energy supplies, have stimulated renewed interest in development programmes
for CCTs. In major coal-producing and coal-using countries, efforts have been
made to consider how these CCTs can be used as bridging technologies, leading
to ZETs-based plants that produce virtually no undesirable emissions by 2020.
This brochure presents an overview of the technical assessment and planning
work that is being undertaken by key organisations in these countries, all of
whom have the common aim of seeing ZETs developed and deployed using
coal. The brochure draws heavily on a review6 of this work by the IEA Clean
Coal Centre7, often known as technology roadmapping.

As part of the process leading to the deployment of ZETs, many pathways are being
reviewed to identify the most appropriate technology strategies and the underpinning
research, development and demonstration (RD&D) needs. These forms of assessment
are commonly termed Clean Coal Technology Roadmaps and are intended to describe
the measures necessary to realise the different technologies, having regard to policy
aims and market needs. Recently, a number of such roadmaps have been prepared,
based on a variety of candidate technologies – some based on progressive improvements
to conventional power generation systems, and others on more advanced concepts. An
example roadmap is outlined in the Annex to this brochure.

COMMON MESSAGES FROM THE

TECHNOLOGY ROADMAPS
All technology roadmapping exercises begin by examining what needs to be done –
what are the external drivers and do these result in clear technology performance targets.
Next, the current situation or the starting point must be understood since this may
impose constraints on the final step which is the definition of technology pathways.
Using this final step, a programme of RD&D work can be initiated to achieve the
technology performance targets.

6 Henderson, C., Clean Coal Technologies Roadmaps, report no. CCC/75, London: IEA Clean
Coal Centre, October 2003
7 Further details on the IEA Clean Coal Centre can be obtained at www.iea-coal.org.uk
 ROADMAPPING COAL’S FUTURE - 7

What needs to be done?

Within the power generation sector, natural gas remains coal’s main competitor in
regions where gas is available and natural gas combined cycle (NGCC) plants offer
certain environmental benefits, notably half the CO2 emissions at the point of use;
although supply chain emissions, particularly where liquefied natural gas (LNG) is
used, complicates this simplistic comparison. Yet, bringing more distant reserves of
gas to market is proving expensive. So, despite its environmental challenges, coal
often has a substantial cost advantage which translates into lower power prices and
hence a higher standard of living and social development in many coal-using countries.
Nevertheless, if coal-fired systems are to be improved, then NGCC performance will
remain one of a number of benchmarks for comparison.

Table 1 Emissions and possible targets for selected coal-fired power generation
technologies
SO2 emissions NOx emissions Particulates
Technology (as NO2, mg/m3) (mg/m3)
(% removal)
Pulverised Coal Combustion
(PCC) with Flue Gas 90–98 100–200 (SCR) 10–50
Desulphurisation (FGD)
Circulating Fluidised Bed 90–98 <200–400 <50
Combustion (CFBC)

Integrated Gasification 98–99 <125 <1

Combined Cycle (IGCC)

PCC – target for ZETs 95–98 <125 <10

IGCC – target for ZETs 99 <25 <1

Natural Gas Combined Cycle

n/a <30 (SCR)-300 0
(NGCC)

In the case of SO2, emissions from gas-fired systems are generally negligible, therefore
levels produced from coal-fired equivalents will need to be reduced effectively to zero.
Already, both PCC (pulverised coal combustion) and IGCC (integrated gasification
combined cycle) plants can be configured for very low emissions of SO2 (see Table 1).
For NOx emissions, again, coal will need to reduce levels to be comparable with NGCC.
At present, the application of selective catalytic reduction (SCR) to coal-fired plant
can produce NOx levels similar to those from gas-fired plant, and coal-fired systems
based on IGCC technology promise even better performance. NGCC systems produce
only very fine, aerosol particulates with no dust; it will be important for pollution
control technologies to follow the downward trend achieved at coal-fired plant in recent
years.
8 - ROADMAPPING COAL’S FUTURE

Of increasing importance will be the control and minimisation of CO2 from all sources,
including coal which accounted for 38% of CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion
in 2002. Indications are that removal rates of 80–90% should be feasible from new
coal-fired plants and these are regarded as target levels for near-zero emissions plant
based on both PCC and IGCC technologies. It will be important to achieve these goals,
and to tackle CO2 emissions from both oil and gas use as well, if atmospheric CO2
concentrations are to be stabilised. In this respect, technologies to capture and store
CO2 are as applicable to future gas-fired plants as they are to coal-fired plants. Achieving
lower emissions will add to the cost of energy supply. How this cost is recovered remains
uncertain, but ultimately consumers should expect to pay more for their energy needs.

The starting point

The starting point for ZETs technologies is current state-of-the-art clean coal
technologies8. There are many to choose from, some based on combustion and others
on gasification of coal. The most relevant in meeting short- to medium-term needs
are:
■ supercritical pulverised coal combustion (PCC);
■ circulating fluidised bed combustion (CFBC); and,
■ integrated gasification combined cycles (IGCC).

At present, the candidates most likely to provide the basis for ZETs technologies are
supercritical PCC and IGCC. With the latter, there may be opportunities for combining
the technology with fuel cells. In Japan, the EAGLE integrated gasification combined
cycle fuel cell (IGFC) project is testing this concept. An 8 MWe pilot plant is now in
operation at Wakamatsu, based around an oxygen-blown, two-stage, entrained-flow
gasifier. The goal of this long-term, development project is to generate electricity in
a solid oxide fuel cell fed with hydrogen from the coal gasifier.

8 For an in-depth review of CCTs, see: Henderson, C.; Clean Coal Technologies, report no.
CCC/74, London: IEA Clean Coal Centre, October 2003
 ROADMAPPING COAL’S FUTURE - 9

Figure 2 View of the Japanese EAGLE pilot plant

GASIFIER

AIR
SEPARATION
UNIT

GAS
SULPHUR CLEAN-UP
RECOVERY

These state-of-the-art technologies can be adapted to enable the capture of CO2 and
so prevent its release to atmosphere. In some instances, well-developed processes can
be used; in other cases, further development is needed before CO2 capture could be
incorporated into new power plant projects. Once captured, the CO2 must be transported
and stored. A growing number of reference projects in the oil and gas industry suggest
that these are already becoming accepted practices.

Technology pathways
Having established that ZETs may have an important role in the coming years, what
will be the best route forward in achieving their successful deployment? In practice,
no single system will be capable of meeting all future requirements, hence a portfolio
of technologies will be necessary. By not concentrating on a single candidate technology,
the associated technological risks can be minimised, and of equal importance, possible
routes forward can be tailored to meet the different situations prevailing in different
parts of the world; the structure of electricity generation sectors and future national
power demands are likely to vary significantly between countries and regions. So, there
are likely to be several possible routes forward towards the adoption of ZETs, with
some variants being more applicable to the industrialised nations and others focused
more on developing countries.
With the clear need for more than one candidate ZET, there is a corresponding number
of possible routes forward, some based on PCC and others on IGCC. In both cases, there
are likely to be some distinct steps in taking forward today’s coal-based systems to
achieve zero emissions. For systems based on PCC, the pathways shown in Figure 3
can be envisaged.
10 - ROADMAPPING COAL’S FUTURE

Figure 3 PCC-based ZETs pathway

now 2005 -10 2010 -15 2015 on

increasing efficiency, lower emissions, lower costs

Advanced Ultra Advanced Ultra

Supercritical PCC Supercritical PCC
demo commercial
non-CO2 capture non-CO2 capture
Mercury activities:
characterisation
monitoring
removal methods

SO2 activities:
deeper removal
new systems Advanced
PCC-based ZETs Advanced
~45% efficiency (LHV)

first commercial PCC-based ZETs

Supercritical PCC

NOx activities: retrofits and new plants

deeper removal
without SCR

Particulates removal:
move to <10mg/m3

CO2 capture activities:

chemical scrubbing demo

CO2 capture activities:

pressure swing adsorption Ion Transfer Membrane
membranes Oxygen Plants
oxy-coal demo commercial

CO2 capture from plant flue gases may be based on one of the technologies under
development or currently in use within industry. Inevitably, CO2 capture imposes
additional costs and an energy penalty on the plant, so the most likely candidates for
future use will be those whose impact on plant economics and efficiency has been
minimised. In the shorter term, the most promising capture technology may be based
on systems that scrub CO2 from plant flue gases using amine solutions. Such systems
are already used within some industrial sectors, although they were not developed
specifically for treating the mix of gases that characterise the exhaust or flue gas from
coal-fired power plants. However, the potential to retrofit such systems to the large
number of existing coal-fired units justifies the significant development effort needed
before this can be viewed as a viable option. Commercial developments, currently taking
place, are aimed at increasing PCC plant efficiency above current, state-of-the-art levels,
hence the impact of fitting a CO2 capture system to new plant would be less than
retrofits to existing units. In the medium term, alternative systems, such as those using
membranes to separate CO2 from flue gas, could be developed and deployed. The
outcome of RD&D programmes over the next few years will determine which options
can be developed and refined to be most economic.
The other main possibility for ZETs-based PCC is where coal combustion takes place
in an atmosphere comprising recycled flue gas mixed with oxygen (oxy-coal combustion).
With conventional, PCC-based systems, the flue gas contains only a relatively low
concentration of CO2; however, with oxy-coal, a more concentrated stream of CO2 is
 ROADMAPPING COAL’S FUTURE - 11

produced, easing its capture. Although the overall thermal efficiency could be higher
than that of more conventional plants with CO2 scrubbed from the flue gas, there would
still be an efficiency penalty as production of the necessary oxygen consumes a
considerable amount of energy. Further development of the technique is required and
efforts are under way, notably in Canada, Australia and Europe – again demonstrating
the need for early RD&D to provide economic options for the future.
With regard to other emissions from PCC-based plant, equipment is available to
routinely achieve low levels of particulates and SO2, and low levels of NOx are achievable
via several routes. In recent years, concern over mercury emissions has increased to the
extent that there is a move in the USA to reduce emissions by 70% before 2018. The
impact of this challenge on coal-fired generation is uncertain, but removal technologies
are being developed and, in any event, mercury emissions fall substantially with the
application of conventional pollution control techniques such as flue gas desulphurisation
(FGD).
Moving on to examine ZETs systems based on IGCC technology, Figure 4 illustrates
some key steps.

Figure 4 GCC-based ZETs pathway

now 2005 -10 2010 -15 2015 on

increasing efficiency, lower emissions, lower costs

IGCC Power Plants

commercial
non-CO2 capture

Hot gas clean-up activities:

Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC)

particulates
sulphur
mercury
commercial-scale demonstrations

Advanced
NOx activities: IGCC-based ZETs IGCC-based ZETs
reduce emissions early, full-scale commercial plants
power plants various technologies
multi-products

CO2 capture activities:

chemical scrubbing demo

CO2 capture activities: Ion Transfer Membrane

pressure swing adsorption Oxygen Plants
membranes commercial

As with PCC systems, there are a number of different variants of the technology, some
based on a dry coal feed and others on a wet feed of coal-water slurry. There are three
generic types of gasifier that could be applied (entrained flow, moving bed and fixed
bed) all of which have different operating characteristics. Such IGCC systems are
12 - ROADMAPPING COAL’S FUTURE

acknowledged widely as having a lower environmental impact than combustion-based

electricity generation technologies and this will influence future strategies formulated
to ensure that coal-fired plant remains environmentally acceptable and commercially
viable in the coming years. Nevertheless, there are far fewer IGCC plants operating
today than PCC units, as the technology is perceived to be expensive, complex and
relatively unproven. By their very nature, some first-generation IGCC demonstration
plants were costly and complex, although the next generation should see significant
improvements in this respect. In fact, a number of IGCC plants are now operating with
a high degree of reliability and experience gained with these will help to provide a
firm foundation for IGCC-based ZETs which offer a number of potential advantages:
■ CO2 capture imposes a lower energy penalty than for capture from PCC plant,
since the CO2 content of the pre-combustion, syngas stream is greater and hence
more easily captured than from a flue gas.
■ The CO2 can be captured at a pressure suitable for pipeline transport, hence
reducing CO2 compression costs.
■ A “sequestration ready” IGCC plant can be constructed today and CO2 capture
added at a later date, thus offering a valuable option to developers and investors
faced with uncertain CO2 emission costs.
■ Straightforward, chemical processing of the syngas, coupled with CO2 capture,
yields hydrogen suitable for combustion in gas turbines, direct conversion to
electricity in fuel cells or other uses, such as transport.
■ Developments in gas turbine technology will boost efficiency levels and fuel cells
offer the prospect of even higher efficiencies.
■ Very low levels of SO2 emissions can already be achieved and NOx levels are
comparable to those of natural gas fired combined cycles.
■ Solid wastes produced are usually in a vitrified, inert form, thus easing their
disposal.

There are a number of developments that have the potential to increase the efficiency
and attractiveness of IGCC providing they are supported under RD&D programmes.
These include the successful application of systems to remove particulates and other
species from the syngas whilst still hot, and the deployment of a new, advanced method
for generating oxygen (ion transport membrane technology – ITM). The latter has the
potential to generate oxygen more cheaply than current processes, hence it could find
application in a number of power generation cycles.
In a further development of IGCC systems, there may be the possibility of the
simultaneous removal of CO2 with the hydrogen sulphide (H2S) present in syngas.
These gases could then be co-disposed of in a single step. This technique is presently
being carried out commercially in North America where so-called acid gas injection
is being employed as an aid to recovering oil from mature fields. Such co-disposal offers
the potential of lowering the costs of CO2 capture.
 ROADMAPPING COAL’S FUTURE - 13

Worldwide, as efforts gather pace to reduce emissions of CO2 and other species
from coal-fired plant, there is increasing interest in the use of hydrogen as an
energy carrier. IGCC has the potential for co-producing electricity with other
products such as hydrogen, chemicals and liquid fuels. For example, in the USA,
the FutureGen project is a major $1billion, 10-year, US Department of Energy
initiative that aims to demonstrate a near-zero emissions 275 MWe coal-fuelled
IGCC that incorporates hydrogen production and CO2 separation followed by
geological sequestration. This prototype plant will serve as an engineering
laboratory for the development of clean power, carbon capture, and coal-to-
hydrogen technologies. Operations are expected to commence in 2011 with
the plant producing one million tonnes of CO2 each year. It will be required
to achieve a level of at least 90% CO2 abatement, with the potential for levels
approaching 100%.

ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
Moving from existing technologies to ZETs equivalents that incorporate a CO2 capture
stage, will clearly have major cost implications for systems developed from either
PCC or IGCC. It has been estimated that for the former, plant capital costs would be
56–82% greater than current systems, and for the latter, some 27–50% higher9. A
large proportion of the increased capital costs are associated with the capture of CO2.
Future technological advances will play an important role in the economics of a particular
system, and there remains potential for considerable cost reductions to be made for
more advanced forms of PCC- and IGCC-based technologies coupled with a range of
candidate capture technologies. At present, comparisons of the efficiency penalty
associated with the different ZETs systems suggests that IGCC is ahead, although the
economics of future (ultra supercritical) PCC cycles with CO2 capture are not yet
clear.

9 Henderson, C. and Topper, J. M., Clean coal technologies and the path to zero emissions, 7th
International Conference on Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies, 5-9 September 2004,
Vancouver, BC, Canada; University of Regina, Natural Resources Canada, IEA Greenhouse Gas
R&D Programme, 2004
14 - ROADMAPPING COAL’S FUTURE

In the USA, where considerable progress is being made on the development of ZETs,
ambitious cost targets have been set for power systems with CO2 capture and storage:
■ CO2 abatement cost <$10/tCO2 (compared to current estimates of over
$30/tCO2)10.
■ <10% increase in cost of electricity for >90% removal of CO2 by 202011.
■ “Carbon-free” hydrogen production from coal at a cost of $3–5/106Btu
($2.84–4.74/GJ or $0.41–0.68/kg) after 201512.

CONCLUDING REMARKS
Fossil fuels will remain the main pillar of the world’s energy supply for decades to
come. Over this same period, CO2 constraints are likely to become an ever greater
feature of energy policies. ZETs are the only option available today that have the
potential to respond to these imperatives in a material way. The roadmapping process,
outlined in this brochure, shows how these technologies might be introduced.
In regions with the most stringent environmental controls, where fuel costs are expected
to be high, and with competitive electricity markets, IGCC appears to be an attractive
proposition. However, zero-emissions plant based on PCC technology will be of greater
importance in retrofit situations, where existing plants could be upgraded simultaneously
with the installation of a CO2 capture system, as well as in the economies of major
developing nations, where electricity demand is expected to continue growing at a
significant rate.
Hydrogen is considered to have the potential to provide clean energy at the point of
use, although there are many technical and economic challenges to be overcome before
it becomes a practical link in the energy supply chain. Fossil fuels, notably coal and
natural gas, coupled with CO2 capture and storage, could provide the transitional
pathway to the longer-term objective of a hydrogen economy based on renewable energy.
In the drive towards the development and deployment of coal-fired plants that emit
virtually no unwanted emissions (using Zero or Near-zero Emissions Technologies –
ZETs), it is clear that several strategies must be pursued:
■ Coal-fired systems based on both pulverised coal combustion (PCC) and integrated
gasification combined cycles (IGCC) will need to be included in a comprehensive
ZETs response to reducing CO2 emissions.

10 National Energy Technology Laboratory, Carbon Sequestration Technology Roadmap and

Program Plan, Office of Fossil Energy, US Department of Energy, March 12, 2003
11 DOE-CURC-EPRI Clean Coal Technology Roadmap, US Department of Energy, Coal Utilization
Research Council and Electric Power Research Institute, January 2003
12 ibid. and Hydrogen Co-ordination Group, Hydrogen Program Plan – hydrogen from natural gas
and coal: the road to a sustainable energy future, Office of Fossil Energy, US Department of
Energy, June 2003
 ROADMAPPING COAL’S FUTURE - 15

■ ZETs based on PCC may be of particular importance in countries such as China

and India, that have large and growing fleets of PCC-based power generation
plant.
■ ZETs systems based on IGCC technology have the advantage of capturing CO2
before combustion takes place, resulting in a smaller efficiency penalty and the
potential to supply large volumes of hydrogen. Efficiency improvements, through
improved gas turbine designs and the use of fuel cells, can be expected in the
future.
■ Potentially, PCC-based ZETs could close the gap with IGCC-based systems if the
advanced steam conditions, currently under development, were employed.

Only with effective RD&D programmes, over the next few years, will it be possible
for these strategic options to be developed and refined to the point where they can be
adopted commercially as part of the solution to global warming and climate change.
16 - ROADMAPPING COAL’S FUTURE

ANNEX – EXAMPLES OF CLEAN COAL

TECHNOLOGY ROADMAPS
Many countries that host coal-related industries – mining, power generation, steel
production – recognise that coal has a major role to play in their future and are planning
accordingly. Programmes have been formulated to provide a framework for future
developments, especially in the case of coal-fired power generation, with detailed
technology roadmaps appearing in Australia, Canada, the European Union, Germany,
Japan, the UK and the USA, as listed below. By way of example, a description of a
RD&D roadmapping exercise in Australia follows.

Table 2 Organisations around the world engaged in technology roadmapping

Australian Coal Association COAL21

Australia Cooperative Research Centre for Greenhouse Gas CO2CRC
Technologies
Canadian Clean Power Coalition CCPC
Canada Natural Resources Canada – CANMET Energy CO2TRM
Technology Centre

European Commission – Sixth Framework

European Union PowerClean
Programme

Germany Federal Ministry of Economics and Labour COORETEC

Center for Coal Utilization CCT strategy

New Energy and Industrial Technology
Japan Development Organization (NEDO) / Electric EAGLE
Power Development Co Ltd (EPDC)

Department of Trade and Industry CAT strategy

United Kingdom Advanced Power Generation Technology Forum APGTF vision

Office of Fossil Energy, Department of Energy FutureGen

(DOE)
Federal Energy Technology Center, National Vision21
USA Energy Technology Laboratory
Coal Utilization Research Council / Electric Power CCT roadmap
Research Institute / DOE

Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum CSLF

International IEA Clean Coal Centre topical reports
 ROADMAPPING COAL’S FUTURE - 17

Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage: Research,

Development and Demonstration in Australia –
a technology roadmap13

Background
As part of the growing effort to control global CO2 emissions, Australia is committed
to limiting CO2 emissions to 108% of 1990 levels by 2008-12. However, the country’s
economic prosperity relies heavily on the continued use of its abundant reserves of fossil
fuels. Encouragingly, half of Australia’s CO2 emissions come from stationary sources,
and so have the potential to be captured and stored. Amongst the sources considered
sequesterable, power stations are the most significant, with smaller contributions
from the petroleum industry, oil refineries, the steel industry, non-ferrous metal refining,
and other industrial processes. Of the CO2 produced by power stations, the vast majority
emanates from brown and black coal-fired plants.

Figure 5 Sources of CO2 from power stations in Australia

gas
oil
6.1%
1.4%

brown coal black coal

32.0% 60.5%

Australia’s future energy needs suggest that emissions of CO2 from stationary sources
will rise significantly during the next twenty years and beyond. The greater use of fossil
fuels, particularly coal and natural gas, is inevitable. Whilst renewable energy
technologies will meet part of the increased demand, fossil fuels will remain essential
if demand is to be met in full. In view of this, a range of measures will be needed to
enable Australia to attain its emission targets: increased energy efficiency, decreased
carbon intensity, and development and application of CO2 sequestration techniques.
Of the latter, CO2 capture followed by geological storage is considered to be a promising
and materially significant option.

13 Carbon Dioxide Capture & Storage: research development and demonstration in Australia – a
technology roadmap, September 2004 update, publication no. 2004/008, Canberra:
Cooperative Research Centre for Greenhouse Gas Technologies, September 2004
(www.co2crc.com.au)
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The adoption of such measures opens up the possibility of integrating capture and
storage systems with advanced energy systems such as IGCC and oxyfuel-based power
generation, alongside syngas and hydrogen production. In fact, advanced fossil fuel-
based energy systems, coupled with CO2 capture and storage, could provide a pathway
to the hydrogen economy and, based on current estimates, this appears to be the most
cost-effective way forward. With this in mind, the Cooperative Research Centre for
Greenhouse Gas Technologies (CO2CRC) has addressed the role of CO2 capture and
storage technologies via a multi-level roadmapping process that leads from the acceptance
and application of the technologies for low emission electricity generation from fossil
fuels to the wide-scale production of hydrogen – initially from fossil fuels with CO2
capture and storage, but ultimately from renewable sources.

CO2CRC roadmapping exercise

The process was taken forward through the formulation and definition of a technology
roadmap, specific to Australia. This is structured on the following basis:
Level 0 Develop Skills and Knowledge – an assessment of preliminary activities
over the previous five years that had contributed to the development
of technical capability and knowledge. This provided the foundation
for Level 1.

Level 1 R&D – a detailed roadmap aimed at defining R&D and technology

directions for the next 5–10 years. It required detailed technology
assessments and gap analysis for R&D related to CO2 capture, storage
and utilisation.

Level 2 Demonstration/Application – incorporates broad assessments of

potential demonstration and application opportunities through pilot-
scale RD&D projects, medium-scale demonstration projects, and large-
scale commercial projects offering R&D opportunities over the next
10–20 years.

Level 3 Advanced Systems – development of a 20- to 30-year roadmap towards

the hydrogen economy, stressing, in particular, the key role of CO2
capture and storage. It assumes that such an economy would initially
be fossil fuel based, but with the longer-term objective of moving to
renewable energy.
 ROADMAPPING COAL’S FUTURE - 19

Figure 6 An emission-free vision for the future

A focal point for CO2 capture and storage RD&D

in Australia
The technology roadmapping exercise proved to be a valuable exercise for Australian
research organisations, industry and government alike. It proved useful in identifying
technology gaps and priorities, identifying expertise, strengthening national research,
development and demonstration (RD&D) collaboration, enhancing opportunities for
international R&D co-operation, and defining an Australian strategy for carbon
sequestration technologies.
In the lead-up to the hydrogen economy, the country possesses significant natural
advantages in terms of abundant fossil fuel reserves and a massive CO2 storage capacity.
However, much of the technological development and most of the market-pull will
come from the larger OECD countries, in particular, the USA. Therefore, Australia
needs to position itself to work closely with other countries in the development of
zero emissions technologies.
Indeed, the findings of the exercise suggest strongly that it will only be through intense
co-operative action at the national and international level that progress will be made
towards undertaking essential R&D, developing new technological options, and
implementing new carbon sequestration technologies on the enormous scale required
to have a significant impact on the levels of CO2 being emitted to the atmosphere.
The CO2CRC technology roadmap has been instrumental in identifying and
highlighting present and future challenges alongside the opportunities and possible
20 - ROADMAPPING COAL’S FUTURE

routes forward. It helped provide the Australian Government with enough clarity and
confidence to launch a A$1.5billion programme in 2004 that will stimulate the drive
towards a cleaner future based on a variety of viable, large-scale technologies.

Figure 7 Commercial and research projects leading towards the hydrogen

economy (Level 3 technology roadmap)

In Salah (Algeria), Snohvit (Norway) and Gorgon (Australia) are commercial, natural gas
exploitation projects where the in-situ gas contains high concentrations of CO2. For environmental
reasons, re-injection of this CO2 underground is seen as a pre-requisite for all these projects.
The experience gained with CO2 storage through these projects will be very beneficial to future
gas-to-liquid (GTL) projects that exploit remote gas reserves and also to subsequent coal-
based power generation projects with CO2 capture as proposed, for example, by the US
Department of Energy in the case of its FutureGen project. Together, these commercial projects
offer a pathway towards the “hydrogen economy” where large supplies of hydrogen come, firstly,
from fossil fuel sources and, ultimately, from renewable energy sources. A variety of underpinning
research projects will be required to ensure commercial projects benefit, both technically and
economically, from emerging technologies and refinements to existing technologies. For example,
further work is needed to understand the CO2 storage potential of enhanced oil recovery
(EOR) and, in the case of enhance coalbed methane (CBM) gas production, considerable
uncertainties remain to be resolved.