ELE8331 Power System control. N.

Magaji

Dr. N. Magaji

ELE8331
Chapter 3
Power System Security
 System Security
ELE8331 Power System control. N. Magaji

• The main concern and important operating factor in power

system operation
▪Minimize the operating cost
▪Maintain system security
• Power System Security(PS)
• The system must be operated so that any credible event will not put
the system in a dangerous condition
• PS is the probability of the system's operating point remaining
within acceptable ranges, given the probabilities of changes in the
system (contingencies) and its environment.
• Example: A generator must be taken off-line because of auxiliary equipment
failure
 System Security
ELE8331 Power System control. N. Magaji

• Operating State of Power System

• Preventive, restorative and Emergency state
 The preventive state is actually the normal state.
 The emergency state means some of the components
operating limits are violated;
The control objective in the emergency state is to relieve
system stress by appropriate actions.
 Restorative state is the condition when some parts
(or whole) of the system has lost power.
The control objective in this state is to steer the system to a
normal state again by taking appropriate actions
 System Security
ELE8331 Power System control. N. Magaji

●Four
major functions of system security are:-
◦System Monitoring
◦Contingency Analysis
◦Preventive and corrective actions
◦Security-constrained Optimal Power Flow
Analysis

●System Monitoring
 This is most important function of the four.
(i) Provides the operators with up-to-date information on
the condition of the power systems.
 System Security
System Monitoring (cont.)
ELE8331 Power System control. N. Magaji

(ii) critical quantities are measured

• voltages, currents, power flows, and the state of circuit breakers and
switches
• frequency, generator outputs, and transformer tap positions
(iii) The measurements are sent to the control central via the telemetry
system
(iv) Computers collect the telemetric data, processes and stores them, and
displays information for the operators.
◦ It check incoming information against pre-selected limits and annunciate
alarms in the event of overloads or out-of-limit voltages
 System Security
System Monitoring (cont.)
ELE8331 Power System control. N. Magaji

(v) State estimation combines the telemetric system data with the system’s
network model to produce the “best estimate” of the current power system
condition or state.(see Chapter 4)
◦ Measurements, metering devices, and the communication system contain
sources of noise and random errors
(vi) The system normally combined monitoring functions with supervisory
control functions to forms the Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
(SCADA) system.
The SCADA system allows a few operators to monitor the generation and
high-voltage transmission systems and to take action to correct overloads or
out-of-limit voltages.
 System Security
ContingencyAnalysis
ELE8331 Power System control. N. Magaji

 Allows the system to be operated defensively, many problems in

power systems can cause serious trouble within a rapid time
period and the human operator can not respond fast enough.
 Often the cascading failures
 Models possible system troubles before they arise
 Using a model of the power system, a computer
algorithm predicts future operating states and gives alarms
to any potential overloads or out- of-voltage limits
• Tools for contingency analysis
• DC power flow
• Linear sensitivity factors
• Line outage distribution factor
 Preventive and corrective actions
ELE8331 Power System control. N. Magaji

• Preventive and corrective actions is a Major

components of security assessment
Preventive and corrective actions
Preventive and corrective actions are needed to maintain a secure
operation of a system or to bring it to a secure operating state.
Corrective actions such as switching of VAR compensating devices,
changing transformer taps and phase shifters etc. are mainly
automatic in nature, and involve short duration.
Preventive actions such as generation rescheduling involve longer
time scales. Security-constrained optimal power flow is an example of
rescheduling the generations in the system in order to ensure a secure
operation.
 System Security
Security-constrained Optimal FlowAnalysis
ELE8331 Power System control. N. Magaji

● Analysis provides a solution to the optimal dispatch of generation

with a large number of system constraints
• Security analysis involves the power system to operate
into one of four operating states
I. Optimal Dispatch
◦State of the system prior to any contingency.
◦Optimal with respect to economic operation, but may not be
secure.
II. Post Contingency
State of the power system after contingency has occurred. This
condition has a security violation: line overload, voltage limit
 System Security
Security-constrained optimal flow analysis(cont.)
ELE8331 Power System control. N. Magaji

III. Secure Dispatch

◦State of the system at no contingency with dispatch
schedule corrections to account for security
violations
IV. Secure Post Contingency
◦State of the system when the contingency is applied to
the base- operating condition-with correction.
◦State after a contingency with no resulting security
violations
◦Illustration of states
 System Security
Security-constrained optimal flow analysis(cont.)
ELE8331 Power System control. N. Magaji

◦Illustration of states
◦Optimal Dispatch
◦Example: Suppose the trivial power system consisting
of two generators, a load, and a double circuit line, is
to be operated with both generators supplying the
load
 System Security
Security-constrained optimal flow analysis(cont.)
ELE8331 Power System control. N. Magaji

• Optimal Dispatch(cont.)

●Assume that the system is in economic dispatch, that is 500MW

from unit 1 and the 700MW from unit 2 is the optimum
dispatch.
●Further, assert that each circuit of the double circuit line can
carry a maximum of 400MW, so that there is no loading
problem in the base-operating condition.
 System Security
Security-constrained optimal flow analysis(cont.)
ELE8331 Power System control. N. Magaji

• Post Contingency
• State of the power system after contingency has occurred.

• Postulate that one of the two circuits making up the

transmission line has been opened because of a failure.This
results in post contingency.
• The overload line may cause a cascaded outage.
• Secure Dispatch
 System Security
Security-constrained optimal flow analysis(cont.)
ELE8331 Power System control. N. Magaji

Secure Dispatch (Cont.)

• Now there is an overload on the remaining circuit.

• Assume for this example that we do not want this condition to
arise and that we will correct the condition by lowering the
generation on unit 1 to 400 MW.
• Secure Post Contingency
 System Security
Security-constrained optimal flow analysis(cont.)
ELE8331 Power System control. N. Magaji

• Secure Post Contingency(cont.)

Consider the same contingency,

resulting in no violations ● Programming tools that make
control adjustments to the pre-
Remarks contingency operation to prevent
●Post-contingency line violations in the post
contingency condition are called
overloading is avoided by “security- constrained optimal
adjusting the generation power flows” or SCOPF
on unit #1 and unit #2 ● The programs can take account
before an event of many contingencies and
oEssence of security calculate adjustments to
corrections generator MW, generator
voltages, transformer taps,
interchange,etc,
 Factors Affecting Security
ELE8331 Power System control. N. Magaji

●Within the design and economic limitations, the system operators try
to maximize the reliability of the system at any given time.
●Usually a power system is never operated with all the equipment in
service at one time
◦ Occurrence of Failures
◦ Maintenance
●The operators are concern with possible events that cause trouble
on a power systems
◦Focus on two major types of events: transmission line outages and
generation unit failures.
◦Line outages and unit failures cause changes in power flows and bus
voltages, which impact the remaining system equipment.
 State Estimation
ELE8331 Power System control. N. Magaji

State Variables
• voltage Magnitudes of all buses 1   2 
   
• Relative Phase Angles at of all buses  2  3
3   
• The inputs to an estimator are    
   
imperfect power system x   n   x   n 
   
measurements of voltage magnitude V1  V1 
and power, VAR, or ampere flow V  V 
 2
 2
quantities.    
V  V 
 n  n

• Total Number of states =2n-1

 State Estimation
LEAST SOUARES ESTIMATION
ELE8331 Power System control. N. Magaji

x is a vector of n random variabres x1 x2, ..., xn

y is another vector of m (> n) random variables y 1, y2, ..., ym
and both are related as

y Hx  r
   (4.1)
known unknown unknown
The variable r is assumed to be zero mean, therefore
y  Hx (4.2)
y and x represent the expectation ,

Where x is the true state vector [V1,V2,…Vk, θ1, θ2,… θk]

y is the jth measurement -H relates the jth measurement to states
- r is the measurement error
The method of least square estimation (LSE), estimate the
vector x from y.
Assume that x̂ rcpresent the desired estirnate of x so that ŷ
given by the equation.
ˆ  Hx
y ˆ (4.3)
The error y of the estimation of y is then given bv
y y y
ˆ (4.4)
 State Estimation(cont.)
ELE8331 Power System control. N. Magaji

The estimate is defined to the LSE if it is cornuted

by rninirnizing the estimation index J given by
J  y y
T
(4.5)
Combining equation (4.3) and (4.4)One gets the
following expression for the index
J  yT y
ˆ   y- y
(4.6)
J =  y- y ˆ   y y-y(Hx)+x
ˆ ˆ Hy- x
ˆ HHx
ˆ
For minimizing J = f(k), we must satisfy the tollowing
condition.
J
gradJ xˆ  0
ˆ
x (4.7)
Equation 4.7 reduce to
HHx-
ˆ H'y =0 (4.8)
This equation that is eqn. 4.8 is called the 'normal
equation' and may be solved explicitly for the LSE of
the vector i as
x̂=  HH 
1
H'y (4.9)
 State Estimation(cont.)
ELE8331 Power System control. N. Magaji

Example 1
ln order to illustrate the method of LSE, let us consider the
simple problem of estimating two random variables x1, and x2
by using the data for a three dimensional vector y.
1 0 
Assume H=   1 1 


0 1  
 The matrix H ' H is then given by
 2 1 
2 1
 H 'H   
1 3 3
H 'H   
1 2  1 2 
 3 3 

It is easy to form the vector H'y and combining this with the itrverse of
(H'H), the following estimate of x is obtained:

xˆ   H ' H 
1

y
   
2
3
y1  1  y2  y3  
3 
 1
     
  3 y1  3 y2  3 y3 
2 1 
 State Estimation(cont.)
4.3 Weighted Least Square Estimate
ELE8331 Power System control. N. Magaji

It is often desirable to put different weightings on the

different components of y since some of the
measurements may be more reliable and accurate than
the others and these should be given more importance. To
achieve this we define the estimation index as;
J  y T Wy (4.10)
Where W is a real symmetric weighting matrix of
dimension m x m. This is often chosen as a diagonal
matrix for simplicity.
Based on this factor equation 4.8 is modified to be WLSE of
the vector as
x̂=  HWH  H'Wy
1
(4.11)
This pertains to minimization as the hessian 2HWH is a non-
negative definite.
x̂=Gy (4.12)
Where G = (H'W H)-1 H’ W .
Therefore from equation 4.1
x̂=GHx  Gr (4.13)
ˆ
and E(x)=E(x) ln equation 4.11 it is assumed that the error
r is statistically independent of columns of H and the
vector r has a zero mean. An estimate that satisfied
equation 4.11 is called an unbiased estimate. This implies
that the estimation error ls zero on an averase.

Therefore x=Gr
ELE8331 Power System control. N. Magaji

100 MW
M12 60 MW

65 MW
M13
Bus2
Bus1

40 MW

M32

35 MW

5 MW Bus3
ELE8331 Power System control. N. Magaji Case1-Measurement with accurate meters)

100 MW
M12 60 MW

65 MW Only two of these

M13 meter readings are
required to calculate
Bus2
Bus1 the bus phase angles
and all load and
40 MW generation values
Per unit Reactances
fully.
(100 MVA Base):
X12=0.2 M32
X13=0.4
X23=0.25
35 MW

Meter Location 5 MW Bus3

 Case-1
Suppose we use M13 and M32 and further suppose that M13
ELE8331 Power System control. N. Magaji

and M32 gives us perfect readings of the flows on their

respective transmission lines.
• M13=5 MW=0.05pu
• M32 =40 MW=0.40pu
• f13=1/x13*(1- 3 )=M13 = 0.05
• f32=1/x32*(3- 2)=M32 = 0.40
Since 3=0 rad
• 1/0.4*(1- 0 )= 0.05
• 1/0.25*(0- 2) = 0.40
1 =0.02 rad
2 =-0.10 rad
ELE8331 Power System control. N. Magaji Case2-result of system flow.

100 MW
M12 62 MW

65 MW
M13
Bus2
Bus1

37 MW
Per unit Reactances
(100 MVA Base):
X12=0.2 M32
X13=0.4
X23=0.25
Mismatch
35 MW
6 MW (7.875MW) Bus3
Meter Location
ELE8331 Power System control. N. Magaji

Again if we use only M13 and M32.

• M13=6 MW=0.06pu
• M32 =37 MW=0.37pu
• f13=1/x13*(1- 3 )=M13 = 0.06
• f32=1/x32*(3- 2)=M32 = 0.37
Since 3=0 rad
• 1/0.4*(1- 0 )= 0.06
• 1/0.25*(0- 2) = 0.37
1 =0.024 rad
2 =-0.0925 rad
ELE8331 Power System control. N. Magaji

Case-2:Again if we use only M12 and M32.

• M12=62 MW=0.62pu
• M32 =37 MW=0.37pu
• f12=1/x12*(1- 2 )=M12 = 0.62
• f32=1/x32*(3- 2)=M32 = 0.37
Since 3=0 rad
• 1/0.2*(1- 2 )= 0.62
• 1/0.25*(0- 2) = 0.37
1 =0.0315 rad
2 =-0.0925 rad
ELE8331 Power System control. N. Magaji

Thank you