SENSORS

A sensor is a device used to measure a particular physical property, such as acceleration,
pressure, temperature, and position. A sensor made out of graphene ternary composite is used
to measure small organic or inorganic molecules such as caffeine, hydrogen, methane,
ethanol, etc. it is also used to measure physical properties and detect certain drugs. Because
of this, it has a wide range of applications there. The organic molecule acetone has been
measured or detected by two graphene-based ternary nanocomposites- zinc oxide
nanopolyhedra/S, N: graphene quantum dots/polyaniline ternary nanohybrid and GO-SnO2-
TiO2 ternary nanocomposite. [1]Comparatively, the former sensor has the highest response in
a shorter response time. The ZnO/S, N: GQDs/PANI film sensor demonstrated n-type
sensing properties toward acetone gas. It was also found that the sensor resistance reduces
with increasing acetone concentration. It also shows good recovery and reproducibility
characteristics. On testing the sensor’s response to other organic molecules like methane
along with acetone, it showed notable selectivity towards acetone. It is also stable for a long
time without any change in measurements. Humidity testing on this sensor proved that
humidity does not affect the measurements. The bending test results tell us that this device is
flexible and robust. It is also observed that this sensor requires a very low analyte
concentration (in ppb) and shows higher response levels [1]. The latter sensor (GO-SnO2-
TiO2) was observed and it was seen that it showed the highest response at 200 0C. This
particular combination of nanocomposite was better than the GO-SnO2 combination and GO-
TiO2 combination because of a better synergistic effect compared to the other two. This
sensor is specifically used to detect acetone from the breath of the patients. The device
exhibited the best response between 0.25 and 2.5 ppm. On increasing further, the
performance decreased ever so slightly. Quick response and recovery time and satisfactory
repeatability were observed. It also demonstrated a good selectivity to acetone as opposed to
other VOCs. But the response of the sensor decreases at humidity. This is significant property
to note as a human breath has 95% humidity [2]. The alkaloid caffeine found in many
beverages type plants can be detected by Gold-Polyindole-Reduced Graphene Oxide Ternary
Nanocomposites. It was observed that the increasing concentration of caffeine showed an
increase in response. It also has a low detection limit and a wider detection range. The
synergistic effect also brings us higher selectivity, repeatability, and higher electrocatalytic
activity. This nanocomposite also has excellent long-term stability. The sensor was also
tested for possible interferences from other molecules present in the plant. But it was
concluded that it has high selectivity towards caffeine [4]. The phenolic acid caffeic acid
present in plants can be detected by Au@a-Fe2O3@RGO Ternary Nanocomposites.
Fe2O3@RGO modified GCE had a low overpotential (0.21 V) for caffeic acid detection,
with a wide linear response range of 19-1869 μM, a sensitivity of 315 μA μM-1 cm-2, and a
detection limit of 0.315 mM. this ternary composite is environmentally friendly [5]. The toxic
molecule catechol is detected by rGO-Fe3O4-Au ternary nanomaterial modified electrode.
This electrode showed excellent electrocatalytic properties, higher reproducibility, higher
selectivity, long term stability, and it can be used to detect catechol in real samples. The
sensitivity of this sensor has yet to be developed to industrial standards [6]. The sensor based
on Fe3O4-SnO2-Gr ternary nanocomposite can be used to detect two organic molecules
found in human beings- dopamine and uric acid. This sensor again has excellent selectivity,
sensitivity, reproducibility, it also has low detection limits. Satisfactory results were obtained
from real samples of serum, urine, etc [7]. GNS–MoS2–AuNPs based ternary composite is
used to detect folic acid. It showed wide linear range (50 nM–1150 μM), high sensitivity
(0.8753 μAμM–1 cm–2) and low detection limit (38.5 nM). The other advantages of the electrode
are its reproducibility, sensitivity, selectivity, stability, repeatability, fast response time and low-
cost fabrication. It also exhibited high electrocatalytic properties and enhanced the overall
performance [8]. The common organic molecule glucose found in all living organisms can be
detected by NiCo2O4/N-rGO/IL nanocomposite. It exhibited low detection limit (0.18 μM),
wider linear range (0.001–4.555 mM), and high sensitivity (3.76 mAmM -1cm-2) [9].
Formaldehyde can be detected by reduced graphene oxide/SnO2 nanosheets/Au nanoparticles
ternary composites. The optimum temperature was found to be 200 0C. it also exhibited higher
sensitivity, highest response (32), lowest response/recovery time which is 2/5 seconds. The
study was done comparing this nanocomposite with others. The synergistic effect of reduced
graphene oxide/SnO2 nanosheets/Au nanoparticles proved to be better than all others [10].
The gas responsible for global warming can be detected by SnO2@reduced graphene oxide-
polyaniline ternary nanohybrid. The sensing mechanism depends on the hetero p-n junctions
and π-π interactions in the hybrid. It was performed on 100-10000ppm of methane. The
combined effect of this nanohybrid has enhanced sensing performance and detection limit
which is 26.1% to 92.3% toward 100–10,000 ppm methane at room temperature [11]. Along
with organic molecules, ternary nanocomposites based on graphene can also be used to sense
or detect inorganic molecules. The inorganic molecule ammonia is detected using RGO-
TiO2-Au ternary composite film. This sensor again showed a better sensing performance,
higher reproducibility rates when the atmosphere is illuminated with UV light and lower
resistance to ammonia sensing irrespective of UV. It also ensured to give us long term
stability, robust and reliable device. This sensor demonstrated a very good detection of trace
ammonia. When compared to other inorganic molecules, it showed specificity towards
ammonia rather than hydrogen, etc [3]. Hydrogen sensors were fabricated based on
rGO/ZnO/Pt ternary system. Platinum of thickness 2nm loaded into rGO and ZnO showed a
higher response and a higher selectivity to very low concentrations of hydrogen. The
particular combined effect of reduced graphene oxide, zinc oxide and platinum is essential for
the enhanced sensing performance towards hydrogen [12]. Hydrogen peroxide can be
detected by reduced graphene oxide-nafion@silver6 nanohybrid modified electrode. This
electrode exhibited higher selectivity for hydrogen peroxide in the presence of NaCl, urea,
glucose, DA, UA, and AA. It is also observed to be highly stable, highly reproducible and
accurate and precise. The combination of individual components in this ternary nanohybrid
had proved to enhance the overall sensing performance [13]. Hydrogen sulphide is detected
by two ternary nanocomposite based sensors- Ag-decorated MoSe2/reduced graphene oxide-
based ternary composite and SnO2/rGO/PANI. The results indicated that it shows higher
selectivity, improved response/recovery time, higher response and reproducibility towards
hydrogen sulphide gas with a limit of detection of 0.1ppm at room temperature. The
synergistic effect of the individual components in this nanohybrid contributes to enhanced
sensing performance [14]. The latter sensor SnO2/rGO/PANI based shows higher
reproducibility, selectivity, response, improved response/recovery rates, long term stability,
selectivity with a limit of detection of 0.05 ppm at room temperature [15]. Heavy metal ions
can also be detected using a graphene-based ternary nanocomposite. This can be used in
detecting pollutants in water bodies and soil. Polyaniline-alanine-reduced graphene oxide
based sensor is used for detecting Pb2+, Cu2+, and Cd2+. This exhibited a wide linearity range
from 100 nM–0.08 nM and quite lower detection limits of 0.03 nM, 0.045 nM and 0.063 nM
for Cd2+, Pb2+, and Cu2+ ions. The result also indicated that this sensor shows higher
reproducibility, selectivity, practical applicability [16]. Certain drugs given for the treatment
of human diseases are also detected by graphene-based ternary nanocomposite sensors.
Doxorubicin, a drug given for chemotherapy is detected by silver
nanoparticles/carbondots/reduced graphene oxide ternary dendritic nanocomposites. The
synergistic effect contributed to the enhanced electrochemical signal leading to better sensing
performance. This showed that the sensor had higher selectivity and sensitivity, over potential
interferences. Also, high reliability, reproducibility, increased analytical performance were
observed in real samples making it suitable [17]. Another drug chlorpromazine which is used
to treat psychotic disorders can be detected by iron-graphene oxide/honeycomb-like ZnO
ternary nanohybrids. The sensor was able to perform at a detection limit of 0.02 μM and the
linear concentration ranges of 0.02 to 172.74 and 222.48 to 1047.74 μM. In addition, it also
exhibited higher selectivity in the presence of other potential interference, reproducibility,
improved response/recovery time, long term storage stability, enhanced performance in real
samples making it ideal for usage [18]. Already mentioned electrode modified by reduced
graphene oxide, magnetite nanoparticles and gold nanoparticles can be used to detect
hydroxyquinone which is used to treat conditions related to hyperpigmentation. The same
properties are exhibited by this sensor as it did for detecting catechol [6]. Physical properties
like humidity are detected by various graphene-based ternary nanocomposites.
Pt/ polythiophene/reduced graphene oxide is one among the two. This sensor has high
flexibility so it can be used as a wearable sensing device, good sensitivity and linearity.
Experimental results also revealed that hydronium ions dominate the conductivity in this
sensor [19]. Graphene Oxide/Tin Oxide/Polyaniline Ternary Nanocomposite can also be used
as a humidity sensor. The sensor exhibited high levels of sensitivity 29.1 Hz/%RH over the
level of detection of 0%-97%RH, faster response/recovery time 2/7 seconds, along with
increased stability and repeatability making it the most ideal for humidity sensing [20]. The
sensors detecting various properties and molecules require sensitivity, selectivity,
reproducibility, faster response/recovery time, long-term stability to be perfect. All the
mentioned sensors fulfil that.