Literary Piece in England

“BEOWULF”
By Laurence Nowell
 BACKGROUND OF THE AUTHOR

LAURENCE NOWELL

Laurence Nowell (1530–c.1570) was one of the foremost scholars of Anglo-Saxon in the
sixteenth century, the period in which Old English studies began. Nowell, whose manuscript
Vocabularium Saxonicum was the first Old English to early modern English dictionary, stood in the
vanguard of this movement. Working closely with his friend William Lambarde (1536–1601), Nowell’s
work with Old English legal manuscripts helped to lay the groundwork for everything that later common
lawyers knew (or claimed they knew) about early medieval English law.

Life

Nowell lived at a time when the humanist movement was in full swing, and this cultural
background no doubt influenced his eventual approach to the texts of Old English laws. Nowell
graduated with a BA from Christ Church, Oxford in 1552. He spent the next several years travelling
intermittently throughout England, Ireland and the Continent. His travels probably both inspired and
were in turn inspired by his interest in cartography; the manuscript maps of Britain and Ireland that he
went on to produce in the mid-1560s would be the most accurate of any similar maps to date.

Sometime in 1562 or 1563, Nowell was employed by Queen Elizabeth I’s secretary and
one of the most powerful men in England, Sir William Cecil (later Lord Burghley), as a tutor to Cecil’s
ward, Edward de Vere, the seventeenth earl of Oxford. Nowell lived in Cecil’s house from that time until
1567, even after his duties as a tutor were completed; Carl Berkhout speculates that Cecil employed him
as a ‘scholarly factotum’.1 Cecil not only collected manuscripts himself, but had connections to other
collectors such as archbishop of Canterbury Matthew Parker and dean of Canterbury Nicholas Wotton; it
seems probable that Cecil’s influence opened doors for Nowell’s Anglo-Saxon studies by smoothing his
way in borrowing manuscripts. Nearly all of Nowell’s manuscripts and notes concerning the study of Old
English date from his time in Cecil’s house. While residing there, Nowell would also have come into
contact with several prominent English humanists and writers of the day, such as Roger Ascham and
Arthur Golding, placing his studies at the heart of Tudor political and literary culture. In 1567, Nowell left
England to travel on the Continent and seek out manuscripts there. He did not return from this journey,
and in 1571 the court of requests ordered that his bequests should be distributed to his heirs.
Legal studies

From the first, Nowell’s interest in Old English and early medieval texts centred on
historical and legal materials. Although he left notes in both the Beowulf manuscript (which he owned)
and the Exeter Book, he made no copies of texts from either of these books, and scarcely used them for
his efforts in Old English lexicography. The earliest manuscript that witnesses Nowell’s interest in Anglo-
Saxon laws, British Library, Additional MS. 43703, provides a good example of his methods, and of his
importance to early modern studies of Old English law. Add. MS. 43703 is largely a copy of British
Library, Cotton Otho B.xi, a manuscript which suffered severe damage in the Cottonian Library fire in the
eighteenth century. Nowell’s transcription of this manuscript preserves (among other historical and legal
texts) a copy of the Laws of Alfred and Ine. Nowell corrected and annotated this text, at times offering
readings from other manuscripts or providing Latin translations of words from the Quadripartitus,
twelfth-century attempt to translate Old English laws into Latin. However, a few of his corrections were
his own suggestions, sometimes followed by ‘opinor’ (I think). Mechanical copying of manuscripts was
not enough; Nowell, in his quest for complete versions, consulted not only all the manuscripts he could
find (as humanist practice dictated) but developed his own sense of what the laws should be.

BACKGROUND OF ENGLAND

Land

England is bounded on the north by Scotland; on the west by the Irish Sea, Wales, and the
Atlantic Ocean; on the south by the English Channel; and on the east by the North Sea.

Relief

England’s topography is low in elevation but, except in the east, rarely flat. Much of it consists
of rolling hillsides, with the highest elevations found in the north, northwest, and southwest. This
landscape is based on complex underlying structures that form intricate patterns on England’s geologic
map. The oldest sedimentary rocks and some igneous rocks (in isolated hills of granite) are in Cornwall
and Devon on the southwestern peninsula, ancient volcanic rocks underlie parts of the Cumbrian
Mountains, and the most recent alluvial soils cover the Fens of Cambridge shire, Lincolnshire, and
Norfolk.

People of England

Ethnic groups and languages

The English language is polyglot, drawn from a variety of sources, and its vocabulary has been
augmented by importations from throughout the world. The English language does not identify the
English, for it is the main language of Wales, Scotland, Ireland, many Commonwealth countries, and the
United States. The primary source of the language, however, is the main ethnic stem of the English: The
Anglo-Saxons, who invaded and colonized England in the 5th and 6th centuries. Their language provides
the most commonly used words in the modern English vocabulary.

Traditional regions

Although England is a small and homogeneous country bound together by law, administration,
and a comprehensive transport system, distinctive regional differences have arisen from the country’s
geography and history. It was natural for different groups of the population to establish themselves in
recognizable physical areas. In the north, for example, the east and west are separated by the Pennines,
and the estuaries of the Humber, Thames, and Severn rivers form natural barriers. The eight traditional
geographic regions—the South West, the South East (Greater London often was separated out as its
own region), the West Midlands, the East Midlands, East Anglia, the North West, Yorkshire, and the
North East—often were referred to as the standard regions of England, though they never served
administrative functions. In the 1990s the government redrew and renamed some regions and
established government development agencies for each.

Economy of England

The economy of England was mainly agricultural until the 18th century, but the Industrial
Revolution caused it to evolve gradually into a highly urbanized and industrial region during the 18th
and 19th centuries. Heavy industries (iron and steel, textiles, and shipbuilding) proliferated in the
northeastern counties because of the proximity of coal and iron ore deposits. During the 1930s the
Great Depression and foreign competition contributed to a decrease in the production of manufactured
goods and an increase in unemployment in the industrial north. The unemployed from these northern
counties moved south to London and the surrounding counties. The southeast became urbanized and
industrialized, with automotive, chemical, electrical, and machine tool manufactures as the leading
industries. An increase in population and urban growth during the 20th century caused a significant drop
in the acreage of farms in England, but the geographic counties of Cornwall, Devon, Kent, Lincolnshire,
Somerset, and North Yorkshire have remained largely agricultural.

CULTURE AND TRADITIONS OF ENGLAND

Britain is full of culture and traditions which have been around for hundreds of years.
British customs and traditions are famous all over the world. When people think of Britain they often
think of people drinking tea, eating fish and chips and wearing bowler hats, but there is more to Britain
than just those things.

Daily life and social customs

Historically, English daily life and customs were markedly different in urban and rural areas.
Indeed, much of English literature and popular culture has explored the tension between town and
country and between farm and factory. Today, even though the English are among the world’s most
cosmopolitan and well-traveled people, ties to the rural past remain strong. Urbanites, for example,
commonly retire to villages and country cottages, and even the smallest urban dwelling is likely to have
a garden.

Tourism and cultural landmarks

Tourism plays a significant part in the economic life of England. In 2018, the United
Kingdom as a whole was the world's 10th most visited country for tourists, and 17 of the United
Kingdom's 25 UNESCO World Heritage Sites fall within England.
England is the largest of the four "home nations" that make up the United Kingdom. It is also the most
populous of the four with almost 52 million inhabitants (roughly 84% of the total population of the UK).
On the island of Great Britain, Scotland sits to the north of England and Wales is to the west. Northern
Ireland (also part of the UK) and the Republic of Ireland lie across the Irish Sea to west of England (and
Wales). France and the Channel Islands are across the English Channel to the south, and to the east is
the North Sea.

Afternoon tea

Traditionally, High Tea would be had as a full evening meal, whereas Afternoon Tea was a
lighter meal taken earlier in the afternoon only by the upper and middle classes of society, the idea
being popularized by Anna Russell, Duchess of Bedford in the 1840s. A cream tea includes a pot of tea
and scones (or buns called splits) served with jam and clotted cream from Devon or Cornwall,
sometimes accompanied by dainty finger sandwiches, with fillings such as cucumber and smoked
salmon.

Religious Beliefs

In 1998, approximately 10 percent of the population claimed to be atheists and 15 percent

said they were agnostics, while 20 percent said they believed in God. In 1991, about 25 percent of
inhabitants claimed to believe in astrology and good luck charms, and 42 percent believed in fortune-
telling and faith healing. The major religious traditions are Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism,
Judaism, and Buddhism. In recent decades, so-called pagan or cult religions have included Wicca,
shamanism, heathenism, druidry, goddess religion, the Unification Church, and Transcendental
Meditation.

Sport

England has a strong sporting heritage and many sports were codified by the English, and then
spread worldwide, including badminton, cricket, croquet, football, field hockey, lawn tennis, rugby
league, rugby union, table tennis and thoroughbred horse racing. In the late 18th century, the English
game of rounder’s was transported to the American Colonies, where it evolved into baseball.
Association football, cricket, rugby union and rugby league are considered to be the national sports of
England.

THE LITEARY PIECE

Despite its popularity during the previous few centuries, Beowulf, written by some
anonymous author, is stated to have emerged between the period from 975AD to 1025AD. The whole
manuscript is spread over a few pages comprising 3,182 lines. The storyline presents a Geats hero,
Beowulf, who comes to help the Danish king, Hrothgar, to fight against the monster, Grendel. Not only
he slays the monster but also attacks the monster’s mother to seal his victory and goes to Geatland to
live a peaceful and comfortable life. However, when he gets old, he hears about a dragon and finally dies
of wounds when battling and ultimately killing the dragon. The poem celebrates the victories as well as
mourns the death of the brave king.

Beowulf probably was composed in England sometime in the eighth century ad and
written down circa1000 ad by a literate scop (bard) or perhaps a Christian scribe who was possibly
educated in a monastery. The poem was created in the oral-formulaic tradition (or oral poetic method),
probably developing over a period of time with roots in folk tales and traditional stories until a single,
very talented poet put it in something very near its current form.

Beowulf is the longest and greatest surviving Anglo-Saxon poem. The setting of the epic is
the sixth century in what is now known as Denmark and southwestern Sweden. The poem opens with a
brief genealogy of the Scylding (Dane) royal dynasty, named after a mythic hero, Scyld Scefing, who
reached the tribe's shores as a castaway babe on a ship loaded with treasure. Scyld's funeral is a
memorable early ritual in the work, but focus soon shifts to the reign of his great-grandson, Hrothgar,
whose successful rule is symbolized by a magnificent central mead-hall called Heorot. For 12 years, a
huge man-like ogre named Grendel, a descendant of the biblical murderer Cain, has menaced the aging
Hrothgar, raiding Heorot and killing the king's thanes (warriors). Grendel rules the mead-hall nightly.

Beowulf as Epic

Scholars debate almost everything about Beowulf, including the question of whether it
should be considered an epic at all. An epic is a long narrative poem, composed in an elevated style,
dealing with the trials and achievements of a great hero or heroes. The epic celebrates virtues of
national, military, religious, cultural, political, or historical significance. The word "epic" itself comes
from the Greek epos, originally meaning "word" but later "oration" or "song." Like all art, an epic may
grow out of a limited context but achieves greatness in relation to its universality. Epics typically
emphasize heroic action as well as the struggle between the hero's own ethos and his human failings or
mortality.

Beowulf as History

One point to remember is that the poem is not history. In a way, Beowulf's world runs
parallel to history. Although it rarely refers to historical facts, the setting is similar to reality in Denmark
and Sweden in the fifth and sixth centuries, the time of the action in the poem. The social structure of
the comitatus did exist; and the most dominating rituals in the poem, the funerals near the beginning
and at the end of the epic, have been confirmed by archaeological discovery.

The most famous of these was the Sutton Hoo dig in East Anglia in 1939. Sutton Hoo was a
burial ground for one or more East Anglian kings in the early seventh century. Its contents include a ship
burial reminiscent of the funeral for Scyld Scefing near the beginning of Beowulf and somewhat like the
final resting place of Beowulf himself. Buried with the ship were various gold coins and pieces of armor,
including an impressive helmet, a representation of which is used for the cover of Howell D. Chickering,
Jr.'s paperback translation. Other artifacts include both pagan and Christian symbols, indicating the
fusion of cultures in England approaching the time of the composition of the poem. We might
remember that Pope Gregory, who served from 590 to 604, encouraged Christian missionaries to absorb
pagan tradition into Christian ritual in order to promote a smooth transition for the pagans.

LESSONS FROM THE PIECE

The following are the lessons that I’ve learned fron the piece;

1. Face your demons. Beowulf shows us that the best way to deal with frightening and complex
demons, in our society or in our lives, is not to run away, not to hide. Confront the demons, go
to their innermost lairs, fight them head-on and crush them!
2. Be humble in victory, more so during setbacks. Don’t be foolhardy like in the early part of the
movie, when Beowulf tries to lie or create excuses about supposedly fighting sea monsters as
the cause of his defeat in a swimming race across the ocean. Perhaps his account was partly
true, but it seems the warrior was embellishing or exaggerating his exploits. We are humans and
shouldn’t be ashamed of our occasional setbacks; in fact it is even better to maintain humility in
our most glorious triumphs.
3. Be faithful to your spouse. The Danish King Hrotgar and his successor Beowulf had succumbed
to the near-fatal error of infidelity, with costly long-term emotional and even other life-
threatening adverse consequences.
4. Don’t judge a book by its cover. The Danish king and our Viking hero Beowulf failed to heed the
wisdom of this old adage: that we shouldn’t be easily fooled or swayed by mere physical beauty
as exemplified by the utterly destructive but physically seductive monster mother played so
convincingly by Jolie. Physical beauty is only skin deep; what matters most is a person’s
character, heart, values and intentions.
5. Never leave behind unfinished business. In wars or in other endeavors, we shouldn’t slacken or
be tempted to languor in our half-baked successes. Never be content with only half or partial
efforts. We should give our all, our very best. Win or lose, we should meet our challenges and
never leave unfinished business behind, in the same way that Beowulf did when he killed
Grendel but didn’t destroy its more evil mother.
6. To slay demons, strike decisively at the heart. The words of King Hrotgar, which Beowulf
embraced in his final battle. The most effective way for us to destroy demons — whether in
myths or in our lives — is to decisively focus on the problem. When solving or confronting
problems, we shouldn’t be distracted by side issues or peripheral matters, but sift through the
mess and strike at the heart of the matter.
7. It is best to conquer one’s self. More than subduing armies or slaying monsters, the epic life of
the Viking hero Beowulf shows us that the greatest and most difficult challenge is to conquer
our own selves — our inner demons of pride, overconfidence, sloth, human frailty and weakness
for temptation. In the penultimate near-fatal clash of Beowulf, he had to vanquish a monstrous
adversary brought about by his own past hubris.
8. Leaders should inspire. If we are to be leaders among our peers, in our families, in our
communities or in nation-states, we should be first in battling at the frontlines like the fearless
and resolute Beowulf. We shouldn’t be last in the fight but first in enjoying the spoils, but true
leaders should have the spirit of self-sacrifice and lead the way. Great leaders like Beowulf
should inspire courage, faith and indomitable hope.
9. Never lose hope; victory is our destiny. We should emulate the overpowering positive attitude
of Beowulf. While the Danish kingdom of Heorot sank into despair, when even their king, queen
and other so-called leaders were cowering in fear, Beowulf showed up with invincible faith, sure
of success. We should vigorously slay the demons of doubt and fear. We are not hapless victims
of fate. We should never lose hope in our life battles, no matter how difficult or bruising our
struggles, no matter how life-threatening or cruel the odds. God has created all of us for a
purpose and to have meaningful lives. We’ll soon flourish. We should believe that success is our
destiny!
 LITERARY TECHNIQUES OF LAURENCE NOWELL

In the novel Beowulf; literary devices are used. These literary devices are alliteration, assonance,
caesura, and kenning.

Poetic Devices in Beowulf

Beowulf is an example of Anglo-Saxon poetry that is distinguished by its heavy use of

alliteration. Simply put, alliteration is the repetition of initial sounds of words. For example, notice the
initial h sounds in the following line: "The harrowing history haunted the heroes." In the original
Beowulf, alliteration is used in almost every line. A line of the poem actually consists of two half-lines
with a caesura (pause) between them. Usually, spacing indicates that pause. In the following example,
notice how the words of the first half-line alliterate with each other and the first word of the second
half-line:

839 ferdon folc-togan feorran ond nean

839 chieftains came from far and near

Sometimes the alliteration is more complicated and has been the subject of many
advanced studies. The point for beginning students is that alliteration is as important in Beowulf as
rhyme is for some later poets. Beowulf has no consistent pattern of rhyme, although occasional internal
rhyme sometimes is effective and seems more than accidental.

Imagery in the poem is vivid and often fun, and frequently related through the use of
kennings. Put simply, kennings are compound expressions that use characteristics to name a person or
thing. One of the most popular examples is hronrade. Literally, the word means "whale-road"; the
kenning, then, is for the sea or ocean, a thoroughfare for the whale. One of the strengths of the
Chickering facing-page translation is that it often repeats the kennings literally. Sometimes even a
beginning student can find the word in Anglo-Saxon, on the opposing page, for comparison. Following
are some other examples of kennings:

Kenning Literal Translation Meaning

hand-sporu hand spike Grendel’s talon
Word-hord word hoard vocabulary
Ban-cofan bone box a person’s body

Another device that modern readers might notice is the use of litotes, which are figures of
speech in which a positive statement is made by the negative of its opposite. It is a form of
understatement that is none too subtle. We might say, for example, "Abraham Lincoln was not too bad
a President" when we mean to convey that he was a great President. When describing Grendel's mere
(or pool), King Hrothgar says (1372) it is "Not a pleasant place!" It is, in fact, filled with horror.

Although modern works often contain poetic devices such as the simile, there are only a few
similes in Beowulf. Simile often is described as a comparison between two objects, people, or ideas
through the use of a comparative such as "like" or "as." One simile occurs in line 218 when the poet tells
us that the ship went over the sea "like a bird." A more original, complex, extended simile (2444 ff.)
compares the feelings of King Hrethel with those of a father whose son is on the gallows, the "likeness,"
or similarity, implied by the first line.
Writing Style of Beowulf

The writing style of the epic, Beowulf, by Seamus Heaney is quite plain and simple. The
language, however, is rich with different types of images and other literary devices. The most prominent
feature of this version is its terseness and conciseness interspersed with compound words such as
“bone-house” and “whale-road.” Its alliterative verses create a melody, making it a fit read for
gatherings as the use of two syllables in each half-line enriches its melodic impacts. Yet, it preserves its
grandiose style that is fit for such classical epics.

THEME WITH SUBSTANTIAL EXPLANATION

1. Heroic Code: Beowulf shows the heroic code of living and dying with honor that has been
prevalent during the Anglo-Saxon age. The character of Beowulf shows that bravery, courage,
and battling the demons and dragons win praise from the subjects and royals. When Beowulf
expresses his desire to battle Grendel and settles the scores, he wins popularity in Denmark, and
more so when he kills his mother too. The same goes when he dies in the last battle against the
dragon. Thus he follows the heroic code and sets another example of bravery, chivalry, courage,
and sacrifice.

2. Good against Evil: Beowulf shows good versus evil through the character of Beowulf. Grendel
kills the Danes for nothing, forcing Hrothgar to seek assistance from Beowulf who becomes a
paragon of power as well as bravery. Later, the Geat leaves for his land and locks horns with the
dragon when he is old to show that he has fought the evil during his youth and could fight if
again when old even if he dies.

3. Loyalty: Beowulf shows the theme of loyalty through Beowful and Unferth. When Hrothgar, the
Danish king, faces the evil of Grendel and his mother, he accepts Beowulf’s offer. However, his
own warrior, Unferth, is hellbent on making Beowulf fail. His taunts to Beowulf during the feast
shows his prejudice toward the king. On the other hand, Beowulf’s companion Wiglaf stands in
contrast to him that he supports Beowulf when death is staring in his face and yet he does not
flee.

4. Bravery: Beowulf shows the theme of bravery through King Hrothgar, Beowulf, and even Wiglaf.
Beowulf’s offer to King Hrothgar to fight against Grendel is based on partly bravery and partly
desire to repay his debt of providing shelter to his father. He even battles the dragon by the end
of the story to demonstrate his bravery and this desire for popularity for bravery takes his life.

5. Revenge: The epic shows the theme of revenge through the character of Grendel and Beowulf.
Although the arrival of Beowulf is just to repay his debt to his father that Horthgar sheltered him
in the past, his main desire is to exact the revenge of the killed Danes from Grendel. Then it
moves the vicious circle of revenge in which Grendel’s mother, too, gets killed by Beowulf. The
same goes for the killing of the dragon in which Beowulf suffers fatal injuries.

6. Generosity: The heroic code of generosity is another theme that runs through Beowulf. The first
example of this generosity is the act of Hrothgar to extend refuge to Ecgheow, when he was
fleeing during his tribal feud. The second act is Beowulf’s offer to Hrothgar to battle Grendel to
save the Danes. Although the royal couple, too, demonstrates this generosity, it is the rule of
Beowulf that shows his generosity toward his subjects in that he loses his own life when battling
the dragon.
7. Hospitality: King Hrothgar shows the trait of hospitality when he extends refuge to Ecgheow.
When Beowulf offers to repay the old debt, he also enjoys the same hospitality, though, he is a
guest who has come on his own will to fight Grendel.

8. Death: The theme of death has been shown through the heroic acts of Beowulf who defies all
ancient norms and chases the demon to his swamp. He even battles the dragon that takes his
own life, but does not budge from his stand of saving his subjects. This brave act of dying for
one’s people wins him the praise of the poets.

9. Duty of the King: The character of Beowulf shows the theme of the duty of the king in that a
king is responsible for the lives of his subjects. That is why Hrothgar accepts his offer to help him
get rid of Grendel and Beowulf loses his own life when he battles the dragon by the end of his
rule.

REFLECTION
From reading the epic, we thought it was just a clichéd superhero beating the super villain, which it was.
Beowulf was the strongest known human to mankind, and easily defeats Grendel with a flick of finger.
The epitome of good vs. evil. However, from creating the site, we learned that Beowulf is an incredible
story of courage, honor, and valor. The mastery of Anglo-Saxon scops to memorize and pass down the
epic is unimaginable. And discovering and analyzing the characters much more in depth, we discovered
some interesting topics. One of the main themes within this story was humanity, and the values of the
human soul. But it was not found in a hero Beowulf, but in the antagonist Grendel and Grendel’s
mother. Being so incredibly strong and inhuman, only fighting for valor and prosperity, Beowulf had no
human-like qualities that we could connect with. However, within Grendel and Grendel's mother, we
found vengeance and sorrow. Another interesting theme we discovered within the epic, was the theme
of good vs. evil. Every single quality that humans believe that are “good” are found within in Beowulf.
Containing bravery, valor, and belief in values. If every value the we considered to be “bad” to
humanity, such as envy, resent, and angry are collected together and put into one individual, they would
represent Grendel the monster. Because in the end, any human that contains only those qualities
within themselves, are naturally that: monsters. Beowulf was both an eye-opening epic, representing
Anglo-Saxon history to lessons within human life.