Chapter 2: The Self: Philosophical Perspective

SOCRATES
-470- 399 BC

-Greek philosopher and pioneer in Western moral philosophy.

-He introduced the Socratic question which aims to “Know thyself”

-His Socratic method stated “An unexamined life is not worth living.”

• The SOUL

• The soul is hugely important in his philosophy

◦ Had to be nurtured and protected

◦ Gaining wisdom would save the soul

◦ This would lead the person to living a virtuous life

• ‘Knowing what is good is the same as doing what is good.’

◦ Believed people would not willingly do wrong

◦ No-one wants to be a bad person

◦ They said that a person might know what is right but may not be strong enough or disciplined
enough to do

PLATO
424-347 BC

- A classical Greek Philosopher and founder of Academy in Athens

- Founder of western spirituality

He stated that psyche’ or the mind is comprised of three elements:

1. Appetite – involves pleasurable desires (eg. Physical pleasure and

Physiological comfort)

2. Spirited – involves motivation to surpass and conquer life’s challenges. It is the area where we
enjoy triumph, honor, greatness and affirmation.

3. Mind – the conscious awareness which thinks, meditates, weighs choices and assesses situations

in our lives. It is rational and logical as it chooses only the best for us.
SAINT AUGUSTINE of HIPPO
AD 354-430

- A Christian theologian and philosopher to have greatly contributed to

Western Christianity.

- His writings on The City of God, On Christian Doctrine and Confession.

- He pointed that the sin is the source of human unhappiness.

- He discovered the concept of individual identity. He conceptualized an idea of the self and
eventually achieving identity.

Two-fold process according to St. Augustine:

Self-presentation leading to self-realization. He reiterated that one transforms as he struggles in

both body and soul to ultimately achieve happiness specifically in God’s love.

-He explored on the relationship of mind and body which are all essential in the formation of a
person.

- He stressed on the superiority of the mind over that of a body. Understanding of the self and the
formation of identity is achieved through the process of “Introspection” or “self-analysis.”

RENE DESCARTES
1596-1650

-He is the father of modern western philosophy

-He developed the Cartesian philosophy which holds that mental acts

determine physical acts.

- He reiterated on the role of cognition as the active acquisition of

knowledge involving the individual’s imagination, intellect, perception as well as memory.

-He describes the mind as “intellectual substance” which possess a will.

-He pointed onto the relationship of the mind and the body. “Cogito, ergo sum” which is “I think,
therefore I am.”
JOHN LOCKE
1632-1704

- A prominent thinker during the “Age of Reason.”

- He is the “Father of Liberalism” as he has posited the “theory of mind”

a breakthrough understanding of the self.

- He developed the concept of “Tabula Rasa”, that at birth the mind is a blank slate without
innate ideas, and it is experience that provides us knowledge provided by sensory experiences
and reflections.

- He identified the brain as comprising the consciousness which has one’s identity.

- Life is a quest of understanding of what is after death and immortality. He argued as well that a
person may only be judged for the acts of his body but the truth according to him is that one is
liable only for the acts of which he is conscious.

DAVID HUME
1711-1776

-a Scottish philosopher from Edinburgh,

-His insight on the psychological basis of human nature where that of

passion rather than reason governs human behavior.

- He argued against the existence of innate ideas, positing that all human knowledge is ultimately
founded on experience.

- He reiterated that reason is only the slave of passion which implies that logic and intellect is basically
superseded by an individual’s passion, drive and motivation.

-the self and one’s mind is like a machine that can be turned on and off and only active when conscious.
IMMANUEL KANT
1724 – 1804

- He asserted that the human mind created experiences.

- He said that human experiences make up our persona according to

logical effects provided by certain causes.

- The development of individuality and the self is a unique human

experiences as it forges significant learning within the person.

- Kant said that every person has an inner and outer self which comprises the consciousness

- Inner Self (soul) comprise of intellect and psychological state of being

- Outer Self (consciousness)

SIGMUND FREUD
1856 – 1939

- He established psychoanalysis:

A school of thought revolving around the role of the psychological

conflicts within the unconscious which is relevant in the development of human behavior as well as
personality.

Structural Theories of Personality:

- Id(pleasure, gratification)

- Ego (the self, balance)

- Superego (norms)
 The id and the superego are in constant conflict brought about by differences in their desire. As the
id demands pleasure and gratification of urges, the superego requires compliance to societal norms.
The conflict is resolved by the ego which is “the self” by maintaining the balance between these two
structures of the mind. Freud considered the ego as the realistic area of one’s persona that
maintains the balance and harmony within the individual.

GILBERT RYLE
1900 – 1976

- British philosopher and behaviorist

- He coined “the ghost in the machine” (mental phenomenon are

explained by observing public behavior)

- “The Concept of Mind” explained that mental states are inseparable from physical state.

2 Collateral History according to Gilbert Ryle:

- (Private) What happens in the mind

- (Public) What happens in the body

Paul Montgomery Churchland

1942 – present (Vancouver, Canada)

- Modern day philosopher whose studies the brain.

- “nothing but matter exists” or “materialism”

- Human consciousness exist because of neural networks

communicating through its hub in the brain which is the thalamus.

- As we begin to use empirical evidence to describe how our brains and bodies function we learn
to determine how we feel and how certain situations affect us. People are unaware to
 determine the exact emotions and sentiment that they are undertaking. This leads to confusion
as to how we understand ourselves.

Maurice Merleau Ponty

- French Philosopher who wrote the book Phenomenologie de la Perception in 1945

- “The Primacy of Perception” the body is central to one’s perception.

- Perception – determinant of one’s consciousness

- “The Primacy of Perception” there is harmony between what we aim at and what is

given, between intention and performance.

- Consciousness is primarily not a matter of “I think that”, but “I can”

- Action is required in the formation of self-perception as well as self-concept.

ACTIVITY 1
Direction: Discuss your ideas about the following concepts according to who and how it was
presented by the philosopher in not less than 5 sentences. Relate this in your own experience by
sighting examples in helping you to understand yourself. (3 points each)

1. Theory of Mind

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

2. Tabula Rasa

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

3. Inner Self

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

4. Outer Self

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

5. Id

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

6. Ego

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

7. Super Ego

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

8. Materialism

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

9. Primacy of Perception

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

10. Psyche

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________