C

H
E Acids, Bases and Salts
M
I
S Topic – Indicators
T
R
Y
 Indicator
• Indicators are the substances which indicates
C that the given substance is acid or base.
H
E
M Indicators
I
S
T Natural Synthetic Olfactory
R Indicators Indicators Indicators
Y
 Natural Indicator
• Indicators obtained from natural sources are called natural
indicators. Litmus, turmeric, red cabbage, China rose, etc.
C are some common natural indicators used widely to show
H the acidic or basic character of substances.
E • Litmus: Litmus is obtained from lichens. The solution of
litmus is purple in colour. Litmus paper comes in two colour
M – blue and red.
I An acid turns blue litmus paper red.
S A base turns red litmus paper blue.
T
R
Y
 Natural Indicator
• Turmeric: Turmeric is another natural indicator. Turmeric is
C yellow in colour. Turmeric solution or paper turns red with
base. Turmeric does not change colour with acid.
H
E
• Red cabbage: The juice of red cabbage is originally purple in
M colour. Juice of red cabbage turns reddish with acid and
I turns greenish with base.
S
• China rose: The red colored solution of china rose
T (Hibiscus) turns into magenta in acidic medium and green
R in basic medium.
Y
 Synthetic Indicator
• Indicators that are synthesized in laboratory are known as synthetic
indicators. For example; phenolphthalein, methyl orange.
C
• Phenolphthalein is a colorless liquid. It remains colorless with acid
H but turns into pink with a base.
E • Methyl orange is originally orange in colour. It turns into red with
acid and turns into yellow with base.
M • Universal Indicator: To get the strength as well as acidic and basic
I nature of a given solution universal indicator is used. Universal
indicator is available both in the form of strips and solution.
S
T
R
Y
 Olfactory Indicator
• Substances which change their smell when mixed with acid or
base are known as olfactory indicators. For example onion,
C vanilla, clove.
H • Olfactory indicators are used to ensure the participation of
E visually impaired students in laboratory.
M
I
S
T
R
Y
 Acids
• Acids are sour in taste, turn blue litmus red, and
C dissolve in water to release H+ ions.
H • Properties of acids :
E • Acids have a sour taste.
M • Turns blue litmus red.
• Acid solution conducts electricity.
I • Release H+ ions in aqueous solution.
S
T • Example: Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), Acetic Acid
(CH3COOH), Nitric Acid (HNO3) etc.
R
Y
 Classification of Acids
Presence of

Classification of Acids
C Oxygen
H
Basicity
E
M
I Source
S
T Strength
R
Y Concentration
 Classification based on the
presence of Oxygen
C • The acids are classified based on the presence of Oxygen.
These are of two types:
H • Hydracids
E • Oxy-acids
M • Hydracid: Those that include hydrogen combined with
other elements and do not contain any oxygen in their
I composition. E.g. HCl (Hydrochloric acid), HI(Hydro iodic
S acid), HBr (Hydrobromic acid)
T • Oxy-acid: Acids that consist of Oxygen in their composition
is known as Oxy-acids. E.g. H2SO4, HNO3, H2CO3 (Carbonic
R acid)
Y
 Classification based on the
basicity
• Acid on dissociation in water produces hydrogen ions. The
number of hydrogen ions that can be produced by acid is the
C basicity of an acid.
H • Monobasic Acid: A monobasic acid is an acid which has only one
hydrogen ion.
E
M
• Dibasic Acid: A dibasic acid is an acid which has two hydrogen
I ion. Example : H2C2O4(oxalic acid), H2SO4
S
T • Tribasic Acid: A tribasic acid is an acid which has three hydrogen
R ion.

Y
 Classification based on the source

• They are mainly of two types: Organic acid and Mineral

C acid.
• Mineral Acid: Mineral acid is procured from minerals. They
H are also known as inorganic acids. They do not contain
E carbon (Only carbonic acid is a mineral acid, which contains
M carbon). For e.g. H2SO4, HCl, HNO3, H2CO3 (Carbonic acid)
• HCl is the only mineral acid which is present in human
I body.
S • Organic acid: Acids which are obtained from living organism
T are called organic Acids.
• One of the major constituent of organic acids is carbon.
R
Y
 Some organic acids with source

C
H
E
M
I
S
T
R
Y
 Bases
• Bases are compounds which yields hydroxide ion ,
C when it is dissolved in water.
• Bases are bitter in taste and are corrosive in nature.
H
They usually feel slippery and very soapy.
E • Solution of Bases are good conductor of electricity.
M • Bases turn red litmus paper into blue.
I • Bases which are soluble in water called alkali. All
S alkalies are bases, but all bases are not alkalies."
T • Example of some bases : Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or
caustic soda
R
• Potassium hydroxide (KOH) or caustic potash
Y • Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) or ammonia water
• Magnesium hydroxide ( Mg(OH)2 ) or milk of magnesia
 Arrhenius Concept
• According to Arrhenius theory, acids are substances that
dissociates in water to give hydrogen ions (H+) and bases are
C substances that produce hydroxide ions (OH-).
H
E
M
I
S
T • Limitation: It is limited to only aqueous solutions.
• It does not explain the acidic behavior of some substances
R
which do not contain hydrogen. for example, AlCl3. Similarly it
Y does not explain the basic character of substances like NH3
and Na2CO3 which do not have a hydroxide groups.
 Bronsted and Lowry Concept
• An acid is defined as a proton (H+) donor, and a base is
defined as a proton acceptor.
C • In the Bronsted- Lowry concept, acids and bases can be
H either ions or molecular substances.
E • The acid-base pair that
differs only by one proton is
M called a conjugate acid-base
I pair.

S Conjugate acid – H+ Add

Conjugate base - H+ Remove
T
R
Y
 Lewis Concept
• An acid is defined as a species which accepts electron pair
and base which donates an electron pair.
C • BF3 does not have a proton but still acts as an acid.
H • The H+ ion acts as a Lewis acid and H2O acts as a Lewis base.
E
M
I • Here, the oxygen atom donates an electron pair to the
S proton, forming a coordinate covalent bond in the process.
• Water combines with H+ ion and forms hydronium ion.
T • Coordinate covalent bond : A coordinate covalent bond is a
R special type of covalent bond in which the shared electrons
come from one of the atoms only.
Y
 Reaction between BF3 and NH3
• BF3 does not have a proton but still acts as an acid and reacts
with NH3 by accepting its lone pair of electrons.
C
H
E
M • Formation of coordinate covalent bond is neutralization
I reaction.
S
T
R
Y
 Reaction of Acids with
Metals
• An acid reacts with a metal to form a salt and hydrogen gas. In
such reactions metal displaces hydrogen from acids and
C hydrogen gas is released. The metal combines with the remaining
H part of the acid and forms a compound called a salt.
E Acid + Metal → Metal salt + H2

M
I • Nitric acid is an strong oxidizing agent. It oxidized hydrogen and
S produces water, it self get reduced in one of the oxide of
nitrogen. Means when HNO3 reacts with metal, it produces salt,
T water and one of the oxide of nitrogen.
R 3Zn + 8HNO3 → 3Zn(NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O
Y Exception – Dilute HNO3 reacts with Mg and Mn and produces
hydrogen gas and nitrate salts.
 Reaction of Acids with
Metal Carbonates
• An acid reacts with a metal carbonate to form a salt, carbon
dioxide and water.
C
Acid + Metal carbonate → Metal salt + CO2 + H2O
H
E
M
• An acid reacts with a metal hydrogen carbonate to form a salt,
I carbon dioxide and water.
S Acid + Metal hydrogen carbonate → Metal salt + CO2 + H2O
LiHCO3+ H2SO4 → Li2SO4 + CO2 + H2O
T
KHCO3+ HCl → KCl + CO2 + H2O
R • When CO gas is produced, it produces bubbles. Effervescence is
2
Y the formation of gas bubbles in a liquid by a chemical reaction.
An example of effervescence is the release of carbon dioxide,
when limestone chips are added to dilute hydrochloric acid.
 Reaction of Bases with
Metals
• All metals do not react with bases, only few metals like Zinc
C and Aluminum reacts with bases. Al and Zn are amphoteric
H metals.
E • Amphoteric substances are that which reacts with both
acids and bases.
M • When aluminum is heated with sodium hydroxide solution,
I sodium aluminate and hydrogen gas is formed.
S 2NaOH + 2Al  2NaAlO2 + H2
T • When Zn is reacted with sodium hydroxide, sodium zincate
and hydrogen gas is formed.
R
2NaOH + Zn  Na2ZnO2 + H2
Y
 Reaction of Metal oxides
with Acids
• Metal oxides are basic in nature and non-metal oxides are
C acidic in nature. Al2O3 and ZnO are amphoteric metal
H oxides.
• Metal oxide reacts with acid and form salt and water.
E
Acid + Metal oxide → Metal salt + H2O
M • When a dilute HCl and copper oxide is reacted, bluish green
I copper (II) chloride (cupric chloride) and water is formed.
S
T
R • Many other metal oxides like magnesium oxide (MgO) and
Y calcium oxide (CaO) or quick lime also react with acid in a
similar way.
 Electrical conductivity of
Acids and Bases
• Acids and Bases exhibit their conducting property only if
C they are in aqueous solution.
H • The electric current is carried through the solution by ions.
E • Acids produce hydrogen ions (H+) which are responsible for
all their characteristic properties.
M • Aqueous solutions of bases conduct electricity which is due
I to hydroxide ions (OH–). Base produce OH- ions, which are
S responsible for their characteristic properties.
• Although Ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH) and glucose (C6H12O6)
T
contain hydrogen but do not produce H+ ion on dissolving in
R water. Their solutions do not conduct electricity and are not
Y acidic.
 Preparation of HCl gas
• When sodium chloride is reacted with sulphuric acid, it produces
C sodium bisulphate and hydrogen chloride gas.
NaCl (s) + H2SO4(aq) → NaHSO4 + HCl (g)
H • HCl gas does not change color of blue litmus paper into red as it does
E not undergo dissociation to H+ and Cl- ion.
• HCl is acidic only when moist or aqueous. Hydrogen Chloride gas will
M turn blue litmus paper red only if either the gas is moist or the litmus
I paper is wet .
• During the preparation of hydrogen chloride gas , the gas is usually
S passed through the guard tube containing calcium chloride , it is
T because calcium chloride observe moisture from the HCl gas.
• Hygroscopic Substances - substances absorb water from air, but not
R enough to form solutions. Example. conc. H2SO4 , conc. HCl, CaO, NaCl etc.
Y • Deliquescent substances - certain solid substances, when exposed to air
absorb water, enough to form solutions. Example, solid NaOH, CaCl2
 Dilution of Acid
• Concentrated acid contains a very small amount of water or no
C water whereas dilute acids have far more amount of water
than its own mass.
H • Reaction of acid or base with water leads to the decrease in
E the concentration of ions (H3O+/OH–) per unit volume. This
M process is known as dilution.
• The procedure of diluting acid or base in water is highly
I exothermic reaction.
S • For dilution, the acid must always be added slowly to water
T with constant stirring. If water is added to a concentrated acid,
the heat generated may cause the mixture to splash out and
R cause burns. The glass container may also break due to
Y excessive local heating.
 Uses of some acids
• Hydrochloric acid used in the production of glucose from corn
C starch, for cleaning sinks and sanitary ware.
• Sulphuric acid is used in car batteries, manufacturing of paints,
H drugs and fertilizers. It is also called king of chemicals.
E • Nitric acid is used to manufacture of fertilizers, explosives like
TNT, dyes and drugs.
M
• Acetic acid is used to enhance the flavor of food, as a
I preservative in pickles.
S • Phosphoric acid is used in fertilizer and detergent industries.
T • Boric acid is used as grain preservative.
• Aqua regia : Aqua regia is the freshly prepared mixture of
R concentrated hydrochloric acid and concentrated nitric acid in
Y the ratio 3:1. It can even dissolve metals like gold and platinum.
 Strong or weak acid and
base
• Strong acid : The acids which completely dissociate in water are
called strong acids. There are only 7 strong acids. HCl, HBr, HI,
C HClO (Perchloric acid), HClO (Chloric acid), HNO and H SO
4 3 3 2 4.
H • Weak acid : The acids which dissociate partially in water are
E called weak acids. All organic acids like acetic acid and some
inorganic acids are weak acids. CH3COOH Ethanoic (acetic) acid,
M C6H5COOH (Benzoic acid), HCOOH (Formic acid).
I • Strong Base : The bases which completely dissociated in water to
form hydroxide ion (OH–) are called strong bases. There are only
S eight strong bases. LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH, Ca(OH)
2,
T Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2.
• Weak Base : Weak bases do not furnish OH– ions by dissociation.
R They react with water to furnish OH– ions. Examples of weak
Y bases (i) NH4OH, (ii) Cu(OH)2 (iv) Cr(OH)3 (v) Zn(OH)2 .
 Molarity
• It is the no. of moles of solute present in per litre
C solution.
H
E
M
I
S
T
R
Y • Unit = Mole L-1 or M
 pH Scale
• A scale for measuring hydrogen ion concentration in a solution,
called pH scale.
C • The p in pH stands for ‘potenz’ in German, meaning power. pH
H notation was devised by the Sorensen.
• On the pH scale we can measure pH generally from 0 (very acidic) to
E 14 (very alkaline). The pH of a neutral solution is 7.
M • pH should be thought of simply as a number which indicates the
acidic or basic nature of a solution.
I
• Higher the hydronium ion concentration, lower is the pH value.
S • As the pH value increases from 7 to 14, it represents an increase in
T OH– ion concentration in the solution, that is, increase in the
strength of alkali.
R
Y
 pH Scale
• Mathematically, the pH is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen
ion concentration.
C pH = - log [H+] or - log [H3O+]
H • Logarithm is a mathematical function.
E If y = 10x then log (y) = x
M
I
S
T
R
Y
 pH Scale
• Log 1 = 0 Log 2 = 0.301 Log 3 = 0.477

C • Log 4 = 0.602 Log 5 = 0.698 Log 6 = 0.778

H
E • Log 7 = 0.845 Log 8 = 0.903 Log 9 = 0.954

M pH + pOH = 14
I
S
T
R
Y
 pH of some substances

C
H
E
M
I
S
T
R
Y
 Importance of pH in
Everyday Life
• Neutralization reaction : The reaction in which an acid and a base
or alkali (soluble base) react to produce salt and water are called
C neutralization reaction.
H • In our digestive system :Hydrochloric acid (HCl) produced in our
E stomach helps the digestion of food without causing any harm to
the stomach. But when the amount of the acid goes beyond a
M certain limit due to indigestion, pain and irritation are created in
I the stomach. So, in order to neutralize the effect of excess acid, a
mild base called antacid is usually taken. Magnesium hydroxide
S (milk of magnesia, Mg(OH)2) is a mild base which is usually used
T as an antacid.
• Human body pH and Acid rain: Our body works within the pH
R range of 7.0 to 7.8. When pH of rain water is less than 5.6, it is
Y called acid rain. When acid rain flows into the rivers, it lowers the
pH of the river water. The survival of aquatic life in such rivers
becomes difficult.
 Importance of pH in
Everyday Life
• Acids cause tooth decay : When we eat sugary food, it gets
C degraded by bacteria present in the mouth and an acid is
formed. When the pH becomes lower than 5.5, tooth
H enamel (made up of calcium phosphate Ca3(PO4)2, hardest
E substance in the body) gets corroded. The excess acid can
M be removed only by the use of toothpaste which is alkaline.
• Acid is produced in fatigued muscle : As a result of physical
I
exercise, stiffness and pain in the muscle starts due to the
S formation of lactic acid. The supply of oxygen in the muscle
T is reduced. This causes difficulty in the release of energy
leading to increase in the rate of anaerobic metabolism. As
R a result, lactic acid gets accumulated in the muscles.
Y
 Importance of pH in
Everyday Life
• Self defense by animals and plants through chemical warfare :
C Honey-bee injects an acid (Formic acid) through its stings which
causes pain and irritation. Hence, a mild base like baking soda is
H applied to treat the wound. Similarly, nettle leaves, which have
E stinging hairs, when touched inject formic acid in our body. This
causes a burning pain. A traditional remedy is rubbing the area
M with the leaf of the dock plant. A traditional remedy is rubbing
I the area with the leaf of the dock plant.
• pH of soil : Soils are generally acidic. Plants require definite pH
S range for their proper growth. They do not grow in alkaline soil.
T Many plants do not grow properly in highly acidic or highly
alkaline soil. So, highly acidic soil is treated by spreading
R quicklime, slaked lime or calcium carbonate to lower its acidity.
Y
 Salts and type of salts
• Salts are the product (besides water) of a neutralization
reaction.
C Acid + Base → Salt + Water
H • Strong acid + Strong base → Neutral Salt + Water
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
E
• Strong acid + Weak base → Acidic Salt + Water
M HCl + NH4OH → NH4Cl + H2O
I • Weak acid + Strong base → Basic Salt + Water
S H2CO3 + 2NaOH → Na2CO3 + 2H2O
T • Weak acid + Weak base → Almost neutral Salt + Water
(pH depends on the relative strengths of acid and base, if the
R both acid and base are equally weak, salt is neutral otherwise
Y it may be acidic or basic according to the difference in their
weakness, Ammonium acetate is a neutral salt.
 Salts Family
• Salts having the same positive or negative radicals are said to
belong to a family. For example, NaCl and Na2SO4 belong to
C the family of sodium salts. Similarly, NaCl and KCl belong to
H the family of chloride salts.
E • Calcium chloride (CaCl2) and calcium sulphate (CaSO4) belong
to calcium family.
M • Zinc chloride (ZnCl2) and Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4) belong to zinc
I family.

S
T
R
Y
 Sodium chloride
• Seawater contains many salts dissolved in it. Sodium chloride
is separated from these salts. Deposits of solid salt are also
C found in several parts of the world. These large crystals are
H often brown due to impurities. This is called rock salt. Beds of
rock salt were formed when seas of bygone ages dried up.
E Rock salt is mined like coal.
M Uses of sodium chloride
I • It is widely used in food industries as a food preservative and
as a flavor enhancer.
S
• It is used in food.
T • In cold countries, it is used to prevent the build-up of ice on
R roads, bridges etc.
• It is an important raw material for various materials of daily
Y use, such as sodium hydroxide, baking soda, washing soda,
bleaching powder and many more.
 Sodium Hydroxide
• When electricity is passed through an aqueous solution of
sodium chloride (called brine), it decomposes to form sodium
C hydroxide, chlorine and hydrogen gas.
H • The process is called the chlor-alkali process because of the
products formed– chlor for chlorine and alkali for sodium
E hydroxide.
M
I • Chlorine gas is given at anode, hydrogen gas at cathode and
NaOH solution is formed near cathode.
S
T
R
Y
 • Uses of chlorine gas : disinfectant, clean swimming pools,
treatment of drinking water to kill bacteria, production of
C paper and paper products, antiseptic, drugs, dyes, plastic
H (PVC), to prepare chlorine based compounds like HCl,
Bleaching powder, chloroform etc.
E
• Uses of hydrogen gas : synthesis of ammonia and the
M manufacture of nitrogenous fertilizers, Hydrogenation of
I unsaturated vegetable oils for manufacturing vanaspati fat,
rocket fuel.
S • Uses of NaOH : drain and oven cleaners, oil refining, hydraulic
T fracturing, water treatment and de-greasing metals,
manufacture of fabric (Rayon), paper and soap
R
Y
 Bleaching Powder
• Bleaching powder is produced by the action of chlorine on dry
slaked lime [Ca(OH)2].
C
• Chemically, it is calcium oxychloride, represented by formula
H CaOCl2 , though the actual composition is quite complex.
E
M
• Bleaching is a process of removing colour from a cloth to
I make it whiter.
S • It is manufactured by Hasen-Clever Method.
T • Uses : In industries for bleaching of cotton, linen and wool etc,
making wool unshrinkable, disinfectant and germicide for
R sterilization of water, manufacture of chloroform, oxidizing
Y agent in chemical industry,
 Baking soda
• Chemically baking soda is sodium hydrogen carbonate,
NaHCO3.
C
• It is a mild non-corrosive basic salt. Its solution in water is
H basic in nature.
E • It is produced using sodium chloride as one of the raw
materials.
M
• Baking soda is manufactured by Solvey’s process. It is mainly
I used for manufacturing washing soda but baking soda is
obtained as an intermediate.
S
T
R • NaHCO3 is sparingly soluble in water and crystallizes out as
Y white crystals.
 Baking soda
• On heating, sodium hydrogen carbonate is converted into
sodium carbonate and carbon dioxide is given off.
C
H
E • Uses : (i)For making baking powder, which is a mixture of
baking soda and a mild edible acid such as tartaric acid. When
M baking powder is heated or mixed in water, the following
I reaction takes place –
NaHCO3 + H+ → CO2 + H2O + Sodium salt of acid
S
Carbon dioxide produced during the reaction causes bread or
T cake to rise making them soft and spongy.
R The sodium carbonate produced on heating the baking soda
gives a bitter taste. Therefore, instead of using the baking
Y
soda alone, baking powder is used. The tartaric acid present in it
neutralizes the sodium carbonate to avoid its bitter taste.
 Baking soda
• (ii) Being a mild and non-corrosive base, baking soda is used in
medicines to neutralize the excessive acid in the stomach and
C provide relief. Mixed with solid edible acids such as citric or
H tartaric acid, it is used in effervescent drinks to cure
indigestion.
E • (iii) It is also used as soda-acid in fire extinguishers.
M • (iv) It acts as mild antiseptic.
I
S
T
R
Y
 Washing Soda
• Chemically, washing soda is sodium carbonate decahydrate,
Na2CO3.10H2O.
C • Sodium carbonate can be obtained by heating baking soda.
H Recrystallization of sodium carbonate gives washing soda.
E • It is also a basic salt.

M • Soda ash is Na CO .
2 3
I Uses of washing soda
S (i) Sodium carbonate (washing soda) is used in glass, soap and
paper industries.
T
(ii) It is used in the manufacture of sodium compounds such as
R borax.
Y (iii) Sodium carbonate can be used as a cleaning agent for domestic
purposes. (iv) It is used for removing permanent hardness of water.
 Water of crystallisation
• Water of crystallization is the fixed number of water molecules
present in one formula unit of a salt.
C
• A hydrated salt is a crystalline salt molecule that is loosely
H attached to a certain number of water molecules.
E • The salts which have lost their water of crystallisation are called
anhydrous salts.
M • Five water molecules are present in one formula unit of copper
I sulphate. Chemical formula for hydrated copper sulphate is
CuSO4·5 H2O.
S • Copper sulphate crystals which seem to be dry contain water of
T crystallisation. When we heat the crystals, this water is removed
and the salt turns white. If we moisten the crystals again with
R water, you will find that blue colour of the crystals reappears.
Y • Efflorescence is the loss of water of crystallization from a
hydrated salt to the atmosphere on exposure to air.
 Gypsum and Plaster of Paris

• Gypsum has two water molecules as water of crystallisation. It’s

formula is CaSO4.2H2O.
C
• When gypsum is heated at about 100° (373 K) temperature, it
H loses a part of its water of crystallization to form plaster of paris
E (POP) CaSO4.1/2H2O.

M
I • Two formula units of CaSO4 share one molecule of water.
S • The temperature is not allowed to rise beyond 100°C otherwise
whole of water of crystallization is lost and anhydrous calcium
T sulphate is produced which is called ‘dead burnt’.
R • Plaster of Paris is a white powder and on mixing with water, it
changes to gypsum once again giving a hard solid mass.
Y
 Uses of Plaster of Paris
1.In making casts for manufacture of toys and statues.
C 2. In medicine for making plaster casts to hold fractured bones
in place while they set. It is also used for making casts in
H dentistry.
E 3. For making the surface of walls and ceiling smooth.
M 4. For making decorative designs on ceilings, walls and pillars.
I 5. For making fire proof materials.
S
T
R
Y