PMC Composites

• General drawbacks to polymers:

– E, y, are generally small.

• The major issues in the application of polymers is their

low stiffness and strength when compared with metals;
the moduli are 100 times lower and strengths ~ 5 times
lower. The common method that is used to offset these
deficiencies:
– The addition of reinforcing particles or fibres to the resin to
form a composite material

Composites
• Combination of two or more individual materials
• Design goal: obtain a more desirable combination
of properties (principle of combined action)
– e.g., low density, high ductility and high strength
• Composite:
Multiphase material that is artificially made.
• Phase types: Fibre reinforced
– Matrix is continuous
GFRP: Glass fibre reinforced polymer  
– Dispersed is discontinuous and CFRP: Carbon fibre reinforced polymer  
surrounded by matrix BFRC: Boron fibre reinforced composite  
KFRC: Kevlar fibre reinforced composite
Particle reinforced
• Cemented carbide  
(Co‐ WC)
• Teflon ‐ SiO2
• Al alloy ‐ SiC

MECH 3830 1
 Classification of Composites

Composites

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural Nano

Large- Dispersion- Continuous Discontiuous Laminates Sandwich

particle strengthened (aligned) (short) panels

Aligned Randomly
oriented
Adapted from Fig. 16.2,
Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

Classification: Particle-Reinforced (i)

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

• Examples:

- WC/Co matrix: particles:

Fig. 16.4, Callister &
cemented cobalt WC Rethwisch 10e.
(ductile, (brittle, (Courtesy of Carboloy
carbide tough)
: hard)
Systems Department,
General Electric Company.)

600 μm
Cermets are examples of ceramic–metal composites. The most common cermet is cemented carbide, which is composed of
extremely hard particles of a refractory carbide ceramic such as tungsten carbide (WC) or titanium carbide (TiC) embedded in a
matrix of a metal such as cobalt or nickel. Application: cutting tools for hardened steels

- Automobile matrix: particles: Fig. 16.5, Callister &

tire rubber rubber

Rethwisch 10e.
carbon (Courtesy of Goodyear Tire
(compliant) black and Rubber Company.)

0.75 μm

Carbon black consists of very small and essentially spherical particles of carbon, enhances tensile strength, toughness, and tear and
abrasion resistance. Automobile tires contain on the order of 15 to 30 vol% carbon black. For the carbon black to provide significant
reinforcement, the particle size must be extremely small, with diameters between 20 and 50 nm

MECH 3830 2
 Classification: Fiber-Reinforced (i)

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

• Fibers very strong in tension

– Provide significant strength improvement
to the composite
– Ex: fiber-glass - continuous glass
filaments in a polymer matrix
• Glass fibers
– strength and stiffness
• Polymer matrix
– holds fibers in place
– protects fiber surfaces
– transfers load to fibers

Cross sectional micrograph of fiber-glass

Classification: Structural

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

• Laminates
-- stacked and bonded fiber-reinforced sheets
- stacking sequence: e.g., 0º/90º
- benefit: balanced in-plane stiffness

• Sandwich panels
-- honeycomb core between two facing sheets
- benefits: low density, large bending stiffness
face sheet
adhesive layer
honeycomb

Fig. 16.18, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

(Reprinted with permission from Engineered
Materials Handbook, Vol. 1, Composites,
ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1987.)

MECH 3830 3
 Some applications of Fiber reinforced polymers
• Competition kayak: It is constructed from epoxy resin in which
are embedded continuous Kevlar and carbon reinforcing fibres.
• A sailing cruiser, with composite (GFRP) hull.
• Carbon-fibre reinforced nylon tennis racket
• Rubber car tire is reinforced at several different levels. At the
microscopic level, there are particles of carbon black , on a large
scale, the tire is reinforced by - cords (e.g. drawn polyester
fibres or steel wires).

Carbon composite materials are lighter and 
stronger than traditional  materials such as 
steel. 

7
Specific modulus E/ρ

Specific strength σ/ρ

 Polymers have a low stiffness and low strength.

 Ceramics and glasses are stiff and strong but are brittle.

 Fibrous composites employ the high strength and stiffness of the ceramic while avoiding
the brittle failure of fibres.

MECH 3830 4
 Longitudinal Fiber Alignment
direction

Fig. 16.8, Callister &

Rethwisch 10e.

Transverse
direction

aligned aligned random

continuous discontinuous

Continuous Reinforcement
• Consider the elastic behaviour of a continuous and oriented fibrous
composite that is loaded in the direction of fiber alignment.

• There is no strain discontinuity at the interface (perfect bonding ).

• Deformation of both matrix and fibers is the same-Isostrain condition.

Em- Modulus of Matrix

Ef- Modulus of Fibre

Vm – volume fraction of matrix

m: matrix Vf – volume fraction of fibres
f: fiber

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MECH 3830 5
 Fiber-Matrix Bonding
• Effective reinforcement requires good bonding between the fibers and
the matrix
• Composite properties depend on good bond strength between fiber
and matrix

Good bonding Poor bonding

11

Longitudinal Loading
c  m   f   Isostrain Condition Fc  Ff  Fm
Fc = load on composite
F a: Cross‐sectional area Ff = load on fibers
Fm = load on matrix
a
af
 c ac   f a f   m am c   f m
am
ac ac
af
 area fraction of fibres = Af
ac
am
 area fraction of matrix= Am
ac

c   f A f   mA m

If the composite, matrix, and fiber phase lengths are all equal, convert Area fraction (Af , Am) to 
volume fraction ( Vf , Vm)

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MECH 3830 6
 Rule of Mixtures
 c   f V f   mVm
  E (Hook’s law)

c Ec  E f  f V f  EmmVm

Ec  E f V f  EmVm
V f Vm  1

Ec  E f V f  Em 1V f  Rule of Mixtures

Section 16 2. Callister

13

Rule of Mixtures
• Elastic modulus
– Ec = EfVf + EmVm
• Works for other mechanical and physical properties
as well
– Electrical and thermal conductivity
– Tensile strength
– density

14

MECH 3830 7
 Ratio of load carried by fibers and the matrix
For longitudinal loading: phase
Ec  E f V f  EmVm
Ff   f Af
Fm   m Am
Ff  f Af E  A
  f f f
Fm  m Am Emm Am
Ff E f Af E fVf
  From the equations, load on each of fiber and
Fm Em Am EmVm matrix phases can be determined if values of Ef,
Em, Vf, Vm and Fc are known.

Fc  Ff  Fm Ff Ff E fVf
 
Fc Ff  Fm E f V f  EmVm

15

Transverse Loading

 c   m   f  Iso‐stress Condition

Total elongation in the direction of σ application is ∆Lc


Lc  Lm  L f

Lc Lm  Lf


Lc Lc Lc
ac From the geometry: the length fractions  are equal to area fractions
Lma c
af am
af Lf Lc  ,
am Lm
 ,  am
Lf Lm ac Lc ac Lc L f ac
Lc 
Lc Lc am Lm a f L f af
 
Lc ac Lm ac L f

16

MECH 3830 8
 Inverse Rule of Mixtures

Lc am Lm  a f L f

Lc ac Lm ac L f

 c  Vm m V f  f
   V  V 
E Ec
m f
Em Ef Iso-stress Condition

1 Vm V f
 
Ec Em E f Inverse Rule of Mixtures

Em E f
Ec 
Vm E f V f Em

Transverse Loading- Less effective use of the high modulus of fibres

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Isostress & Isostrain Comparison

Ec  E f V f  Em 1V f 

• Higher modulus values are

obtained with isostrain loading
for equal volume of fibers.

•The inverse rule of mixtures

model provides a better
predictor of the modulus of
particulate filled composites
especially when the particles
are equiaxed.

Volume fraction of fiber, Vf

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MECH 3830 9
 Summary

Longitudinal response of E of composite:

n
Pc   PiVi Voigt model, n: number of components
i1

Ec  E f V f  EmVm
Note: Composite density can be predicted by Voigt’s average too.
c  mVm   f V f
Transverse response of E of composite:

1
 i
n
V
Reuss model, n: number of components
Pc i1 Pi

1 Vm V f
  Degree of anisotropy: 
E CVoigt
Ec Em E f EC Reuss

19

Anisotropy in Composite Modulus

(a) When loaded along the fibre
direction the fibres and matrix of
a continuous-fibre composite
experience equal strains.

(b) When loaded across the fibre

direction, the fibres and matrix
see roughly equal stress;
particulate composites are the
same.

(c) A 0 –90° laminate has high

and low modulus directions. By using a cross-
weave of fibres the
moduli in 900 and 00
A 0– 45–90–135° laminate is can be made equal.
nearly isotropic.

• Particulate composites can result in isotropic strengthening. There is a small gain in

stiffness. Their attraction lies more in their low cost and in the good wear resistance that a
hard filler phase provides.

20

MECH 3830 10
 Laminar Composites

Schematics for laminar composites: (a) Unidirectional; (b) cross-ply; (c) angle-ply; and (d)
multidirectional.

21

Tensile strength
• In any structural application, the peak stress matters.
• At the peak, the fibres are just on the point of breaking and the
matrix has yielded, so the stress is given by the yield strength of
the matrix, ym, and the fracture strength of the fibres, f f ,
combined using a rule of mixtures

• Once the fibres have fractured, the strength rises to a second

maximum determined by the fracture strength of the matrix

Where fm is the fracture

strength of the matrix

22

MECH 3830 11
 Tensile Behaviour of Linear Amorphous Polymer

23

Tensile strength: critical volume fraction

• This plot shows that adding
too few fibres does more
harm than good.
• A critical volume fraction Vfcrit
of fibres must be exceeded
to give an increase to
strength
• If there are too few, they
fracture before the peak is Vmint
reached and the ultimate
strength of materials is mf: fracture strength of matrix 
reduced. (polymer)
mY: Yield strength of matrix (polymer)

ff: fracture strength of fiber
TS: strength of composite

24

MECH 3830 12
 Minimum Volume Fraction: Vmin
• Adding too few fibres does weaken the composite! In order to have any benefit of reinforcement:


At equilibrium:

Vf 
 f
m   mY   Vmin
 ff   mf   mY 
• This expression defines the minimum volume fraction of fibre that must be exceeded to
have a fibre reinforcement effect.

• The value of Vmin increases with decreasing fibre strength, or increasing matrix strength.

28

25

Critical Volume Fraction Volume Fraction: Vfcrit

the composite’s strength 𝜎𝑇S should exceed 𝜎mf

𝜎mf
 m f   mY
Vf   Vcritical 𝜎my
 f f   mY

This expression defines the critical fibre volume which must be exceeded for fibre
strengthening to occur.

Note: V critical > V min

30

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MECH 3830 13