Understand Petroleum Exploration Methods

Introduction to petroleum exploration methods

As could be expected, the field of oil exploration has attracted the talents of many individuals
who propose to find oil with the aid of forked sticks, clothes hangers, and numerous other
“witching” devices. The most successful methods are, however, techniques somewhat more
scientific in nature and are the ones which will be briefly discussed in this chapter.

The relative success of various technical and non-technical exploration methods are compiled
annually by the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. The success percentage for
technical methods has been relatively constant for the last 15 years at about 12.5 %, or
approximately one success per eight wildcats. This constancy indicates improvements in
technique, since each field discovered leaves one less to find. The success of nontechnical
methods averages 4.4% or about one-third as successful as technical methods. The average
success for all exploration methods is about one producing well per nine wildcats.

Enlist the petroleum exploration methods

The following general heading falls under the category of petroleum exploration methods

1. Direct Indications
2. Geological Methods
3. Geophysical Methods
a. Gravitational
b. Magnetic
c. Seismic

Describe the direct indications

Nearly all of the great oil provinces of the world exhibit some surface evidence of the presence
of petroleum. Typical of these indications are natural seepages of oil, outcrops of oil-bearing
rocks, and various forms of gas seepages such as mud volcanoes. Certainly, the visible
presence of hydrocarbons suggests that an area deserves attention; it does not, however,
necessarily prove that oil exists in commercial quantities. In the United States these types of
occurrences have been quite thoroughly explored and no longer exist as an exploration tool of
any importance. DeGolyer has pointed out, however, that there is one surface indication which is
still of primary importance in any area, namely, an oil well.
Describe the geological exploration methods.

A petroleum geologist’s main job is to select promising sites for the drilling of exploratory wells
based on his prediction of an area’s subsurface stratigraphy and structure. In order to make these
predictions he normally prepares maps, both surface and subsurface, on which known points are
used to extrapolate the probable conditions at unknown points. Surface features such as
elevations, dips and strikes of outcrops, and lithological changes may be mapped as clues to
subsurface features. Aerial photographs also prove valuable in locating subsurface structures in
many areas. The value of surface mapping is generally limited to shallow beds, as the deeper
structures are not often reflected by surface features. Consequently, surface work is generally
restricted to new areas. Aerial photographs are often used to locate the most promising of these
which are then mapped in detail by field geologists.

The current depths to which exploratory wells are being drilled are such that the petroleum
geologist must prepare maps from subsurface data in attempting to predict the conditions at these
depths. Subsurface maps are numerous in variety and type; the following are, however, typical,
basic forms.

1. Structural contour maps: maps composed of lines connecting points of equal

elevation above or below a datum (normally sea level).

2. Isopachous maps— maps composed of lines connecting points of equal bed thickness.

3. Cross sections — a form of subsurface presentation which depicts the position and
thickness of various strata.

In addition to being useful as an exploration tool, subsurface maps are a necessary part of any
reservoir engineering study; and petroleum engineers, as well as geologists, must be completely
familiar with their construction and interpretation.

The data for subsurface maps are obtained from a number of sources, such as

1. Well logs: representations of some rock property or properties versus depth. Some of
these are listed below and will be discussed in third year.
(a) Sample logs
(b) Drilling time logs
(c) Electric logs
(d) Radioactivity logs
 (e) Caliper logs
2. Core drilling: shallow, small hole drilling for information purposes only. The formations
encountered are cored, i.e., obtained as small cylindrical samples which are readily and
accurately identified.
3. Strat tests: deep exploratory holes drilled primarily for information.

The construction of subsurface maps requires great interpretive skill; when prepared by a
competent worker, they are an extremely valuable tool.

Enlist the geophysical exploration methods.

Exploration methods falling in this category are those employing a physical measurement of
subsurface conditions made from a surface location. The methods to be discussed briefly are

1. Gravitational
2. Magnetic
3. Seismic

Explain magnetic methods

This method seeks to map anomalies in the earth’s magnetic field and to correlate these with
underground structure. Sedimentary rocks are essentially non-magnetic; consequently, any
magnetic irregularities found are normally attributed to depth variations of basement rocks. The
vertical component of the magnetic field is of primary importance in this method.

The instruments used in magnetic prospecting vary from a simple dip needle (essentially a
vertical compass) to elaborate airborne magnetometers, by which large areas may be quickly
and economically mapped. Numerous oil fields have been located by this method, a notable
example being the Hobbs, New Mexico, pool. Present usage of this method is largely restricted
to reconnaissance work.
Explain gravitational methods.

This type of geophysical prospecting is based on Newton’s hypothesis that every particle in the
universe attracts every other particle in the manner defined by the equation

m1 m2
F=γ
r2

Where,
F = attractive force
m1, 2 = masses of particles in question
r = distance between particles
ϒ = gravitational constant (6.67 x 10-8 in cgs units)

Fig. 1.1. Schematic illustration of gravity effect over a buried anticline. δ = specific gravity of
various rocks. From Stommel, courtesy Colorado School of Mines.

Consider Figure 1.1, which portrays a buried anticline. The denser rocks are closer to the surface
and cause a higher gravitational force in their vicinity. Such an area, when mapped, shows
gravity high indicating a possible structure. The instruments used to record these small variations
must be extremely sensitive and yet rugged and portable enough for field use.

In recent years, the gravimeter has become the standard instrument for this use. It is essentially a
weighing scale consisting of a spring supported mass. Variations in gravitational pull cause a
slight vertical motion of the spring, which is greatly magnified by an intricate linkage;
gravitational variations may be measured to approximately one part in 10 million with this
instrument.

Other instruments used in gravity work are the torsion balance and the pendulum. These
instruments, however, have been practically replaced by the gravimeter.

Explain seismic methods

The seismograph is the most successful and widely applied geophysical tool in exploration
history. This method is based on the difference in propagation velocity of artificially induced
elastic waves through various subsurface strata. These waves are generated by explosion of
dynamite in shallow shot holes. A pattern of recording detectors (also called geophones)
arranged at known distances from the shot points record the arrival time of the refracted and
reflected longitudinal waves induced by the explosion. If the wave paths, which follow the basic
laws of optics, and wave velocities, are known, their travel distances may be computed from the
arrival times recorded by the detectors. This computed distance allows the depth and variations
in depth of various strata to be computed. Variations in depth from a common surface elevation
indicate structure. Figure 1.2 illustrates these principles.

Fig 1.2 Schematic cross section of geology, seismic-ray paths, and processed seismic data
Two basic seismic techniques exist, namely the refraction and the reflection methods. The
refraction method had spectacular success in the 1924-30 period when it located many Gulf
Coast salt dome fields. In this technique, the wave travelling along a boundary between rocks of
different elastic properties is utilized. The reflection method uses the waves reflected from such
boundaries. Currently, the reflection method is of principal importance; refraction shooting is
used primarily as a reconnaissance tool to select areas and obtain interpretative data for the more
detailed reflection method.

The main difference in instrumentation of the two methods lies in the distances from shot point
to recorders. In refraction shooting, spacings of two to eight miles are used, while the reflection
technique spacing is generally less than the depth to the first reflecting bed, commonly less than
one mile.

The interpretation of seismic data requires the use of specialized, highly skilled personnel and
involves the analytical application of mathematics, physics, and geology.
 Understand Cable Tool Drilling Method and Equipment
Describe the basic technique of cable tool drilling

The first oil well in the United States was drilled with cable tools in 1859 to a depth of 65 feet.
This was the historic Drake well located near Titusville, Pennsylvania; it is credited with having
started the American petroleum industry. The cable tool (also called churn or percussion) drilling
method, however, did not originate in this country, but is believed to have been employed first
by the early Chinese in the drilling of brine wells.

Basic Principle

In this method, drilling is accomplished by the pounding action of a steel bit which is alternately
raised by a steel cable and allowed to fall, delivering sharp, successive blows to the bottom of the
hole. This principle is the same as that employed in drilling through concrete with an air
hammer, or in driving a nail through a board.

Enlist the principal components of a cable tool drilling rig including drilling
tool in the hole and show a sketch of the drilling rig indicating all the
components