10.

1 Scattering at Long Wavelength (continued)

Chapter 10: Scattering and Diffraction
For scattering problems,
problems a useful figure of meritmerit is the scattered
10.1 Scattering at Long Wavelength power ralative to incident power. Furthermore, it is often important
Differential Scattering Cross Section : Consider a plane wave to know the polarization state of the scattered
scattered radiation.
radiation Thus we
n0
Einc  ε 0 E0eikn0 x  Assume free space. n define a differential scattering cross section (with dimension m 2 ) as
   Einc  E ((10.1)) direction with ε -polarization
radiated power in n -direction polarization
 H inc  n 0  Einc Z 0 Z
 0   0 /  0  H sc
d unit solid angle
d   n, ε; n 0 , ε 0   incident p
inc Hsc
incident onto an object of dimension d   , where power in n0 -direction with ε0 -pol
p arization
n0
ε 0 can be real (linearly polarized) or complex [e.g. p, m scatterer n unit area
for circularly polarized wave, ε 0   (ε x  iε y )].  2
1
2
r 2 2 1Z ε * E sc The meaning of  will 
d  

r  0
2  become clear in (10.11). (10.3)
Einc and H inc will induce multipoles on the object, which in turn d 1 ε 0 * Einc
2 Z0
generate scattered radiation (E sc , H sc ).) For   d , only the induc induced ed
p and m are important. From (9.19) and (9.36), we have Note: (i) For a circularly polarized state, ε an be written
ε   1 (ε1  iε 2 ), where ε1  ε 2 .
E  k 2 eikr  n  p   n  n  m c  2
sc 4 0 r
 [in far zone] 2
(10.2) (ii) ε 0 and ε 0 *  n 0 ; ε and ε*  n; ε 0  ε 0 *  1; ε  ε*  1
H p  ck  n  p  e H m  4k  n  m   n e r
2 ikr ikr

H sc  n  E sc Z 0 
 p 4 r 
+  (iii) ε is not necessarily the direction of E sc . ε * E sc gives
E  Z 0 H  n
p
Em  Z 0 H m  n
Hence, to find E sc and H sc , we need to find the induced p and m. 1 the ε-component of E sc . 2

10.1 Scattering at Long Wavelength (continued) 10.1 Scattering at Long Wavelength (continued)

2 Example 1: Scattering by a small (a << ),) uniform

r 2 2 1Z ε * E sc
d
d   n, ε; n0 , ε0  
Rewrite (10.3): 0
(10.3) dielectric sphere with μ=μ0 and arbitrary ε
2
1 ε 0 * Einc a
2 Z0
   0  m  0 Einc     / 
Einc  ε 0 E0eikn0 x  r 0
  r   /  0 ((relative ppermitivity)
y)   0
Sub.  into (10.3) total electric field
E 
 sc 4 0 r 
k 2 eikr (n  p )  n  n  m c
 From ((4.56),
), we obtain the electric dipole
p moment p induced on
2 the scatterer by Einc  ε E eikn0 x 0 0
d
d   n, ε; n0 , ε0   k4 ε * [(n  p)  n]  ε *  ncm
 4 0 E0 2  
r
 
 1
p  4 0  r  2 a 3Einc  0 by assumption (4.56) & (10.5)
 ε *  p  n  n  p  2
Sub (10
Sub. 5) into d 
(10.5) d
k4 ε * p   n  ε *  m c (10 4)
(10.4)
n0  ε * p  (ε * n) (n  p)  4 0 E0 2
n 
 ε * p 0  1 2
 d
d  n, ε; n0 , ε 0   k 4 a 6  r  2 ε * ε 0
r
2
(10 6)
(10.6)
2
k4 (nε*)m
r  2 ε * p  (10.4)
d  4 0 E0  c Question: 

 is derived for a dielectric sphere in a static field.
field
3 Why is it also valid for the time-dependent field here? 4
Reminder 4.4 Boundary-Value Problems with Dielectrics (continued) Reminder
4.4 Boundary-Value Problems with Dielectrics (continued
p : A dielectric sphere
Example p is pplaced in a uniform electric field.  
R it in   Al r l Pl (cos
Rewrite: ) out    Bl r l  Cl r l 1  Pl (cos
(  ), ( )
Find  everywhere. E0 l 0 l 0
r
a 
b.c. (i): out ()   E0 z  const.   E0 r cos   const.
E0
z  B0  const.; B1   E0 ; Bl (l  1)  0 P1 (cos  )
  cos 
b.c. (ii): in ( a)  out ( a) [  Etin ( a)  Etout ( a)]
We choose the spherical coordinates and divide the space into two
regions, we have  2  0 with the
regions: r  a and r  a. In both regions  A0  B0  C0 a (8)
Cl 
 Al a  Bl a  l 1   A1   E0  C1 a3
l l
(9)
r l   P m (cos  )  eim 
solution:    l 1   l m   im  [Sec
[Sec. 33.1
1 of lecture notes] a  A  C a 2l 1 , l  1 (10)
 l
 r  l
Q (cos  )  e 
l
b.c. (iii):  Erin (a )   0 Erout (a )   r in   0 r out
 r a r a
 is i d d off  .  in   Al r l Pl (cos  )
i independent l 1 l 1 l 2 
   l 0   lAl a   0 lBl a  (l  1)Cl / a
b.c.  is finite at cos   1.   

 is finite at r  0.  out    Bl r l  Cl r l 1  Pl (cos  ) 0   0C0 / a 2 , l 0 (11)
 l 0  
in
 3
Question: If l  00, out   as r  . Why then keep the l  0   A1   0 [ E0  2C1 / a ], l  1 (12)
 lA   (l  1)C / a 2l 1 , l  1
terms in out ? 5
 l 0 l (13) 6

Reminder 4.4 Boundary-Value Problems with Dielectrics (continued 10.1 Scattering at Long Wavelength (continued)

(7) (11)  A0  B0  const. (let it be 0.)

(7), 0) We define the n-n 0 plane as the scattering plane. Let n 0 be along
3E0  /  0 1  3 the z -axis and n lie on the x-z plane. The orientations ( ,  ) of unit
(9), (12)  A1   ; C1    a E0
2 /  0   /  0 2  t ε 0 , ε (1) , andd ε (2) are specified
vectors ifi d accordingly
di l as fol
f llows
l
(10), (13)  Al  Cl  0 for l  1 ε  ( ,  )
This is the only way (3) &  polarization of  z
 3 (6) can both be satisfied.  0 2 0
incident
i id t wave 
in   2   /  E0 r cos    polarization state 
n n0
 direction 
 0 ε (1)  (   , 0) of scattered wave       off incident
i id t 
  /  0  1 a3 (
(4.54) )  2 2
   E r cos   E cos   to scattering plane  x  wave n 0 
out 0
  /  0  2 r 2 0 
 applied field    / 0 1  (2)    polarization state  (1) 0 ε (2)
 dipole field with p  4 0 a 3E0 [cf. (4.10)] ε  ( 2 , 2 ) of scattered wave  ε ε0 y
 / 0  2
   to scattering plane 
polarization

charge [see (4.58)] where ε 0 is on the x - y plane making an angle 0 with the x-axis, ε (1)
E0 plane, ε (2) ( e y ) is  to the scattering plane
is on the x - z (scattering) plane plane,
and n, ε (1) , and ε (2) are mutually orthogonal. Polarization vector (ε 0 )
off the
h incident l i i states [ε (1) , ε (2) ] off the
i id wave andd polarization h scattered
d
E due to polarization charge total electric field 7 wave are all assumed to be real, representing linear polarization. 8
 10.1 Scattering at Long Wavelength (continued) 10.1 Scattering at Long Wavelength (continued)
z Assume that the incident radiation has a fixed direction n 0 , but
Applying Eq. (1) in Ch. 3 of lecture notes:
n n0 is unpolarized (i.e. 0 is random). We take the average over 0 :
cos   sin  sin   cos       cos  cos    direction 
     of incident 
[ : angle between ( ,  ) and ( ,  )] 2  d  2
1 2 d  d  k 4a6  r 1 cos 2 
x  wave n 0   d    2 0 d  0 2  r 2 n0
 (1) 
to ε 0  ( 2 , 0 ), ε  ( 2   , 0), and n
((1))
0 ε (2) 
0
 (10.7)
ε 2
(2) 
ε  ( 2 , 2 ), ) we obtain    2  4 6  1
 1 d  k 2a  r  2
d d
 d  0 2 0 d  0

ε0 y r
ε  ε 0  sin      sin  cos  0  0   cos      cos 
r
(1) d
2 2 2 2 d  d 
 
  cos 0 cos  d  d
0 sin 2   100% linearly 
 (2)      0
   (10.9)
ε  ε 0  sin i 2 cos  2  0   cos 2 cos 2
i 2 sin d 
d 

d 
d
1  cos 2   polarized at   2 
0
  sin 0
0
 where    gives the degree of polarization of the scatt
tteere
red
d radiation.
d (n, ε;  1 2 2
n 0 , ε 0 )  k 4 a 6  r  2 ε * ε 0
Rewrite (10.6): d r
d
d  0

d 
d 

d 
d
0
 1 2 1
 k 4a6  r2
r 2 1  cos2   (10.10)
 d  4 6  r 1
2
(1) 2 4 6  r 12
2
2
0

 d   k a  r  2 ε  ε 0  k a  r  2 cos 0 cos     d  1 2
d   83 k 4 a 6  r  2   a 2 [ka  1] (10.11)
  2 2 0 d  0
2 r
 d   k 4 a 6  r 1 ε (2)  ε 0  k 4 a 6  r 1 sin 2 0 Question 1: In (10.10), why add powers instead of adding fields?
 d  r 2  r 2 9 10

10.1 Scattering at Long Wavelength (continued) 10.1 Scattering at Long Wavelength (continued)

11) gives     a 2 , impling that only a small fraction

(10.11)
(10 As in Example 1,1 for unploarized incident radiation,
radiation (10.14)
(10 14) yields
0
 n0
of the radiation incident on the dielectric sphere is scattered. This  d 4 6
 k 2a (cos    )2 n
is true even if the scatterer is a perfectly conducting sphere (with  d  0 
 d (10.15)
radius   ). See next example.  d 
4 6
 k 2a (1   cos  ) 2 r
E
Examplel 2: Scattering
S i byb a small ll perfectly
f l conducting
d i sphe h re  0 d

d d  d 
The incident radiation will induce both electric and magnetic  d  0
 d
 d 
 k 4 a 6 [ 85 (1  cos 2  )  cos  ] (10.16)
0 0
dipole moments (p and m) on the conductor. p and m are given by
3sin 2 
3
p  4 0 a Einc [See Sec. 3.3 of lecture notes.] (10.12)     [peak at   60] (10.17)
5(1  cos 2  )  8 cos 
m =  2 a3H inc [See next problem.] (10.13) d
 0
 d  0
d   10 4 6 2
3  k a   a [ka  1]
Einc  ε 0 E0e ikn0 x 
  (10.1) Again, we find     a 2 . By geometric optics, the scatterer (a

From H inc  n 0  Einc Z 0 [Z0  0 /  0 ] 0
conductor) would be opaque to the incident radiation,
radiation and the incident
 d  k4 2
2  p   n      m c (10.4) radiation would have been totally blocked [     a 2 ]. This example
 d   4 0 E0  0

2 d
demonstrates
t t that
th t geometric
t i optics
ti completely b k ddown ffor   a,
l t l breaks
we obtain dd  k 4 a 6      n   n 0     (10.14) 11 where we need physical optics, as in scattering/diffraction theory. 12
 10.1 Scattering at Long Wavelength (continued) 10.1 Scattering at Long Wavelength (continued)

Problem: Derive the dipole moment in (10 13): m =  2 a3H inc .

(10.13): r l   P m (cos  )  eim 
Rewrite    l 1   l m   im  P1 (cos  )
Solution: Since   a, we r r  Ql (cos  )  e   cos 
may assume H inc tot be
b uniform.
if 
H inc a H inc  is independent of  .   l 1 
      Al r  Cl r  Pl (cos  )
For a perfect conductor, we z b.c.  l
EB0  is finite at cos   1. l 0
h
have E  B  0 inside
i id the
th sphere.
h
In Sec. 9.3, we have shown that in the near zone (r   ), the b.c.  (r  )  0 H inc r cos   A1  0 H inc & Al  0 if   1

magnetic
ti di
dipole
l radiation
di ti has
h negligible
li ibl E-field
fi ld. Hence,
H we assume    0 H inc r cos    Cl r l 1Pl (cos  )
 l 0
  B   t E  0 outside the sphere and write B   . Then, 
b c r 
b.c.  0  ( 0 H inc  23 C1 ) cos    ll12 Cl Pl (cos  )  0
  B = 0   2  0 with the solution: [Sec. 3.1 of lecture notes] r a a l 2 a
1 3
r l   Plm (cos  )  eim  This model is valid for r   ,  C1  2 0 a H inc & Cl  0 if   1
  l 1     im  which is sufficient for us to    0 H inc r cos   12 0 a 3 H inc cos2
 Ql (cos  )  e
m
r  find the dipole moment of a r
 a3 2 cos  er  sin  e
subject to boundary conditions: sphere with radius   .  B(due
d to the h )   (2nd
h sphere 2 d term)   02 H inc
r3
B(r  )  0 H ince z   (r  )  0 H inc z  0 H inc r cos  Comparing
p g with (5.41),
( ), we find that this is a magnetic
g dipole
p field
  3
 B (r  a )  0  r  r a  0 13
produced by a (induced) dipole moment of m =  2 a H inc . 14

Optional 10.2 Perturbation Theory of Scattering Optional 10.2 Perturbation Theory of Scattering (continued)

Assume D, E, B, H  e it , (10 22) 

(10.22)
General Theory: Conside a slightly non-uniform medium with
(  0 0 ) D       D   0E   i 0   B  0 H 
2 2
(10.23)
 (x)   0   (x)  In Sec. 10.1,  of the scatterer can be  
  off any value,
l butb t the
th solution i more 
l ti is k2
  (x)  0   (x)  restricted by the scatterer geometry.  ( 2  k 2 )G ( x, x)  4 (x  x)  G ( x, x)  e xx . Hence,
ik x  x

where  0 and 0 are independent of x and t ( 0 and 0 are not

ik x  x      D   E  
necessarily the free space values.) D  D(0)  41  d 3 x e xx  0
 (10.24)
  E   Bt       0E   0 t   B  0 (1) i 0   B  0 H  
Note: (i) D(0) is an incident plane wave which satisfies the homo-
  H  Dt   0 t   0 H  0 0 2 D ((2))
t 2
geneous Helmholtz eq. eq [i.e.
[i e the RHS of (10.23)(10 23) = 0]
(1)  (2)       0E   0 t    B  0 H    0 0 2 D (3) (ii) (10.24) is an integral relation, not a solution.
t 2
n
Let the integrand in (10.24)
(10 24) be of
    D      D    2 D   2 D d x x

(4) dimension d and r  d , then x  x
  free  0 The p purpose
p of the above manipulation
p  r  n  x and we can write D as ik x x ikk ( r nx)
is to obtain this small quantity, which (0) ikr e  e r nx for r  d
(3)  (4)  can be treated as a perturbation. D  D  A sc r with
e xx 
  neglect
g
 2 2
D  0 0  2 D       D   0E    0 t    B  0 H  (10.22)
 3 iknx      D   0 E  
A sc  4  d xe
1
i   B   H  (10.26)
t 15
 0  0  16
Optional 10.2 Perturbation Theory of Scattering (continued) Optional 10.2 Perturbation Theory of Scattering (continued)
3 iknx Born Approximation: Rewrite (10 (10.27)
27)
 d xe   a [a is
i any vector t function
f ti off x.]]

i
integration
i
a a a a a a
  d 3 xe iknx[e x ( yz  zy )  e y ( zx  xz )  e z ( xy  yx )]
2
  
A sc  4k  d 3 xe iknx n   D   0E   n  0k n   B  0 H  (10.27) 
by parts
  d 3 xe iknx[ie x (k y a z  k z a y )  e y ()  e z ()] For a linear medium,
 D(x)   0   ( x)  E(x) D   0E   (x)E
  d 3 xe iknxi  k  a    d 3 xe iknxik  n  a     (10.29)
 The end result is to replace " " with "ikn " B(x)   0   ( x)  H ( x) B  0 H   (x) H

n   D   0E   n  We see from (10.29) that the integrand of (10.27) is composed of

(10 26)  A sc  4k  d 3 xe iknx   0
2
(10.26)  (10.27)
(10 27) small quantities  E and  H. To first order in  and  , we only
 k n   B  0 H   need to use the zero order (or unperturbed) E(0) and H (0) for E and
d ε * A sc ε : polarization 
2
i 
H in  E andd  H. Thus,
Th we write it
From (10.3), we obtain   vector of the  (10.28)
d D (0) 2 scattered wave    (x) (0)
D   E   ( x ) E  D This approx.,
pp called the 

0
0  Born approx., turns the 
Note: (i) Asc gives the scattered field Dsc = Asceikr/r [hence Hsc  integral (10.30)
(10 2)] sc is NOT a vector potential
through (10.2)]. potential. 
 (x) (0) g eq. q ((10.27)) into 
B  0 H    ( x) H  B  
(ii) (10.27) is an integral equation for Asc, NOT a solution. 17
 0 a solution for A sc .  18

Optional 10.2 Perturbation Theory of Scattering (continued) Optional 10.2 Perturbation Theory of Scattering (continued)

L t the
Let th unperturbed
t b d fields
fi ld be
b those
th off a plane
l wave, Example: Scattering by a uniform dielectric sphere with
D(0) (x)  ε 0 D0eikn0 x , B (0) (x) 
0
n  D(0) (x)  = + and   
0 0 q[ k (n 0  n)]
3 iqx
Sub. D(0) ( x) and B (0) ( x) into (10.30),  d x e
n0  y  y
2
 0 r 2 dr 0 d 1 d cos   eiqrcos 
then sub. (10.30) into (10.27), and finally a 1
x n0
n 0
multiply
u t p y thee result
esu t by ε * D0 y 1 vacuum
1 eiqr y   0 +

2 0 r 2 dr   iqr ( 0 , 0 )
a

ε * ε 0  ( x)     y 1
ε * A (1) k 2
3 iqx  0 
 d xe 
sc  (10 31)
(10.31)
4  ( x)   a cos qa sin qa  n
     4q 0 r  sin( qr ) dr   4    3 
a
D0  (n ε*) (n ε ) 0 
0 0   q2 q 
where q  k (n 0  n). The absolute square of (10.31) gives the Thus, from (10.31) (let   0)
differential scattering cross section through (10.28). ε*A sc  sin qqa qa q 
q cosqa
2
 k 2 
 0 (ε * ε 0 )  3 
d ε * A sc
D0
 q 3
sin x  x  16 x , x  0
 (10.28) qa 0
d
d D(0)
2
 k 2 a3 3
 (ε * ε 0 )
2
cos x  1  12 x , x  0
0
19 20
Optional 10.2 Perturbation Theory of Scattering (continued)
10.2 Perturbation Theory of Scattering (continued)

2 Blue Sky and Red Sunset: Scattering by gases

ε*A sc d ε * A sc
Sub.  k 2 a3 
3 0 (ε * ε 0 ) into  (10.28) D   0E  P (4.34)  D   0E  Np =  0E  N  mol  0E   E
D0 qa 0 d D(0)
2
Macroscopically we have
Macroscopically, p: dipole moment per molecule
2    0 1  N  mol 
 lim
qa 0
 d
d   Born
 k 4 a 6 3
0 ε * ε 0
2
(10.32) p   mol  0E
Microscopically we may write  mol : molecular polarizability
Microscopically,
[see (4.72) & (4.73)]
d  1 2 2   0 , when spreaded over
in agreement with d
 k 4 a 6  r  2 ε * ε 0 (10.6) in the limit the size of the molecule N : no of molecules/unit volume
r 
 r    0  1.  (x)   0    mol  0 (x  x j )   (x)   0   mol (x  x j ) (10.33)
j j
Question:
Q ti (10 6) andd (10.32)
(10.6) (10 32) both
b th give
i the
th differential
diff ti l scattering
tt i
Since  (x) fluctuates microscopically with a weak variation  (x ),
cross section (dd) of a dielectric sphere with radius much y apply
we may pp y the pperturbation theory
y jjust developed.
p
smaller than the wavelength. (10.6) is valid for arbitrary values of Sub.  (x) into (10.31), then sub. (10.31) into (10.28), we obtain
r (  /0). It reduces to (10.32) in the limit r → 1. A physical d 4 2 2
 k 2  mol ε * ε 0 F (q)), [assume   0]
effect in included in (10.6) [but not in (10.32)] that keeps dd at d 16
for randomly distributed molecules
a finite value in the limit r → ∞ ? What is it? Explain
p whyy it keeps
p 2
iq x j  x j  

iqx j total l l 
t t l no off molecules
dd finite. where F (q )   e  e (10.19)
21 j j j  (incoherent radiation)  22

10.2 Perturbation Theory of Scattering (continued) 10.2 Perturbation Theory of Scattering (continued)

l  mol to the
W now relate
We h macroscopic i i  , n, andd N .
i quantities Let I be the intensity (power/unit area) of the incident wave wave, then

 0 1 dI (10.34) and (10.35) describe what
   0 1  N  mol    mol  N  n N1  2( nN1) index of   IN   I ,
2
dx is known as Rayleigh scattering.
scattering
4 2 2 refraction 2k 4 2
 dd  k 2  mol ε * ε 0 F (q)  where   N  n  1 [attenuation coefficient] (10.35)
16 n 1 0 3 N
k4 2 2 Discussion :
 n  1 ε * ε 0 F (q)
4 2 N 2  Violet light (  410 nm) is scattered more than
(i)   k 4   650 4
 Total scattering cross section per molecule is given by  red light (  650 nm) by a factor of ( 410 )  6.3.
(ii) In (10.35), n  1  12 N  mol (see last page). Hence,   N if
  F 1(q )  dd d  [F (q) : total number of scatterers]
atoms (or molecules) of the same type are added or taken out.
0
 k 4 n  1 2 2 d 1 d cos  ε * ε 2  (iii) The atoms in a gas radiate incoherently, but the charges within
4 2 N 2 0 
1  0
  n an atom radiate coherently. Suppose there are 10 electron-ion
 2k 4 n 1
2 ε * ε 0  cos  2     sin 

(10.34) pairs in each atom and we were able to split all the atoms into
3 N 2 1 2 a gas off single
i l electron-ion
l i pairs,
i eachh with
i h the
h same p. Then,
Th theh
1 sin  d cos   4
3 macroscopic n remains the same, but the split pairs no longer
 is on the  0 -n
plane for dipole radiate coherently,
coherently resulting in a scattered intensity 10 times
scatterer (p.458). 23 weaker. This explains the factor N1 in (10.35) (See p. 468). 24
 10.2 Perturbation Theory of Scattering (continued) 10.5 Scalar Diffraction Theory
inclination  plane wave
IIn the
h earth h atmosphere,
h  iis a angle: 23.5o
function of x. Then, lowest-order approximation
d
dI ( x)
  I ( x) ( x) 
sun
ray tracing (geometrical optics)
dx
  ( x ) dx
x from "Atlas of next-order
t d approximation
i ti
 I ( x)  I 0e 0 the Solar System", 
plane wave diffraction theory (physical optics)
Royal Astro. Soc.
1 1 Questions: r
d Assume r  d such that these
(i) Why is the sky blue 2 lines are almost pparallel
08
0.8 08
0.8
instead of violet? First minimum (complete cancellation)
0.6 0.6 (ii) Why is it more likely occurs at d sin       d if d   .
I / I0

to get a sunburn
b in
i Nature of the diffraction problem: Physically, the diffraction
0.4 violet red 0.4
the summer? problem here is not separable from the scattering problem. However,
0.2 high
sunrise, 0.2 (iii) Hot summer/cold the treatments are different The scattering problem treated in this
noon
sunset winter results mostly
chapter assumes   d. The scalar diffraction theory is most valid
0 0
from a different cause
0 10 20 30 40
when d >>, for which it gives the next-order correction to the
in Atmosphere than in (ii). What is it?
25 geometrical optics (see p. 478). 26

10.5 Scalar Diffraction Theory (continued)

10.5 Scalar Diffraction Theory (continued)
Thus,, E, H, and n are mutually y orthogonal,
g , and the amplitudes
p of
Justification
ii i of the Scalar Diffraction
i i Theory: Physically,
h i ll
E and H have a known ratio Z0. Therefore, one component of the
electronic responses (J, ) of the aperture material to the incident
fields gives most of the information (phase and intensity,
intensity but not the
wave generate electromagnetic fields in addition to dissipating some
polarization) about the far fields. This justifies a scalar theory for the
of the incident wave. Far from the edges of the aperture, J and 
diffraction phenomenon and explains why it has been the basis of
principally result in reflection of the incident wave, while J and 
most of the work on diffraction.
near the edges produce fields that pass to the right of the aperture
The Kirchhoff Integral Formula: In the scattering problem,problem we
together with the incident wave. The superposed fields form the
calculate the scattered fields due to J and  associated with the dipole
diffraction p
pattern. In the far zone of the diffraction region
g ( >a few moments induced by the incident fields In the diffraction problem,
problem
λ from the aperture), the fields take the form of an EM wave, which the fields are produced in part by the induced J and  on the aperture
obeys material but J and  do not appear explicitly in field equations.
material, equations They
E  Z 0 H  n [see (9.19)] are implicit in the boundary conditions. The Kirchhoff integral
where
h Z0 = (0/0)1/2 is
i the
th impedance
i d formula expresses the diffracted fields in terms of the boundary fields.
fields
of vacuum, and n is the direction of Determination of the near fields requires accurate handling of the
wave propagation. b c ’s (very few cases can be solved completely).
b.c.’s completely) However,
However the far
27 fields can be fairly accurately determined with crude b.c.’s. 28
 10.5 Scalar Diffraction Theory (continued) 10.5 Scalar Diffraction Theory (continued)
 
Refer to the figures to the right. S1 is an Rewrite v ( 2  2 )d 3 x   s (  )da (1.35)
opaque surface with aperture(s) on it. The n n
Introduce a Green's 
Green s function G (x, x ) satisfying
diffraction region (Region II) is the volume
enclosed by S1 and S2 . ( 2  k 2 )G (x, x)   (x  x) (10.74)
Let  (x, t )   ( x)e it be a scalar field Apply (1.35) to the volume enclosed by S1 and S2
((a component
p of E or B), then (Region II) and let    and   G.
2  k 2  (x)  0,
2 2
k  (x )  
 k G ( x,x )  ( x  x ) 
k  c (10.73)   
3 2 2
Note:  gives the phase and intensity, but not v d x[G (x, x)   (x)   (x)  G (x, x)]
the polarization, of the fields.    s  s da[G (x, x)n  (x)   (x)n G (x, x)]
1 2
Below, we will express  in Region II in terms
For an observation point x inside region II,
of  and n
on the boundaryy surfaces byy making
g
 (x)   s  s da[ (x)n G (x, x)  G (x, x)n  (x)] (10.75)
use of Green's thm. 1 2

2 2 3   Note: n is inwardly directed into the volume instead of outwardly

outwardly
v (    )d x   s (  )dad (
(1.35)
)
n n 29 directed as in (1.35). 30

Is this a good choice? 10.5 Scalar Diffraction Theory (continued) 10.5 Scalar Diffraction Theory (continued)

S l ti off (10
Solution (10.74):
ikR
74) G (x, x)  4e R withith R  x  x. (10 76)
(10.76) Kirchhoff Approximation
Approximation: Rewrite (10
(10.79),
79)
 ( x )   41 s da  e R n      ( x)  ik 1  kR R
i R  ( x ) 
ikR
Green function with
outgoing wave bb.c.
c
R
(
(note:
R R  R ) 1  (10.79)
 G (x, x)   dR   kR  R
d G R   e ik 1  i R (10.79) is an integral equation for  . It becomes a solution for 
ikR

 4 R under the Kirchhoff approximation, which consists of

ikR ikR
ik e4 R  e 2 1.  and  n
vanish everywhere on S1 except in the openings.
Hence, 4 R
2.  and  in the openings are those of the incident
n   ( x)  ik 1  
i R  ( x)  n
ikR
 ( x)   41  s1  s2 da e R kR R  (10.77)
wave in the absence of any o bstacles.
We assume that  on S2 is transmitted through S1. Then  S  1r
1 Then, There are,
are however,
however mathematical inconsistencies with
2
and the contribution to the integral in (10.77) from S2 vanishes as the the Kirchhoff approximation:
inverse of the radius of the sphere
sphere. Assume further that the radius goes 1 If  and 
1. n
surface then   0 everywher
vanish on any finite surface, everywheree
to infinity and hence neglect the contribution from S2 . (10.77) then (true for both Laplace and Helmholtz equations).
gives the Kirchhoff integral formula 2 (10.79)
2. (10 79) does
d no t yield
i ld on S1 the
th assumedd values
l off  andd  .
n
  (x)   41 s da e R n   (x)  ik 1  kR R
i R  ( x)  Approximations made here work best for   d , and fail badly for
ikR

1  (10.79)  ~ d or  > d (d : size i off the

th aperture or obstacle).
b t l ) See
S p.478.
478
 in Region II is now expressed in terms of  and  n
on S1. 31 32
 10.5 Scalar Diffraction Theory (continued) 10.5 Scalar Diffraction Theory (continued)

Remove the mathematical inconsistencies

inconsistencies in the Kirchhoff A Special Case*: Diffraction of spherical waves originating
Approximation by the choice of a proper Green function. from a point source at Ps.
If  iss known
ow oon thee su
surface
ce S1 , a Dirichet
c e GGreen u c o GD (x,x),
ee function ikRs
satisfying GD (x,x)=0 for x on S is required.  ( x)  e R (by Kirchhoff approximation ) (5)

 
s
ikR
A ggeneralized Kirchhoff integral:
g   (x)   e R ik 1  kRi
s ikR Rs G (x, x)  4e R (6)
Rs
 (x)   da[ (x)n G (x, x)]
s s
(10.81) Sub. (5), (6) into (10.79), assume kR & kRs  1 and hence neglect
s 1

Consider a plane screen with aperature (s). The method of images O   and O   terms, we obtain
1
kR
1
kRs

n    
can be used to ggive the Dirichlet Green functions explicit
p form: ik  R  Rs  Rs R
d e
 ( P )  ik s da (7)
 
4

 
RRs Rs R
1 eikR eikR 1
observation
GD (x, x)   R (10.84) Ps (point source)
observation
P point
4 R R point
Rs
 R  x  x  ( x  x, y  y, z  z ) n
where 
x
R  x  x  ( x  x, y  y, z  z ) * More cases can be found in Marion & O (origin of coordinates)
 (x)  2k i  eikR
s1 R
1  kRi  nRR  (x)da ((10.85)) Heald, “Classical
Classical Electromagnetic
33 Radiation,” following Eq. (12.14). 34

10.5 Scalar Diffraction Theory (continued) 10.5 Scalar Diffraction Theory (continued)
As we will see from the following example
example, the scalar diffraction
theory agrees with observations, although it is highly artificial.
Sub. (8) into  ( P )  4ikk s da e
1
ik  R  Rs 
RRs
n   Rs
Rs

R
R  (7)

E
Example l : Diffraction bby a circ
circular
lar disk
disk. For simplicit
simplicity, wee ass
assume
me e 2ikR 
  ( P )  ikb  2 2 2 dR (9)
(i) Ps and P are on the axis of the disk. d b R
(ii) Ps and P are at equal distance from the disk. a
Integrating by parts [ a 2 udv  uv a2  a 2 vdu , u 
a a 1 , dv  e 2ikR dR ]
n 1 1 1 R2
e 2ikR 
Rs  e 2ikR 
 2ikR 2 d 2 b2 2ik  d b R3
r R  ( P )  ikb   1 dR 
2 2
d 
 
Ps P (integrating by parts again)
b d
b  
Rs  R   2ikR  2ikR   2ik d 2 b 2
e e be
 R 2  r 2  b 2  r dr
d   RdR    ikb      (10)
da  2 r dr  
 Hence, da  2 RdR
  

(8)  2ikR 2 d 2 b2 4k 2 R3 d 2 b2
    
 2 d 2  b2

 
Rs   negligible, 
n  R   cos    Rb , n  RR  cos   Rb 
s  35 since kR  1 36
 10.5 Scalar Diffraction Theory (continued)
10.5 Scalar Diffraction Theory (continued)
A historical anecdote about the Fresnel bright spot: (The following paragraphs
Questions:
 
2 2 are taken
k from Halliday,
llid Resnick,
i k and d Walker.)
lk )
(i) Intensity at P: I ( P )   ( P )  b 2 /[4 d 2  b 2 ] (11) “Diffraction finds a ready explanation in the wave theory of light. However, this
Since I ( P )  0 for all b, there is always a bright spot (Fresnel theory originally advanced by Huygens and used 123 years later by Young to explain
theory,
bright spot ) at any point on the axis. What is the physical reason? double-slit interference, was very slow in being adopted, largely because it ran counter
2 ikR
to Newton’s theory that light was a stream of particles.
(ii) lim  ( P )  e 2b (12) Newton’s view was the prevailing view in French scientific circles of the early
d 0 nineteenth century, when Augustin Fresnel was a young military engineer. Fresnel, who
In the limit of no obsticle (d  0),0)  ( P ) reduces to the exact b li d in
believed i the
th wave theory
th off light,
li ht submitted
b itt d a paper to
t the
th French
F h Academy
A d off
solution for a point source at Ps , i.e. the approximate solution in (10) Sciences describing his experiments and his wave-theory explanations of them.
becomes the exact solution
solution in (12). What is the mathematical reason? In 1819, the Academy, dominated by supporters of Newton and thinking to
challenge the wave point of view, organized a prize competition for an essay on the
← The diffraction pattern of a disk (from subject of diffraction. Fresnel won. The Newtonians, however, were neither converted
Halliday, Resnick, and Walker). Note the nor silenced. One of them, S. D. Poisson, pointed out the “strange result” that if
Fresnel’s theories were correct, then light waves should flare into the shadow region of
Fresnel bright spot at the center of the
a sphere as they pass the edge of the sphere,
sphere producing a bright spot at the center of the
pattern. The concentric diffraction rings are shadow. The prize committee arranged a test of the famous mathematician’s prediction
not ppredictable byy ((11),
), which applies
pp only
y and discovered that the p predicted Fresnel bright
g spot,
p as we call it today, y was indeed
to fields on the axis. there! Nothing builds confidence in a theory so much as having one of its unexpected
37 and counterintuitive predictions verified by experiment.” 38

Benson 10.8 Babinet’s Principle

Newton’s Ring
g
Rewrite  ( x)   41 s da e R n   ( x)  ik 1  kR R
i R  ( x)  (10.79)
ikR
When a lens with a large radius of curvature is place on a flat plate, 1 
g 37.19,, a thin film of air is formed. When Newton is
as in Fig.
no diffraction screen
screen, imagimary surface
illuminated with mono-chronomatic light, circular fringes, called
Newton’s Ringsg , can be seen. Ps  ( P )   41 dashed surface ()

diffraction screen
Ps  a ( P )   41 dashed surface ()

complementary diffraction screen

Ps  b ( P )   41 dashed surface ()

on the obatacle :  and  n

0
Why the center spot is dark unlike Fresnel bright spot? By Kirchoff's approx.:   ,
 elsewhere :  and n
 those of the source
This is the wave nature. 39
we have  ( P)   a ( P)   b ( P) [Babinet's principle] 40
 10.8 Babinet’s Principle (continued) Fresnel and Fraunhofer Diffraction: (see p.491)
Th is
There i a clear
l diffraction
diff ti pattern
tt onlyl
Example: a light beam of finite width P
when r  d . So, In integrals such as (10.77), r
d r
no screen R (| x  x |) can bbe approximated
i t d bby r ( | x |)
 ( P)  0 rx
everywhere except in eikR , where the phase
 angle
l kR mustt be
b evaluated
l t d more accurately. t l r   x
 finite width Consider three length scales: r , d , and  . n
 x  x
R  x  x  (r 2  2rr  cos   r 2 )1/ 2
2 1/ 2 2 2
 a ( P)  b ( P)  r 1  ( 2nrx  r2 )   r 1  12 ( 2nrx  r2 )  81 ( 2nrx  r2 )2  
 r   r r 
2
complementary
p y  2  nx  
 r 1  nrx  12 ( r2  2 )    r  n  x  21r  r 2   n  x   
2
screen  r r   
screen 2
 kR  O(kr )  O(kd )  O( kdr )  
Babinet's principle   ( P )   a ( P )   b ( P )  0 If the 3rd and higher terms are neglected, we have the Fraunhofer
  a ( P )  
 b ( P) field) If the 3rd term is kept
diffraction (far field). kept, but higher order terms
41 are neglected, we have the Fresnel diffraction (near field). 42

Homework of Chap. 10

Problems: 2,, 3,, 7,, 12,, 14

43