CARIBBEAN EXAMINATION COUNCIL

ADVANCED PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION

GEOGRAPHY SCHOOL BASED ASSESSMENT 

A COMPARATIVE MORPHOMETRIC ANALYSIS OF THE HYDROLOGICAL

BEHAVIOUR OF THE RIO MINHO AND THE BLACK RIVER DRAINAGE BASINS

Name: Shaneil Facey and Asannia Clarke

Centre Name: Wolmer’s Trust High School for Girls

Centre Number: 100129

Candidate Number: 1001290132 and 1001290817

Territory: Jamaica

Year of Examination: 2021

Unit Assessed: 1

Supervising Teacher: Ms. J. Henry

 Table of Contents

Statement of Purpose of Investigation…………………………………....1

Methodology……………………………………………………………...3

Presentation, Analysis and Discussion of Data………………………….11

Conclusion and Recommendations ….………………………………….17

Bibliography…………………………………………………………….18
 Statement of Purpose of Investigation
Horton developed a quantitative method of analyzing drainage basins of which Strahler

revised. Strahler’s method is based on the classification of stream segments. Where a segment

downstream of the confluence of two first order streams join a second order is formed (Strahler,

1952). Subsequently if two second order streams form a confluence then a third order stream

develops. The ensuing investigation uses this method in comparing the Rio Minho and Black

River drainage basins. Therefore, the main purpose of this investigation is to characterize and

analyze the hydrological behaviour of the Rio Minho and Black River drainage basins, using

Strahler’s classification method. 

Table 1 shows the three categories of drainage basin morphometric parameters that will be

calculated and used as the metric system to aid in the comparison. 

TABLE 1: THE MORPHOMETRIC PARAMETERS CALCULATED

Relief Parameters Linear Morphometric Parameters Areal Morphometric Analysis
Basin Relief (Bh) Number of Streams in each order (N1, Basin Shape (Rf)
N2, N3)
Relief Ratio (Rh) Total Number of Streams in Drainage Basin Circularity or Elongation
Basin (Nu) (Re/Rc)
Basin Height (Bh) Average Stream Length (Lsm) Drainage Density (Dd)
Ruggedness Number Total Stream Length (Lu) Stream Frequency (Fs)
(Rn)
Bifurcation Ratio (Rb) Drainage Texture (T)

Length of Overland Flow (Lg) Basin Area (A)

These objectives were created to ensure that the main aim of the research is achieved:

 To utilize topographic maps as analytical tools for investigating the Rio Minho and the

Black River hydrological basin.

1
 To calculate relief linear and areal morphometric parameters to characterize, compare and

analyse the Rio Minho and Black River hydrological basin.

 To investigate the relationship between stream order and key aspects of the hydrological

basin being investigated (inclusive of the stream number, mean basin area and

cumulative average stream length).

2
 METHODOLOGY 

The primary purpose of this investigation is to compare the hydrological behaviour of the

Black River drainage basin in St. Elizabeth and the Rio Minho drainage basin in Clarendon,

Jamaica using Strahler’s stream ordering method. The morphometric parameters measured and

calculated are categorized into linear, relief and areal. The calculations and measurements

described in the proceeding segment was done for both drainage basins. The linear parameters

are the first to be explained. These include: stream length, basin perimeter, basin length, stream

order and bifurcation ratio.

Stream length (L ) was determined by using the string method of measurement. The string
u

was affixed to the length of a stream. Each stream in the drainage basin was measured and placed

against the scale of the map and converted into ground distance. Upon completion the total

stream length of each basin was found. Each stream in the drainage basin was measured and

placed against the scale of the map and converted. Figure 1 shows this process.

Figure 1: Calculation of Stream Length Using the String Method

 
Source: Shaneil Facey (2021)
Following this, the length of each basin (L ) was determined by measuring the maximum length
b

of the basin parallel to the major stream with a string. A piece of string was stretched parallel 3
to the longest stream across the drainage basin. This length was marked on the string and then

placed against the scale of the map and converted into ground distance. Figure 2 illustrates this.

The basin perimeter (P) was also measured via the use of a string. The string was used to encircle

the boundary of the drainage basin. The length was marked off and then placed against the scale

of the map and converted into ground distance. Figure 2 below shows this parameter.

Figure 2: Basin Length and Perimeter

Source: Shaneil Facey (2021)

Streams were also categorized according to their position-order within a drainage network via

the use of Strahler’s stream order classification method. This classification method designated all

initial tributaries to be first order streams. Second order streams were formed at the intersection

of two first order streams. Third order streams were formed at the junction of two second order

streams. The stream order increased by one when two streams of the same order met. Where

streams of two different orders meet the stream takes on the classification of the higher stream

segment. Figure 3 illustrates Strahler’s stream order classification method.

4
 Figure 3: Strahler’s Stream Ordering

Source: Book of Mormon (2014) 

 The bifurcation ratio (R ) was then calculated by dividing the total number of streams in a
b

specific stream order by the total number of streams in the next higher order. Figure 4 is a

diagrammatic example of the calculation of bifurcation ratio.

Figure 4: Bifurcation Ratio Formula

 
 
 

Source: Norhidayah Rasin (2016)

The relief aspects were then measured and calculated. Firstly, the height of the drainage basin

was measured by subtracting the minimum elevation (the mouth) from the maximum elevation

(highest point) within the basin. This is highlighted in figure 5 below.

 5

Figure 5: Basin Height/Relief

Calculation

Source: Shaneil Facey (2021)

Relief Ratio (R ) was also calculated by dividing the basin relief by the maximum horizontal
h

distance along the longest dimension of the basin parallel to the principal drainage line as seen in

the formula below.

R = H/L
h b

Where:
  H is the maximum basin relief,
L is the maximum basin length.
b

The ruggedness number (R ) was then determined by multiplying the basin relief or height by the
n

drainage density (discussed below under aerial parameters), as shown by the formula:

R = R× Dd
n

Where:
R is the basin relief,
Dd is the drainage density.

The areal parameters were then calculated and measured. To measure the area of the basin, a

map of the basin was overlain on a grid. The squares were counted, each of which represented

the given area. The total number of squares completely covered by the traced outline were
counted. Where the outline went partially through a square it was counted as either a half, a

quarter or three quarters of the square and tallied to arrive at the number of full squares. The

number of squares was then multiplied by the conversion factor of the scale. Figure 6 gives an

example of the process. 6

Figure 6: Basin Area Being Calculated Using a Grid Paper

Source: Warner College of Natural Resources, retrieved March 13 2021  

The drainage density (Dd) was calculated by dividing the sum of all the total stream lengths of

each drainage basin by the basin’s area, as seen in the formula below. It was then written as the

total length of streams of all orders (km) per drainage area (km). Figure 7 gives two examples.

Dd= ∑Lu/A
Where:
L is the total length of the major stream,
u

A is the area of the drainage basin,

Figure 7: Example of Drainage Density

Source: Drew Tata (2014)

The stream frequency (F ) of the basins was defined as the number of streams per unit area
s

(Horton, 1945), as seen in the formula below. This was calculated by dividing the sum of all the

total number of streams in each order by the drainage basin area.

F = ∑N /A
s u

Where:
            N is the total number of stream segments,
u

            A is the basin area.

From calculating the drainage density and stream frequency, the drainage texture (T) was

calculated, by multiplying the drainage density by the stream frequency. This formula is shown

below. The varying drainage textures are highlighted in Figure 8.

T = Dd × F s

Where:
Dd is the drainage density,
F is the stream frequency.
s

Figure 8: Examples of Drainage Texture

Source: John Lanser (2013)

The form factor was calculated by then dividing the drainage basin’s area by the basin length

which was squared. From this the circulatory ratio and the elongation ratio was determined.
To calculate the circularity ratio (R ) the drainage basin area was multiplied by four pi. The
c

product of this multiplication was then divided by the square of the basin perimeter, as shown in

the formula below.

R = 4π A/ P
c
2

Where:
            A is the basin area,
 
P is the basin perimeter squared.
2
8

As shown in figure 9, basin shape (R ) is a measure of the elongation or circulatory ratio of a

f

basin. Basin shape (R ), was also calculated by dividing the area of the basin by the length of the
f

basin squared.

R = A/ L f b
2

Where:
A is the basin area,
L is the basin length squared.
b
2

Figure 9: An Example of Basin Shape

 
 
 

Source: CGP Books (2012)

 The length of overland flow (L ) is referred to as a half of the drainage density and so as
g

depicted in the formula below, this parameter was calculated by finding a half of the drainage

density of the drainage basin.

L = 1/2 Dd
g

Where:
            Dd is the drainage density.
 Subsequent to the calculation of all morphometric parameters graphs illustrating the relationship

between stream order, cumulative average stream length, stream number and mean basin area

will be plotted for both drainage basins. These graphs will be analysed and compared. All the

parameters are summarized in Table 2 below.

TABLE 2: THE FORMULAE FOR THE MORPHOMETRIC PARAMETERS

Morphometric Parameters Formula Reference
Linear Aspects
Perimeter (P) Length of the drainage basin boundary Investigator’s
measurement
Basin Length (Lb) Maximum length of the basin measured parallel to the Investigator’s
main drainage line measurement
Stream Length (Lu) Length of the major stream Horton (1945)
Lsm= Lu/Nu,
Mean Stream Length (Lsm) Lu= Total stream length of order ‘u’, Strahler (1964)
Nu= Total no. of stream segments of order ‘u’
Rl= Lu/Lu–1,
Stream Length Ratio (Rl) Lu= The total stream length of the order ‘u’, Strahler (1964)
Lu-1= The total stream length of its next lower order
Rb= Nu/Nu + 1,
Bifurcation Ratio (Rb) Nu= Total no. of stream segments of order ‘u’, Schumm (1956)
Nu + 1= Number of segments of the next higher order
Mean Bifurcation Ratio (Rbm) Rbm= Average of bifurcation ratios of all orders Strahler (1957)
Areal Aspects
Basin Area (A) Total area of the basin Investigator’s
measurement
Drainage Density (Dd) Dd= ∑Lu/A Horton (1945)
Drainage Texture (T) T= Dd × Fs Horton (1945)
Stream Frequency (Fs) Fs= ∑Nu/A Horton (1932)
Form Factor (Rf) Rf= A/Lb2 Horton (1932)
Basin Shape (Rf) Rf = A/Lb2 Horton (1932)
Circulatory Ratio (Rc) Rc= 4π A/ P2 Miller (1953)
Length of Overland Flow (Lg) Lg= 1/2 Dd Horton (1945)
Relief Aspects
R= H-h,
 Basin Relief (R) H= maximum elevation and h= minimum elevation Schumm (1956)
within the basin
Rh= H/Lb,
Relief Ratio (Rh) Where H= maximum basin relief and Lb= maximum Schumm (1956)
basin length
Ruggedness Number (Rn) Rn= R× Dd, Strahler (1958)
R= basin relief and Dd= drainage density

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PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF DATA

The Rio Minho is a dendritic drainage basin of predominantly permeable rock. The Rio

Minho has 40 seasonal streams. This drainage basin is larger than the Black River basin as seen

in figure 10 below. This fourth order river flows in a southeasterly direction. It has three water

management units; Rio Minho, Milk River and Gut Alligator Hole. Their respective

measurements are 796.8 km , 852.8 km and 164.4 km . As a result, the total area of the drainage
2 2 2

basin is calculated to be 1814.0 km . The highest point of the Rio Minho basin measured 848 km.
2

The Rio Minho also has a perimeter of 1780 km with a basin length of 99 km, while the Black

River basin has a perimeter of 1345 km with a basin length of 85 km.

Figure 10: Map of the Black River and Rio Minho Drainage Basins
 However, the Black River is a trellis drainage basin which flows in a southwesterly

direction.  This drainage basin has 22 seasonal streams. The total area of the drainage basin is

calculated to be 1311.4 km . The highest point of the Black River basin measured 811 km. The
2

Black River drainage basin, unlike the Rio Minho drainage basin, is a second order stream. This

basin has a swamp near its mouth indicating poor drainage. The values for each morphometric

variable calculated are shown in table 3 below. 11

TABLE 3: THE CALCULATED DRAINAGE MORPHOMETRIC VARIABLES

Variables Drainage Basins
Rio Minho Black River
Fourth Order Stream Third order stream
Linear Aspects
Basin Perimeter 1780 km 1345 km
Basin Height 848 m 811 m
Length of Basin 99 km 85 km
Total Stream Length 92.8 km 53.4 km
Number of streams in each 69 - first order 17 - First order    
order 18 - second order   3 - second order
4 - third order 1 - third order
1 - fourth order
Total Number of streams in the 132 43
basin 92 - perennial 21 - perennial
40 - seasonal 22 - seasonal

Average Stream Length 0.7(with seasonal streams) 1.242 (with seasonal streams)
1.01(with seasonal streams) 2.543 (with seasonal streams)

Bifurcation Ratio 1:4.11 1: 4.34

Areal Aspects
Basin Area 1814.0 km2 1311.4 km2
Drainage Density 0.51 km/ km2 0.041 km/ km
Stream Frequency 0.073 0.033
Basin Shape 0.185 0.182
Length of Overland Flow 39.92 km 48.78 km
Relief Aspects
Relief Ratio 1:116.75 1:104.78
Ruggedness Number 0.043 0.033
 The Rio Minho’s source is found in an area of white limestone formation. The river flows

through an area of limestone, shale conglomerates and tufts. The river then flows in a southeast

direction through a small area of yellow limestone formation into white limestone formation.

From there it travels southerly where its lower course flows through an area of alluvium in the

interior valley deposits. Moreover, as shown in figure 11, the Black River begins in an area of

yellow limestone formation and its middle course travels in a southwest direction across two

faults into an area of white limestone formation. 12

The lower course of the river then flows through an area of alluvium and mangrove in the

watershed’s interior valley deposits.

Figure 11: Geology of the Black River and Rio Minho Drainage Basins

The first morphometric parameter to be analyzed are the linear aspects. Bifurcation ratio,

is used with stream frequency and drainage texture to assess the possibility of flooding in the

drainage basin. The higher the second number in the ratio, the lower the risk of flooding in the

basin. There is a ratio of 1:4.34 in the Black River drainage basin and a ratio of 1:4.11 in the Rio
Minho drainage basin. This indicates that the Rio Minho basin is less susceptible to flooding than

the Black River basin. 

By calculating the areal parameter, drainage density, it could be concluded that the Black

River drainage basin, 0.041km/km , has a higher chance of flooding than the Rio Minho drainage
2

basin, 0.51kkm/km . The drainage density is directly proportional to the stream frequency. The
2

stream frequency is dependent on the drainage texture and the basin rock type. The drainage

texture is an indicator of the infiltration capacity of the drainage basin.

13

Based on the calculations the Rio Minho basin,0.068, has a higher infiltration capacity than the

Black River basin, 0.0623. It is also influenced by natural factors; climate, rainfall, vegetation

and rock or soil type.

A basin shape of less than 0.5 highlights that the drainage basin is elongated. An

elongated basin has a high infiltration capacity and a low surface runoff. The Black River

drainage basin has a basin shape of 0.182 while the Rio Minho has a basin shape of 0.185. This

is a clear indication that both basins are elongated. It is highlighted by the difference in numbers

that the Rio Minho drainage basin has a higher infiltration capacity as well as a lower surface

runoff than the Black River drainage basin.  This parameter is influenced by the land cover,

climate, relief and the slope of the basin. 

Lastly, the length of overland flow indicates the lag time of the water flowing into the

basin when it rains. The shorter the length of overland flow the quicker the surface runoff. The

Rio Minho basin has a length of overland flow of 39.92 km whereas the Black River basin has a

length of 48.78 km. The results obtained through calculation shows that the Rio Minho basin has

a quicker surface runoff than the Black River basin. This is likely the reason for the Black River
drainage basin having a swamp. It shows a sign of poor drainage, as the water takes a longer time

to reach the stream most of it is lost through infiltration. Therefore, creating an area of swamp.

The last morphometric parameters to be calculated are the relief aspects. The relief ratio

is significant because it indicates the overall steepness of the drainage basin, while the

ruggedness number analysis is used to indicate the steepness and the slope for the drainage

network. The Rio Minho has a relief ratio of 1:116.75 and a ruggedness number of 0.043

whereas the Black River has a relief ratio of 1:104.78 and a ruggedness number of 0.033. A high

value for the relief ratio is associated with steep slope and high relief whereas a low value 14

of relief ratio is associated with gentle slope and low relief. From the figures given above it can

be concluded that the Rio Minho drainage basin has a steep slope and a high relief. The Black

River basin, however, has a gentle slope and a low relief.

Graph 1: Log Rio Minho vs Stream Number Line Graph

Graph 2: Log Black River vs

Stream Number Line Graph

 Horton’s Law of stream orders states that the length of stream segments is high for first

order streams and decreases as the gradient stream order increases. As shown in graph 1 and

graph 2 their overall patterns of both drainage basins support Horton’s Law of stream order.

From observation of a topographic map of Jamaica, the source of the rivers commences on a

high elevation with a steep gradient while the lower course is located on a low, gentle slope. A

high gradient results in high velocity and increased energy in the river. 15

Graph 3: Log Rio Minho vs Stream Length Line Graph

Graph 4: Log Black River vs Stream Length Line Graph

 Horton’s Law of stream orders states that the cumulative average stream length states that

there exists a geometric relationship between the average length of streams of a given order and

the corresponding order. The cumulative average length of the streams should increase as the

order increases; however, as shown in graph 3 and graph 4 the overall patterns of both drainage

basins refute Horton’s Law of stream order. 

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CONCLUSION

In comparing the morphometric parameters between the Rio Minho drainage basin and

the Black River drainage basin it was found that the Rio Minho drainage basin is the larger of the

two. Both rivers flow through areas of permeable white and yellow limestone and alluvium.

However, the Rio Minho also flows through an area of shale conglomerates and tufts. 

Moreover, the river with a higher rate of erosion is the Black River as it has a gentle

slope and a low relief. The Rio Minho, however, has a lower rate of erosion due to its higher

relief and a steeper slope. The drainage basin that is more susceptible to flooding is the Black

River drainage basin. This is indicated by the bifurcation ratio, 1:4.34.  The lower the second

number in the ratio, the higher the risk of flooding in the basin. On the other hand, the Rio Minho

has a lower possibility of flooding because its bifurcation ratio is 1:4.11. It is also indicated by

the basin shape that the Rio Minho basin has a higher infiltration capacity and a lower surface

runoff than the Black River basin. A basin shape of less than 0.5 indicates that the drainage basin

is elongated, moreover, an elongated basin has a high infiltration capacity and a low surface

runoff. It was observed that both basins are elongated but the Rio Minho, 0.182, is more
elongated than the Black River basin,0.185. Lastly, it was also proven that the Black River has

an area of swamp due to poor drainage.

Visiting the drainage basins would have given us the opportunity to properly assess the

factors that impact the basins’ characteristics. Due to the COVID-19 restrictions, the geography

group was not able to carry out the necessary field work; instead maps dated thirty years ago

were used. The continuous change of the land could not be reflected on these maps. It is believed

that a drainage basin 3D software could have been used to accurately compare the basins.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Caribbean Examination Council (2012). Geography Unit 1: Study Guide. Cheltenham: Nelson

Thornes Limited.

Nagle, G. (2000). Advanced Geography. New York: Oxford University Press.

Nagle, G. (2000). AS Geography, Concepts and Cases. London: Hodder & Straughton.

Nagle, P. G. (2012). AS & A Level Geography. New York: Nelson Thornes Limited.

Pallister, A. B. (2000). A2 Geography. Oxford: Heimann.

Ross, S., Morgan, J., & Heelas, R. (2000). Essential AS Geography. Cheltenham: Nelson

Thornes Limited.

Waugh, D. (2009). Geography: An Integrated Approach. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes Limited.

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