M1 Lesson 1 History

´The field of dental materials has undergone more of a revolution than an

evolution over the past 100 years. The development of new products, especially
in the past half century, has occurred at a staggering pace, and their introduction
to the market has been equally impressive.

M1 Lesson 1 History (2)

HISTORY OF DENTAL MATERIALS

Introduction:
The field of dental materials has undergone more of a revolution than an
evolution over the past 100 years. The development of new products, especially
in the past half century, has occurred at a staggering pace, and their introduction
to the market has been equally impressive.
The movement has mostly come in the area of improved esthetics, marked by
the gradual replacement of dental amalgam with dental composite and all-metal
and porcelain-fused-to-metal indirect restorations with reinforced dental
ceramics, all made possible by the rapid improvements in dental adhesive
materials.
About 3000 B.C gold bands and wires were used by the Phoenicians (After 2500
B. C)
In 600 A.D. The Mayans used implants consisting of sea shell segments that
were placed in anterior teeth sockets.

I. From ancient times to 1700’s

Dentistry means aesthetics not function
Ivory, which was carved
Porcelain, which were used fired into tooth shapes
Wax and Gypsum which were used for impressions and models
Zinc Oxide-Eugenol and Zinc Phosphate which evolved as fillings and cements to
“glue” the restoration to the tooth

II. Dental Materials in 1800’s

Amalgam , a silver filling material was widely accepted and frequently used
a. 1833 Crawcour brothers introduce Amalgam to US
b. 1895 – G.V. Black develops formula for modern amalgam alloy
c. Porcelain was also used for inlays and crowns

III. Dental Materials in 20th century

a. Casting techniques were established
b. Alloys of gold, titanium, chromium with cobalt and with nickle were made
c. Cast metals were used for crowns and bridges and partial dentures
d. Polymers and composites were also introduced.
M1 Lesson 2 Properties of Dental
Materials

Dental materials covers a broad range of terminology, composition, micro

structure and properties used to describe or predict the performance of
preventive and restorative biomaterials.
In this lesson, an understanding of the physical, chemical, biological and
mechanical properties is of tremendous importance in the selection of different
materials.

Listed are several definition of terms that you use in the entire course of dental
materials.
No need to memorize, try to familiarize, review and understand the important key
terms in the contents of modules of Dental Materials.

DEFINITION OF TERMS: (KEY TERMS)

PHYSICAL PROPERTY:

1.
1. Conductor- is a substance in which electric charge carriers,
usually electrons, move easily from atom to atom with the
application of voltage.
2. Insulator- a substance or device which does not readily
conduct electricity
3. Electrical conductivity- the degree to which a specified
material conducts electricity.
4. Galvanism- effect of electric potentials in the mouth as a result
of the use of dissimilar metals as restorative materials.
5. Melting point- the temperature at which a given solid will melt
6. Freezing point- the temperature at which a liquid turns into a
solid when cooled.
7. 7. Dew point- the temperature (varying according to pressure
and humidity) below which water droplets begin to condense
and dew can form.
 8. Heat of fusion- measures the amount of energy needed to melt
a given mass of a solid at its melting point temperature.
9. Heat of vaporization-heat absorbed when a liquid vaporizes.
10. Thermal conductivity- quantity of heat transferred per second
across a unit area (cm3) and a unit length (cm) when a
temperature difference along the length is 1◦ C/cm.
11. Coefficient of thermal expansion- thermal property of a
material that quantifies how much a material will expand when
it is heated and contract when it cools.
12. Thermal diffusivity- measure of the speed with which a
temperature change will proceed through an object when one
surface is heated.
13. Colour-sensation induced from light of varying wavelengths
reaching the eye.
14. Value- the lightness of, or relative amount of light reflected
from, a colour
15. Hue- the dominant colour of an object.
16. Chroma- relative intensity of the colour of an object.
17. Rheology- study of the deformation and flow characteristics of
matter.
18. Transparency- the extent to which light passes through a
material and to which an undistorted image can be seen
through it.
19. Translucency- relative amount of light transmitted through an
object.
20. Creep – the gradual dimensional change of a material under a
load or stress. In some materials (like amalgams) as a result of
the occlusal load over a long period of time.
21. Flow- to describe rheology of amorphous materials
22. Dilatant- liquids show an increase in viscosity as the shear
rate goes up.
23. Viscosity- the resistance of liquid to flow
24. Viscoelasticity- materials show behaviour that is intermediate
between that of a viscous liquid and that of an elastic solid
25. Thixotropic- the property of a material that results in low flow
under low load but flows readily when placed under load.

CHEMICAL PROPERTY

1.
1. Sorption- is a physical and chemical process by which one
substance becomes attached to.
 2. Adsorption- concentration of molecules at a surface of a solid
or liquid
3. Absorption- the extent to which light is absorbed by the
material in an object.
4. Diffusion- is the net movement of anything from a region of
higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.
5. Osmosis- a process by which molecules of a solvent tend to
pass through a semipermeable membrane from a less
concentrated solution, into a more concentrated one.
6. Solubility- the ability to be dissolved
7. Erosion- irreversible loss of dental hard tissue from acids,
without the involvement of bacteria.
8. Adhesion- A molecular or atomic attraction between two
contacting surfaces promoted by interfacial force of attraction
between the molecules or atoms of different species.
9. Cohesion- force of molecular attraction between molecules or
atoms of the same species.
10. Surface Energy-is a term used to describe the surface of a
given substrate.
11. Wetting- spreading of a liquid over a solid surface.

IOLOGICAL PROPERTY

1. Biomaterials-any matter, surface or construct that interacts

with biological systems
2. Biomechanics- the study of the mechanical laws relating to
the movement or structure of living organisms
3. Biocompatibility- the appropriate biologic response of the
body to a material used in a specific application.
4. Toxicity- the quality of being toxic or poisonous
5. In vitro test- refers to the technique of performing a given
procedure in a controlled environment outside of a living
organism.
6. Mutagen- physical, chemical or biologic agent that causes
mutation by altering the genetic material possibly results in
the disease condition.

MECHANICAL PROPERTY

1.
1. Force- push or pull of an object
2. Stress- force per unit area
3. Strain- deformation per unit length
4. Tensile- capable of being drawn or stretched
5. Compressive- the act of compressing or being compressed
6. Shear- ratio of a shear force to the original cross-sectional
area parallel to the direction of the applied force
7. Flexural- the act or an instance of bending or flexing
8. Elastic deformation- the material returns to its original shape
when the force is removed.
9. Plastic deformation- the material does not return to its original
shape when the force is removed.
10. Young’s modulus- called as elastic modulus or modulus of
elasticity, measures of the elastic strain or plastic strain
behaviour of dental materials.
11. Dynamic Young’s modulus- determined by the measurement
of ultrasonic wave velocity
12. Shear modulus- also called as modulus of rigidity
13. Flexibility- the quality of bending easily without breaking
14. Resilience- the amount of elastic energy per unit volume that
is sustained on loading and released upon uploading of a test
specimen.
15. Poisson’s ratio- describes the expansion or contraction of a
material in direction perpendicular to the direction of loading
16. Flexural strength- also called as bending strength or modulus
of rupture; force per unit area of a material that is subjected to
flexural loading
17. Impact strength-defined as its capability to resist a sudden
applied load or force.
18. Toughness- ability of a material to absorb elastic energy and
deformed plastically before fracturing.
19. Resilience-associated with springiness
20. Fracture toughness- the critical stress intensity factor at the
point of rapid crack propagation in a solid containing a crack
of known shape and size.
21. Ductility- relative ability of a material to elongate plastically
under tensile stress.
22. Malleability- ability to be hammered or compressed plastically
into thin sheets without fracture.
23. Brittleness- relative inability of a material to deform plastically
before it fractures.
24. Proportional limit-magnitude of elastic stress above which
plastic deformation occurs
25. Elastic limit- the maximum extent to which a solid maybe
stretched without permanent alteration of size or shape.
26. Ultimate tensile strength- the maximum stress that a material
can withstand while being stretched or pulled before breaking.
M1 Lesson 2 Properties of Dental
Materials (2)
Properties of Dental Materials
SCOPE OF THE COURSE
The science of dental materials is generally considered to comprise those materials
which are employed in the mechanical procedures included in restorative dentistry, such
as prosthetics, crown and bridges.

ADA SPECIFICATION
It contain requirements for mechanical, physical, biological and chemical
properties of the materials which will ensure their quality and usefulness to the
dentist.

I. Physical Property
Physical properties are based on the laws of mechanics, acoustics, optics,
thermodynamics, elasticity, magnetism, radiation, atomic structure or nuclear
phenomena.
Contents:
A. OPTICAL B. RHEOLOGY
1. colour (hue, value, chroma) 1. Creep and flow
2. transparency 2. Viscosity
3. translucency 3. Viscoelasticity
4. fluorescence 4. Thixotropic behaviour
5. Dilatant
II. Chemical property
A characteristic of a substance that maybe observed when it participates in a
chemical reaction.
1. Sorption 7. Erosion
2. Adsorption 8. Adhesion
3. Absorption 9. Cohesion
4. Diffusion 10. Surface Energy
5. Osmosis 11. Wetting
6. Solubility

III. Biological Property

The ability of a material to elicit an appropriate biological response in a given
application in the body.
1. Biomaterial 4. toxicity
2. Biomechanics 5. in vitro test
3. biocompatibility 6. mutagenic reaction

IV. Mechanical Property

A physical science that deals with energy and forces and their effects on bodies.
Contents:
1. Force 7. Strain
2. Stress 8. Elastic and plastic deformation
3. Tensile 9. Stress-strain curve
4. Compressive 10. Hooke's law
5. Shear
6. Flexural
Mechanical Properties based on Plastic Deformation
1. Flexural strength HARDNESS TEST
2. Impact Strength 1. Brinell
3. Toughness 2. Rockwell
4. Resilience 3. Vicker's
5. Fracture toughness 4. Knoop's
6. Ductility
7. Malleability
8. Brittleness
M2 Introduction
GYPSUM

A chemical , calcium sulfate hemihydrate, which converts to

calcium sulfate dihydrate when mixed with water. it is available in
three common forms: plaster, stone and high-strength die stone.

M2 Pre-task

DEFINITION OF TERMS: DENTAL GYPSUM

1. CAST- a reproduction of the shape of a structure made in an impression of

the surface
2. MODEL- a positive likeness of an object
3. DIE- A reproduction of a prepared tooth made from a gypsum product, epoxy
resin, a metal, or a refractory material.
 4. DENTAL PLASTER - (Plaster of Paris)- the beta form of calcium hemihydrate
5. DENTAL STONE- the alpha form of calcium sulphate hemihydrate
6. SETTING EXPANSION- increase in volume accompanying the hardening of
a material.
7. CALCIUM SULFATE DIHYDRATE- composition of a gypsum product such as
plaster, once it has been mixed with water.
8. CALCIUM SULFATE HEMIHYDRATE- composition of unreacted particles of
a gypsum.
9. ACCLERATOR- chemical that increases the rate of a chemical reaction so
that reaction can occur within a particular period of time
10. RETARDER- chemical that decreases the rate of chemical reaction to allow
for a longer working time
11. SPATULATION- a term used to describe the by hand or mechanically of a
material.
12. WATER/RATIO it refers to the quotient obtained when the volume of water is
divided by the weight of the powder.
13. WORKING TIME- the time available to use a workable mix, one that
maintains a uniform consistency to perform one or more tasks. It is measured
from the start of mixing to the point where the consistency is no longer
acceptable for the product’s intended purpose.

M2 While Task
GYPSUM
A mineral mined in various parts of the world, the mineral used for dental
purposes is pure calcium sulphate dihydrate (CaSO4.2H2O) Gypsum products
used in dentistry are formed by driving off part of the water of crystallization from
gypsum to form calcium sulphate hemihydrate. As the temperature is further
raised, it becomes an anhydrite. The process known as calcination

TYPES OF GYPSUM
A. Type 1 ( Impression plaster)- Contain potato starch to render them soluble
B. Type 2 Dental plaster (beta hemihydrate)
110-120C (230-250F) To drive off part of the water of crystallization
C. Type 3 (Dental Stone)
Calcined under steam pressure in an autoclave at a temp. of 120-130 C (250-265
F)
Dehydrated in an autoclave in the presence of sodium succinate
D. Type 4 and 5 (Die stone)- densite or modified hemihydrate
Dehydrated in a boiling solution of 30% calcium chloride in a kettle

SETTING TIME
The powder is mixed with the water, the time elapsing from the beginning of
mixing until the material hardens.
INITIAL /WORKING SETTING TIME
It refers the starts of mixing until starts to harden
FINAL SETTING TIME
It refers the time when the dental plaster has completely hardened.

PENETRATION TESTS

1.
1. Vicat needle- The time that elapses from the start of the mix
until the needle no longer penetrates to the bottom of the
plaster
2. Gilmore needle- test for final setting time
3. Loss of gloss

Factors affecting the setting time

•
o Water/powder ratio
o temperature
o mixing
o fineness
o Chemical modifiers

SETTING EXPANSION

• Expansion occurs by the growth of crystals during crystallization

process
Types of setting expansion
M3 Introduction

Waxes are thermoplastic materials which are solids at room temperature and
soften or become low viscosity liquid when subjected to moderate temperatures. In
dentistry, waxes are versatile materials that are used both in the clinics and
laboratories. Certain procedures can not be completed without the use of wax in one of
its many forms. Dental waxes are used for specific and well-defined applications.
This module will present the characteristics, uses and manipulation of dental
waxes.

M3 While Task
Dental wax is mixture of two or more waxes with other additives, used in
dentistry for casts, construction of nonmetallic denture bases, registering of jaw
relations, and laboratory work.

Composition :
Dental waxes may be composed of natural and synthetic waxes, gums,
fats, fatty acids, oils, natural and synthetic resins and pigments.
The particular working characteristics of each wax are achieved by
blending the appropriate natural and synthetic waxes, resins and other additives.
Natural waxes are distributed in nature, derived from mineral,
vegetable/plant, and animal (insect) origins. Whereas synthetic waxes are
produced by combination of various chemicals in laboratory, from natural wax
molecules and are typically composed of hydrogen, carbon, oxygen and
chlorine.
Coloring agents are added for contrast of wax patterns against tooth, die, and
model surfaces.

Other Substances Related to Wax

•
 o Gums - Many plants produce a variety of gums that are viscous,
amorphous exudates that harden on exposure to air
o Fats – used to increase the melting range and hardness of
compounded wax
o Resins – obtained from trees and plants; shellac, however, is from
insects. Natural resins are blended with waxes to develop waxes
foer dental applications.

Properties of Dental Waxes

•
o Melting range

- Waxes consist of several types of molecules, each having a range of molecular

weight, hence they have melting ranges rather than melting points
•
o Flow

- Change of shape or dimension in response to applied force

- Caused by slippage of chained wax molecules over each other
•
o Thermal expansion

- The coefficient thermal expansion of inlay waxes is high. Waxes expand when
subjected to a rise in temperature and contracts as the temperature is decreased
•
o Thermal conductivity

- The thermal conductivity of waxes is low, which implies that these materials gain,
and lose, heat very slowly. Sufficient time must be allowed both to heat them uniformly
throughout and to cool them to body or room temperature

M3 While Task Continuation

The wide variety of dental waxes are classified into two groups, those uses
primarily in the clinic and those used in commercial laboratories.
 Clinical Laboratory
1. Bite registration 1. Boxing 4. Beading
2. Disclosing wax 2. Baseplate 5. Utility
3. Type I inlay 3. Sticky 6. Hard,
medium, and soft type II inlay-type waxes
4. Utility wax

Dental waxes are also classified in one of three types

:

• Pattern wax - used to form the general predetermined size and contour of
artificial dental restoration, which is to be constructed of a ore durable
material.

- Inlay wax
- Casting wax
- Baseplate wax

• Processing wax - used primarily as auxillary aid in the construction of variety

of restorations and appliances either clinically or in the laboratory

- Boxing wax
- Utility wax
- Sticky wax

• Impression wax – though rarely used to record complete impressions, they

can be effectively

- Corrective impression wax

- Bite registration wax
Pattern Processing Impression waxes

Inlay Boxing
Bite registration

Casting Utility Corrective

 Module 4

A successful dental restoration is mainly dependent on the accuracy of the dental

impression. An impression is an imprint or negative replica. Several impression techniques were
developed to produce duplications as accurate as possible. The accuracy of an impression
depends on the materials used for impression making as well as the techniques.
Impression materials can be classified according to their compositions, mechanism of setting,
mechanical properties and applications.
Read in advance Chapter 8: Impression Materials of Phillip’s Science of Dental Materials. Use
the guide questions below to help you understand the succeeding lessons.

Guide Questions:

• What are the different types of impression materials?

• What are the compositions of the different impression materials?
• Describe the setting reaction of each impression material.
• Cite factors which affect the setting of the different impression materials

M4 Lesson 1 IMPRESSION COMPOUND

Prepared by: Dr. Ma. Bernadette Maccay
Impression compound is one of the oldest dental impression materials. It can be
described as rigid, reversible impression material which sets by physical change.

M4 Lesson 2 ZINC OXIDE-EUGENOL PASTE

Zinc Oxide- eugenol has a wide range of applications in dentistry. It can be used as an
impression material, a surgical dressing, bite registration paste, temporary filling material,
root canal filling material, cementing medium and temporary relining material for dentures.
In this lesson, you will learn about Zinc Oxide- eugenol as an impression paste for
edentulous mouth. The composition and characteristics of ZOE impression paste will be
discussed here.

Zinc Oxide-Eugenol Impression Paste

•

o irreversible, inelastic impression material

ideal for making impressions of edentulous jaw structures or soft tissue

Composition
dispensed in 2 tubes:

Tube no. 1 – base Tube no. 2 – accelerator/ catalyst

• Zinc oxide • Oil of cloves or eugenol

• Vegetable or mineral oil • Gum or polymerized rosin
• Filler
• Lanolin
• Resinous balsam
 • Accelerator solution (CaCl2) and
color

Classification

Type I Type II
• hard paste • soft paste
• final set: within 10 min • final set: 15 min

Setting Reaction
chemical reaction (irreversible)
1. ZnO + H2O ---> Zn (OH)2
2. Zn(OH)2 + 2HE ---> ZnE + 2H2O
(base) (acid) (salt) (water)
(Eugenol) (Zinc Eugenolate)
Factors Affecting the Setting Time
shorten (decrease) setting time

• humidity and temperature

• adding a small amount of zinc acetate or additional accelerator or a drop of water in the paste before
mixing
• extending the mixing time
prolong (increase) setting time

• use of a cool spatula and mixing slab

Characteristics
• quite satisfactory dimensional stability
• no significant dimensional change subsequent to hardening
• shrinkage less than 0.1%
• good reproduction of oral structure details
• chief disadvantage - possible stinging or burning sensation
M4 Lesson 3 ELASTOMERS
Elastomers are a group of synthetic polymer-based impression materials that have the
elastic properties of natural rubber. Chemically, there are three types of elastomers:
polysulfide, polyether and silicone (condensation and addition). The composition and
characteristics of each elastomeric impression material will be discussed in this lesson.

Representative Commercially Available Elastomeric Impression Materials

Elastomeric Impression Materials
a group of flexible chemical polymers that are either chemically or physically cross-linked;
generally, they can be easily stretched and rapidly recover their original dimensions when
applied stresses are released
Types:
1. polysulfide
2. polyether
3. silicone
a. condensation silicone
b. addition silicone

1. Polysulfide

• first elastomeric impression material introduced

• an elastomeric impression material of polysulfide polymer (mercaptan) that cross-
links under the influence of oxidizing agents such as lead peroxide
Composition

base
• polysulfide polymer that
contains a multifunctional
mercaptan (-SH)
• filler (such as lithopone or
titanium dioxide)
• plasticizer (such as dibutyl
phthalate)
• sulfur, approximately 0.5%
Setting Reaction
catalyst
• lead dioxide, gives its characteristic
brown color
• filler and plasticizer as in the base
paste
• oleic or stearic acid as a retarder

• Lead dioxide + Polysulfide polymer --> Polysulfide + Water

• Reaction yields water as a by-product
• Working time: 4-7 mins
• Setting time: 7-10mins

Characteristics

advantages
• Long working time
• High tear resistance
• Margins easily seen
• Compatible with gypsum
• Moderate cost
disadvantages
• Requires custom tray
• Stretching leads to distortion
• Stains clothing
• Obnoxious odor
• Pour within 1 hour

2. Polyether

• an elastomeric impression material of ethylene oxide and tetra-hydrofluro copolymers

that polymerizes under the influence of an aromatic ester

Composition

Base Catalyst
• polyether polymer • alkyl-aromatic sulfonate
• colloidal silica as filler • filler
• plasticizer such as glycol ether • plasticizer
or phthalate
Setting Reaction

• Polyether + Sulfonate ester --> Cross linked rubber

• Working time: 3 mins
• Setting time: 6 mins
Characteristics

advantages disadvantages
• Fast-setting • Stiff, high modulus
• Automix dispense • Bitter taste
• Least hydrophobic • Need to block undercuts
• Margins easily seen • Absorbs water
• Good stability • Leaches components
• High cost

M4 Lesson 3 ELASTOMERS (2)

3. Silicone Impression Materials
a. Condensation Silicone

• Conventional silicone
• supplied as a base paste and a low-viscosity liquid catalyst (or paste catalyst), a
two-paste system, or a two-putty system
• putty is used as the tray material in conjunction with a low-viscosity silicone
(putty-wash technique)

Composition
Base Catalyst
• Hydroxyl-terminated • Alkyl silicate such as
polydimethylsiloxane (liquid tetraethylsilicate
silicone prepolymer) • Tin compound such as dibutyl tin
• filler such as silica dilaurate

Setting Reaction

Stannous octate

• Dimethyl siloxane + Orthoethyl silicate ----> Silicone rubber +

Ethyl alcohol
• Ethyl alcohol is a by-product of the condensation setting reaction
• Working time: 2.5-4 mins
• Setting time: 6-8 mins
Characteristics

advantages
• Putty for custom tray (putty-
wash technique)
• Clean and pleasant
• Good working time
• Margins easily seen
disadvantages
• High polymerization shrinkage
• Volatile by-product
• Low tear strength
• Hydrophobic
• Pour immediately

b. Addition Silicone
• Polyvinyl siloxane
• an addition reaction silicone elastomeric impression material of silicone polymers
having terminal vinyl groups that cross-link with silanes on activation by a platinum or
palladium salt catalyst

Composition

base catalyst
• polymethylhydrosiloxane • divinylpolysiloxane
• divinylpolysiloxane • platinum salt
• filler • filler

Setting Reaction

Stannous octate

• Dimethyl siloxane + Orthoethyl silicate ----> Silicone rubber +

Ethyl alcohol
• Ethyl alcohol is a by-product of the condensation setting reaction
• Working time: 2.5-4 mins
• Setting time: 6-8 mins

Characteristics

advantages
• Putty for custom tray (putty-
wash technique)
• Clean and pleasant
• Good working time
• Margins easily seen
disadvantages
• High polymerization shrinkage
• Volatile by-product
• Low tear strength
• Hydrophobic
• Pour immediately
b. Addition Silicone
• Polyvinyl siloxane
• an addition reaction silicone elastomeric impression material of silicone polymers
having terminal vinyl groups that cross-link with silanes on activation by a platinum or
palladium salt catalyst
Composition

base catalyst
• polymethylhydrosiloxane • divinylpolysiloxane
• divinylpolysiloxane • platinum salt
• filler • filler

Setting Reaction

Platinum salt

Vinyl siloxane + Hydrogen siloxane ---> Silicone rubber

• No reaction by-products are formed, however secondary reaction may produce

hydrogen gas
• Working time: 2-4 mins
• Setting time: 4-6.5 mins

Characteristics

advantages disadvantages
• Putty for custom tray
• Hydrophobic
• Automix dispense
• No flow if sulcus is moist
• Clean and pleasant
• Low tear strength
• Margins easily seen
• Wash has low tear strength
• Ideally elastic
• Putty too stiff
• Pour repeatedly
• Difficult to pour cast
• Stable: delay pour

M4 Lesson 4 HYDROCOLLOIDS
Hydrocolloids are elastic materials composed of colloidal gels. They are high molecular
weight hydrophilic polymers which contain polar or charged functional groups, rendering
them soluble in water. In Dentistry, we use hydrocolloid as an impression material. They
were the first flexible materials available to dentists. They are elastic enough drawn to
undercuts without significant deformation, easy to use and inexpensive.
 This lesson will introduce you to a very useful, frequently used flexible impression
material in dental practice.

Definition of Terms:

• Colloids - Any solution in which the unit of the solute are sufficiently large so that it
will not dialyze through a suitable membrane.
• Dispersed Phase / Dispersed Particles - Particles in a solution.
• Dispersion Phase / Dispersed Medium - solution containing a suspension of
particles.
• Suspension - The dispersed phase and the dispersion medium are not of like phase.
• Emulsion - The dispersed phase is of the same phase as of the dispersion medium.
• Hydrophilic – Tendency to demonstrate a strong affinity for water.
• Hydrophobic – Tendency to demonstrate a strong aversion to water.
• Hydrocolloid – (agar) a colloid that contains water as the dispersion phase.
• Reversible Hydrocolloid – Agar impression material.
• Irreversible Hydrocolloid – Alginate impression material.
• Gelation - The transformation from a hydrocolloid sol to gel.
• Gelation time – The time needed to transform sol to gel.
• Gelation Temperature - the temperature in which the sol is transformed into gel.
• Liquefaction - The transformation from gel to sol.
• Liquefaction Time- time needed to transform gel to sol
• Liquefaction Temperature - the temperature at which the gel is transformed to sol at
a higher temperature. (60-70C)
• Hysteresis - the difference between gelation and liquefaction temperature.
• Imbibition – Process of water sorption.
• Syneresis – expression of fluid onto the surface of gel structures.
• Setting time – The elapsed time from the start of mixing until the impression material
becomes firm enough to resist permanent deformation.
• Working time - The total time from the start of mixing to the final time at which an
impression tray can be fully seated without distortion.
Discussion:
Hydrocolloid impression materials in dentistry are based on colloidal suspensions of
polysaccharides in water. A colloidal suspension that behaves neither as a solution nor as
a true suspension. The colloidal suspension lies somewhere between these two extremes,
no solid particles can be detected and yet the mixture does not behave as a simple
solution. The molecules of the colloid remain dispersed by nature of the fact that they
carry small electrical charges and repel one another within the dispersing medium. When
the fluid medium of the colloid is water it is normally referred to as a hydrocolloid.
Dental hydrocolloid impression materials exist in two forms: sol or gel form. In the
sol form, they are fluid with low viscosity and there is a random arrangement of the
polysaccharide chains. In the gel form, the materials are more viscous and may develop
elastic properties if the long polysaccharide chains become aligned. Alignment of the
polysaccharide chains as fibrils which enclose the fluid phase normally causes the gel to
develop a consistency similar to that of jelly. The greater the concentration of fibrils within
the gel the stronger the jelly structure will be. This point is best illustrated by consideration
of the properties of commercial, flavoured gelatin (jelly). The material which is initially
purchased is a fairly strong gel but after dilution with water the resulting gel is much
weaker. This is relevant to dental hydrocolloids since the strength of the gel is important
and depends on the concentration of polysaccharide material dispersed in the aqueous
phase.
The conversion from sol to gel forms the basis of the setting of the hydrocolloid
impression materials. The products are introduced into the patient’s mouth while in the
fluid, sol form. When conversion to gel is complete, and elastic properties have been
developed, the impression is removed.

Factors which affect Gel Strength

1. Brush heap density or concentration
2. Temperature of reversible gel
3. Addition of certain modifiers
Two Dimensional Changes

• Imbibition– The absorption of water into the surface of the gel causing swelling.
• Syneresis – The evaporation of water from the surface of the gel causing shrinkage.

M4 Lesson 4 HYDROCOLLOIDS (2)

TWO TYPES OF HYDROCOLLOIDS
The formation of gel and development of elastic properties through alignment of
polysaccharide chains may take place by one of two mechanisms. For some materials,
gel formation is induced by cooling the sol. Chains become aligned and are mutually
attracted by Van der Waals forces. Intermolecular hydrogen bonds may be formed
between adjacent chains, enhancing the elasticity of the gel. On reheating the gel, these
bonds are readily destroyed and the material reverts to the sol form. These materials are
the reversible hydrocolloids (agar).
 For other materials, gel formation involves the production of strong intermolecular
cross-links between polysaccharide chains. These materials do not require cooling in
order to encourage gel formation and once formed the gel does not readily revert to the
sol form. These materials are the irreversible hydrocolloids (alginates).

REVERSIBLE IRREVERSIBLE

Hardens by physical change Hardens by chemical reaction

Subjected to heat Not subjected to heat

Needs special equipment Does not need special equipment

REVERSIBLE HYDROCOLLOID
AGAR - AGAR - A polysaccharide extracted from red seaweeds is the main active
ingredient wile water is the main constituent.(Anusavice)
Chemical composition:
- is a linear complex sugar made from beta-galactopyranose linked to 3,6-anhydro-L-
galactopyranose. Basically, it's just a polysaccharide/carbohydrate, or complex sugar
• extracted from several types and species of red seaweeds belonging to the
Rhodophyceae class
• These agar-containing seaweeds are called agarophytes and the major commercial
species are Gracilaria, Gelidium, and Pterocladia.

Raw Material:

• seaweeds are usually harvested manually by fishermen in low depths at low tides or
by diving using appropriate equipment.
• seaweeds are placed under the sun to dry until they reach a humidity level that is ideal
for processing.

Agar:

• Has a high gel strength at low concentrations

• low viscosity in solution
• high transparency in solution
• sharp melting/setting temperatures
• A higher temperature is needed to convert the gel into a sol.
• The first material to set is that which is in contact with the tray since it is cooler than
the tissues.

* Thus it is the material in contact with the tissue which stays in the sol state for the
longest time.
Exact Gelation of Agar depends on:

1. Molecular weight of agar

2. Purity of agar
3. Ratio of agar to other constituents

Composition of Reversible Hydrocolloid Impression Material

Supplied as a gel with the following Ingredients

Composition AMOUNT ACTION

Agar 12-15% Gelling agent

Borax 0.2% Improves strength

Provides good surfaces on gypsum

K2SO4 1-2%
models/dies

Alkyl benzoates 0.1% Preservative

Water 85% Dispersion Medium

Trace amount of coloring and flavoring agents

*Other fillers: Diatomaceous earth, clay, silica, wax, rubber and similar inert
powders are used to control strength, viscosity and rigidity.
*Thymol and glycerin may be added that acts as bactericidal agent and plasticizer.

PROPERTIES: ADVANTAGES

• Inexpensive
• Odorless
• Nontoxic; Non irritant, Nonstaining
• Slow setting time
• Adequate shelf life
• Easy to pour into stone
• Good surface detail
• Accurate and pleasant
• Reusable and easily sterilized by an aqueous solution of hypochlorite

PROPERTIES: DISADVANTAGES

• Need special equipment (water bath) and special technique

• Thermal Discomfort
• Poor tear resistance
• Pour immediately: Imbibition and syneresis
• Difficult to see margins and details
• Dimensional instability

IRREVERSIBLE HYDROCOLLOID (ALGINATE)

A casting material made from kelp used for making the negative impression of the
teeth. This is the same material used by dentists.

• A material from a natural substance extracted from certain brown seaweed.

• The substance is called anhydro-B-d-mannuronic acid or alginic acid.

PROPERTIES: ADVANTAGES:

• Easy to manipulate
• Comfortable for the patient
• Clean and pleasant
• Does not need special equipment
• Inexpensive
• Long shelf life

PROPERTIES: DISADVANTAGES:

• Not Accurate/Rough
• Tears easily
• Pour immediately: Undergo imbibition and syneresis
• Can retard setting of gypsum

COMPOSITION WEIGHT % FUNCTION

Potassium Alginate 15 Soluble alginate

CaSO4 16 Reactor

Zinc Oxide 4 Filler particles

Potassium Titanium Fluoride 3 Gypsum Hardener

Diatomaceous Earth 60 Filler Particles

Sodium Phosphate 2 Retarder

• Soluble Alginates (Potassium, Sodium or Triethanolamine alginate)

• Polyethylene glycol or propylene glycol to become “dustless” alginate

TYPES according to Setting

• Type 1 – Fast Setting – sets in 1-2 minutes

• Type 2 – Normal Setting – sets in 2-4.5 minutes

Methods of controlling Gelation

1. By altering the W/P

2. By altering the mixing time
3. Addition of retarders
4. By altering temperature

CAUSES OF FAILURE IN THE MANIPULATION OF ALGINATE

CAUSES CAUSE/S

Improper mixing
Prolonged mixing
GRAINY MATERIAL
Undue gelation
W/P too low

Inadequate bulk
Moisture contamination
TEARING
Premature removal from the mouth
Prolonged mixing

Undue gelation
EXTERNAL BUBBLES
Air incorporated during mixing
IRREGULARLY SHAPED VOIDS Presence of moisture or debris on tissue

Inadequate cleaning of the impression

Improper manipulation of stone
ROUGH / CHALKY STONE MODEL
Premature removal of the impression
Model left in the impression too long

Impression not poured immediately

Movement of tray during gelation
DISTORTION
Premature removal from the mouth
Improper removal from the mouth

Manipulation:
First, prepare a proper mixture of powder and water. Using a clean rubber bowl and
spatula, put the water in the bowl and gradually sift the powder into the water. Let it settle
and then mix using the figure of eight motion. Mixing time of 45 seconds to 1 minute is
generally sufficient. The result should be a smooth, creamy mixture that does not readily
drip off the spatula when it is raised from the bowl.

M7 Introduction
Resin is a broad term used to describe natural or synthetic substances that form
plastic materials after polymerization. Resins are named according to their chemical
composition, physical structure, and means for activation of polymerization. (GPT-9)

M7 Lesson 1 COMPOSITE RESIN

Dental resin-based composites are structures composed of three major components:
a highly cross-linked polymeric matrix reinforced by a dispersion of glass, mineral, or
resin filler particles and/or short fibers bound to the matrix by coupling agents. Such
resins are used to restore and replace dental tissue lost through disease or trauma and
to lute and cement crowns and veneers and other indirectly made or prefabricated
dental devices.
The gold standard of reference for these materials is amalgam. However, amalgam
has its own disadvantages, such as (1) poor esthetics, (2) unfounded concerns about
health hazards from the leakage of mercury, and (3) waste disposal concerns. Because
resin-based composites can be made to match the natural appearance of teeth, they
have become the most popular of the esthetic or tooth-colored filling materials and are
widely used for a variety of dental applications.
Another key advantage of resin material is that they can be made in a range of
consistencies, from highly fluid to rigid pastes, which allows them to be conveniently
manipulated and molded, to a custom-made form and then converted through a
polymerization curing reaction to a hard, strong, attractive, and durable solid.

History and Chronology of composite development

During the first half of the twentieth century, silicates were the tooth-colored material
of choice for cavity restoration. Silicates release fluoride and are excellent for preventing
caries, but they are currently used almost exclusively for deciduous teeth because they
become severely eroded within a few years.

Acrylic resins, similar to the materials used to make dentures and custom
impression trays (polymethylmethacrylate [PMMA], soon replaced silicates because of
their tooth-like appearance, insolubility in oral fluids, ease of manipulation, and low cost.
Unfortunately, these acrylic resins had relatively poor wear resistance and tended to
shrink severely during curing, which caused them to pull away from the cavity walls,
thereby producing crevices or gaps that facilitate leakage within these gaps. Excessive
thermal expansion and contraction caused further stresses to develop at the cavity
margins when hot or cold beverages and foods were consumed.
These problems were reduced somewhat by the addition of quartz powder particles
to form a composite structure. The filler occupies space, but it does not take part in the
setting reaction. In addition, commonly used fillers have an extremely low coefficient of
thermal expansion, approaching that of tooth structure, thus greatly reducing thermal
expansion and contraction. However, these early PMMA-based composites were not
very successful, in part because the filler particles simply reduced the volume of
polymer resin without being bonded (coupled) to the resin. Thus, defects developed
between the particles and the surrounding resin, which led to leakage, staining, and
poor wear resistance.

In 1962, Bowen developed a new type of composite material that largely overcame
these problems. Bowen’s main innovations were bisphenol-A glycidyl dimethacrylate
(bis-GMA), a monomer that forms a cross-linked matrix that is highly durable, and a
surface treatment utilizing an organic silane compound called a coupling agent to
bond the filler particles to the resin matrix. Current tooth–colored restorative materials
continue to use this technology, but many further innovations have been introduced
since 1962.

M7 Lesson 2 RESIN-BASED
CEMENT
Resin cements are the newest types of cements used to lute and bond indirect
restorations. They have higher compressive, tensile, flexural strength and wear
resistance compared to conventional luting cements. They come in different shades,
forms and are virtually insoluble in oral fluids, providing better marginal seal than any
other cement types. These categories of cements can be used for all types of
restorative materials (porcelain, metal, porcelain fused to metal, laboratory composites).

M7 Lesson 3 ACRYLIC RESIN

Acrylic resins are used in the fabrication of nearly all removable dentures.
Understanding the properties and the processing techniques of resins can help the
dentist in fabricating better dentures.
Since the mid-1940s, the majority of denture bases have been fabricated using
polymethyl methacrylate resins (acrylic Resins). In its pure form it is a colorless
transparent sold bit can be tinted to provide almost any color, shade and degree of
translucency. It is stable in normal intraoral conditions and is easy to process.

Physical properties of denture base resins: these characteristics are critical to fit and
function of removable denture prostheses.
•
o Polymerization Shrinkage: change in density of monomer after mixing leads to
an overall decrease in volume. This “shrinkage” can lead to poor adaptation of
denture base and cuspal interdigitation. Therefore a material with low
polymerization shrinkage is recommended for denture base. Polymerization
shrinkage in acrylic resins are distributed uniformly thus clinically satisfactory
denture bases can be produced using acrylic resin
o Porosity: The presence of surface and subsurface voids can compromise the
physical, esthetic, and hygienic properties of a processed denture base.
Porosities can be produced when the temperature of water bath exceeds
100.40C or due to inadequate mixing of monomer and polymer
o Water absorption: The introduction of water molecules produces two important
effects. First, it causes a slight expansion of the polymerized mass. Second,
water molecules interfere with the entanglement of polymer chains and thereby
act as plasticizers
o Solubility: denture base resins are soluble in a variety of liquids; they are
virtually insoluble in the fluids commonly encountered in the oral cavity.
o Processing stresses: Whenever a natural dimensional change is inhibited, the
affected material sustains internal stresses. If stresses are relaxed, distortion of
the material can occur.
o Crazing: In a clinical setting, crazing is evidenced by small linear cracks that
appear to originate at a denture’s surface. Crazing in a transparent resin imparts
a “hazy” or “foggy” appearance. In a tinted resin, crazing imparts a whitish
appearance. In addition to esthetic effects, these surface cracks predispose a
denture resin to fracture.
o Strength: most important contributing factor to strength of resins is their degree
of polymerization. Therefore self-curing resins have lower strength compared to
their heat-curing counterpart.
o Creep: these materials act as rubbery solids. When a denture base resin is
subjected to a sustained load, the material may exhibit deformation with both
elastic (recoverable) and plastic (irrecoverable) components. If this load is not
removed, additional plastic deformation can occur over time. This additional
deformation is termed creep.

Composition:
The liquid contains nonpolymerized polymethyl methacrylate and the powder contains
prepolymerized polymethyl methacrylate. When the liquid and powder are mixed a
workable mass is formed which is then poured into a pre-form mold cavity and
polymerized.

Polymerization or Setting:
A chemical reaction that transforms small molecules into large polymer chain. In short,
this is the process where the soft workable mass formed after mixing the powder and
liquid is hardened. Acrylic resins can be divided into three types based on the chemical
basis for their polymerization: Heat activated, Chemically Activated, and Light activated
Acrylic Resins

M7 Lesson 3 ACRYLIC RESIN (2)

A. Heat Activated Acrylic Resins

o Heat-activated materials are used in the fabrication of nearly all denture bases.
The polymerization is achieved by use of thermal energy (heat) using a water
bath or microwave oven.

•
o
▪ Composition: aside from compositions mentioned earlier, small amount of
benzoyl peroxide is added to the powder as an initiator (responsible for
starting the polymerization process) and Hydroquinone is added to the liquid
as an inhibitor (prevent undesirable polymerization or “setting” of liquid during
storage)
▪ Handling and processing: as a rule heat-activated denture base resins are
shaped via compression moulding
▪ Compression moulding technique
▪ Preparation of the mold
▪ Selection and application of separating medium. Alginate based
separating medium is placed on all surfaces of the mold except the teeth
to prevent any contact of acrylic resin with the mold. Any contact of acrylic
with the mold can lead to a) if water diffuses from mold to acrylic, it can
affect polymerization rate and physical properties of the final denture base
and b) if dissolved free monomer soaks into the mold , the mold can fuse
with the acrylic denture base
▪ Mixing – polymer to monomer ratio: powder (polymer) is mixed with liquid
(monomer) at 3:1 ratio by volume to achieve a doughlike workable mass
▪ Mixing- polymer-monomer interaction: when polymer and monomer are
mixed the resultant workable mass has 5 stages
▪ Sandy: no reaction. Polymer remains unaltered. Coarse or grainy
mixture
 ▪ Stringy: monomer attacks polymer and is absorbed. “stringiness or
stickiness” when touched
▪ Dough-like: Polymer chains are formed and increase in number. Mass
behaves like a pliable-dough. Not sticky anymore therefor at this stage
material is introduced into the mold cavity
▪ Rubbery or elastic: monomers are dissipated by evaporation. The
mass rebounds when compressed or stretched the mass no longer
flows freely so cannot be molded.
▪ Stiff: continued evaporation of monomer. Mass is dry and resistant to
mechanical deformation
▪ Mixing- Dough forming time: ADA requires denture base resins reach
this stage in less than 40min from start of mixing. In practice most
products reach dough-like consistency in less than 10min
▪ Mixing- Working time: defined as the time denture base material
remains in dough-like stage. ADA requires the dough to remain
moldable for at least 5min. Refrigeration can increase working time
but moisture from refrigeration can lower the physical properties of the
final denture base
▪ Packing: the placement and adaptation of denture base resin within
the mold cavity. Most critical step. The entire mold cavity should be
filled and excess removed. Too much material leads to excessively
thick denture base and too little material leads to void or porosities.
▪ Polymerization: The denture flask is immersed in a water bath. Benzoyl
peroxide is decomposed at a temperature of 600C and leads to a chain-
growth polymerization. Therefore heat is the Activator. Polymerization is
exothermic thus if the temperature of water bath exceeds the boiling point
of monomer at 100.80C, the unreacted monomer would boil and lead to
internal porosities.
▪ Polymerization cycle: the heating process used to control polymerization
is termed polymerization cycle or curing cycle. One technique involves
processing the denture base at 740Cfor 8 hrs. A second technique is
processing at 740C for 8hrs and then increasing the temperature to 1000C
for 1hr. a third technique is to process the resin at 740C for 2hr then
increasing the temperature to 1000C for 1hr.
▪ Finishing and polishing: After the denture is processed, it is removed from
the flask, the excess is trimmed and the base is polished.

B. Chemically Activated Acrylic Resins

•
o Chemically activated Acrylic resins: aside from heat chemical activators can also
be used to induce polymerization. Chemical activation does not require
application of thermal energy therefore it is called cold-curing, self-curing or auto-
polymerization resins.
 •
o
▪ Composition: dimethyl-para-toluidine, is added to the monomer which causes
decomposition of benzoyl peroxide and as a result polymerization is initiated.
Polymerization progresses in a manner similar to heat-activated.
▪ Heat vs. Self -cure resin: the denture bases made from heat activated resin
and self-cured resins are quite similar but there are certain disadvantages
and advantages to self-curing resins

•
o Disadvantages

•
o
▪ Degree of polymerization: incomplete in self-cured compared to heat-cured
▪ Decreased transverse strength of denture base: due to incomplete
polymerization, unreacted monomer in self-cured resins act as a plasticizer
▪ Decreased biocompatibility: unreacted monomer can cause tissue irritation
▪ Lowered colour stability

•
o Advantages

•
o
▪ Less shrinkage: therefore slightly better dimensional accuracy

•
o Processing: chemically activated denture base resins are most often molded
using compression techniques. Therefore mold preparation and resin packing
are essentially the same as those described for heat activated resins. Initial
hardening occur within 30minbut polymerization continues for an extended
period.

C. Light-Activated Acrylic Resins

•
o Light activated Acrylic resins: visible light activated denture base resins are
available in single component sheet and rope forms.

•
o
▪ Composition: generally described as resin-based composites having matrices
of urethane dimethacrylate, microfine, silica and high-molecular weight acrylic
resin monomers. Acrylic resin beads are also included as organic fillers.
 Visible light is the Activator while a photosensitizing agent like
camphorquinone serves as the initiator for polymerization
▪ Processing: denture base fabrication using light-activated acrylic resin is
different. It cannot be flasked in conventional manner since the opaque
investing material (plaster) prevents light penetration.
▪ Denture base is molded to an accurate cast
▪ Teeth are positioned
▪ Denture base is exposed to high intensity light
▪ Following polymerization, denture is removed and polished

M8 Introduction
Whenever a cast pure metal or alloy is permanently deformed in any manner it is
considered a wrought metal. Because of plastic deformation, the microstructure of an
alloy is altered and the alloy exhibits properties that are different from those it had in the
as-cast state. The most significant changes are its proportional limit and ductility, which
will be discussed later. The applications of wrought metals in dentistry include
orthodontic wires, clasps for removable partial dentures, direct-filling gold, root canal
files and reamers, preformed crowns in pediatric dentistry, and surgical instruments.
The primary metals are wrought noble alloys wrought metals are mostly base metal
alloys, such as stainless steel, cobalt-chromium-nickel, nickel- titanium, and beta-
titanium. Some wrought noble alloys are also available.

M8 While Task
Key Terms:

o Annealing—The process of controlled heating and cooling that is designed to

produce desired proper- ties in a metal. Typically, the annealing process is
intended to soften metals, to increase their ductiLity, stabilize shape, and
increase machinability (see stress relief). In the case of gold foil, the term refers
to removal of contaminant from the surface of the foil.
o Cold working—The process of plastically deforming metal at room temperature.
o Compaction (condensation)—The process of increasing the density of metal
foil, pellets, or powder through compressive pressure.
o Ductility—The ability of a solid to be elongated or thinned plastically without
fracturing.
 o Ductile fracture—The rupture of a solid structure resulting in measurable plastic
deformation.
o Malleability—The ability (of a metal) to be hammered into thin sheets without
fracturing.
o Springback—The amount of elastic strain that a metal can recover when loaded
to and unloaded from its yield strength; an important property of orthodontic
wires.
o Strain hardening—The increase in strength and hardness and decrease in
ductility of a metal that is caused by plastic deformation below its recrystallization
temperature; also called work hardening.
o Superelasticity—The ability of certain nickel-titanium alloys to undergo
extensive deformation result- ing from a stress-assisted phase transformation,
with the reverse transformation occurring on unloading; sometimes called
pseudoelasticity.
o Working range—The maximum amount of elastic strain that an orthodontic wire
can sustain before it plastically deforms.
o Wrought metal—A metal that has been plastically deformed to alter the shape
of the structure and certain mechanical properties, such as strength, hardness,
and ductility.

Applications of Wrought Metal in Dentistry

•
o Orthodontist - wires for correcting displacements of teeth
o Prosthodontist - clasps for retention and stabilization of removable partial
dentures
o Endodontist - files and reamers to clean and shape canals
o Pedodontist - preformed metal crowns for deciduous teeth

STAINLESS STEEL ALLOYS

• Superior performance for curettes and endodontic instruments

• Major alloys used in orthodontics

Types:
•
o
▪ Ferritic Stainless Steels
▪ Provide good corrosion resistance at a low cost when high strength is not
required.
▪ They Cannot be hardened by heat treatment or readily work-hardened
▪ Consequently they have little application in dentistry.
▪ Martensitic Stainless Steels
 ▪ Can be heat-treated in the same manner as plain carbon steels
▪ Used for surgical and cutting instruments
▪ Austenitic Stainless Steels
▪ The addition of nickel to the iron-chromium-carbon composition stabilizes
the austenite phase on cooling
▪ Type 18-8 stainless steel, which contains 18% chromium and 8% nickel
by weight most commonly used alloy for orthodontic stainless steel wires
and bands.

Austenitic stainless steel is preferable to ferritic stainless steel for dental applications
because it has the following properties:
•
o
▪
▪ Greater ductility and ability to undergo more cold work without fracturing
▪ Substantial strengthening during cold working (some transformation to
martensite)
▪ Greater ease of welding
▪ Ability to overcome sensitization
▪ Less critical grain growth
▪ Comparative ease of forming

COBALT CHROMIUM NICKEL ALLOYS

•
o
▪ Originally developed for use as watch springs (Elgiloy)
▪ First marketed for use in orthodontic appliances during the 1950s
▪ The orthodontic force delivery for Elgiloy Blue and stainless steel orthodontic
wires is essentially the same
▪ Elgiloy Blue wires have a “soft feel” compared with the more resilient
stainless steel wires because of their much lower yield strength.

NICKEL-TITANIUM ALLOYS
•
o
▪ Wrought nickel-titanium orthodontic wire alloy known as Nitinol, introduced
commercially during the 1970s
▪ The alloy name “Nitinol” originally came from the two elements nickel (Ni) and
▪ titanium (Ti) and the Naval Ordnance Laboratory (NOL) where these alloys
were developed.
▪ Contains 55% nickel and 45% titanium by weight.
 ▪ Orthodontic wire alloys contain small amounts of other elements, such as
cobalt, copper, and chromium.
▪ This wire alloy is noted for its much lower elastic modulus and much wider
elastic working range than those of stainless steel and Co-Cr-Ni wires.

DIRECT FILLING GOLD

•
o
▪ Pure gold is the noblest of all dental metals
▪ Rarely tarnishing or corroding in the oral cavity
▪ The most ductile and malleable metal used in restorative dentistry.
▪ Pure gold in the form of foil or powder can be adapted to the walls of a cavity
preparation with only a minimal marginal gap.
▪ The use of direct filling golds is generally limited to areas where they simply
“fill” a space (such as pits and small class I, II, III, V, and VI restorations) and
for repairing casting margins.

M8 Lesson1 Direct Filling Gold

For many years, Dentistry has used metals as replacement for missing tooth
structures. Gold foil was said to be used as a restorative material from many years ago
because it can be directly placed in the mouth, piece by piece which can be weld
together by hand pressure.

M9 Pre-task
Definition of terms:

• alloys- mixture of two or more metals

• Base metal- a common metal that is not considered precious, such as copper, tin, or
zinc
• Brazing-has a melting point above 450C
• Carat- a system for stating the amount of gold in an alloy.
• Casting- a process by which a wax pattern of a shape is converted into metal
• Coping-a thin covering of the coronal portion of the tooth usually without
anatomic conformity.
• Coring- a microstructure in which composition gradient exists between the center
and the surface of cast dentrites, grains or particles
• Fineness- a system for stating the amount of gold in an alloy
• Flux- a chemical used to dissolve the oxide on the surface of an alloy and allow a
melted solder to flow and bond to the alloy
• Grains- microscopic crystals that make up cast alloys
• Metal- an element or alloy whose atoms readily lose electrons to form positively
charged ions.
• Noble metal- metals that are highly resistant to oxidation, tarnish and corrosion
• Pickling- a process of submerging a cast restoration in a hot acid to remove surface
oxides formed during the casting process.
• Soldering- is a method of joining two or more cast or wrought using another alloy
called a solder
• Spruing- the addition of a small cylinder of wax, plastic or metal to the wax pattern
before investing
• Wought metal alloys – these are cold worked metals that are plastically deformed to
bring about a change in shape of structure and their mechanical properties.

M9 Lesson 1 COMPONENTS
• An alloy is defined as a metal body containing two or more elements, at least one of which
is metal and all of which are mutually soluble in the molten state.
• Most alloys solidify over a range of temperature rather than a single temperature as does a
pure metal.
• Gold alloys
o Pure gold is yellow, soft metal that is welded together and easily deformed under
pressure.

Types of casting alloys

• High noble casting alloys

• Noble casting alloys
• Base-metal casting alloys

Desirable Properties of Dental Casting Alloy

1.
1. biocompatibility
2. Tarnish and corrosion resistance
3. Thermal properties
4. Strength requirements
5. Fabrication of cast prosthesis and frameworks
6. Porcelain bonding
 7. Economic conditions

ADVANTAGES:

1.
1. Casting techniques and materials are capable of reproducing precise form and minute
detail.
2. Yield strength, tensile strength and shear strength of alloys used for cast
dental restorations are greater than those of any other materials used intra-orally.
3. Casting restorations have fewer voids, no layering effect, less internal stresses,
fairly even stress patterns, maximum bonding between component phases
4. Can be finished, polished or glazed outside the oral cavity without endangering P-D
organ

DISADVANTAGES:

1.
1. Being a cemented restoration, several interphases will be created at the tooth cement
casting junction. These interphases and the leakage accompanying them, will
become more significant.
2. They require extensive tooth involvement in preparation creating possible hazard for
vital dental tissues.
3. Procedure is length requiring more than one visit, with temporary restoration
between visits.
4. Cast alloys are expensive than other restorative materials.
5. Natural teeth maybe abraded more easily due to abrasive differential leading to
teeth shifting, tilting or rotating.

CLASSIFICATION
I. According to number of alloys present
•
o
▪ Binary
▪ Ternary
▪ Quaternary

II. According to major element present

•
o
 ▪ gold alloys ■ cobalt alloys
▪ Silver alloys ■ titanium alloys
▪ Palladium alloys ■ copper alloys
▪ nickel alloys

III. According to the dominant phase system

•
o
▪ single phase
▪ Eutectic
▪ Peritectic
▪ intermetallic

IV. According to three major elements

•
o
▪ gold palladium silver
▪ Palladium silver tin
▪ Nickel chromium molybdenum
■ Cobalt chromium molybdenum
■ Iron nickel chromium
■ Titanium aluminum

High noble alloys

• These alloys are the most expensive as gold, palladium and platinum are expensive
• Relatively high densities that make that make them easier to cast
• Due to high liquidus (high melting point) allows them to serve
• Resistant to corrosion even under severe conditions
• Noble metals are gold, palladium and platinum

Noble alloys

• Contain at least 25% noble elements with no requirement for gold and 75% consists
of base metals.
• More biocompatible with the oral tissues, because they tend to corrode less than
base metals.

Base metal alloys

• Base metal alloys are based on active metallic elements that corrode but develop
corrosion resistance via surface oxidation that produces a thin, tightly adherent film
that inhibits further corrosions
M9 Lesson 2 DENTAL
INVESTMENT
Investment can be described as ceramic material that is suitable for forming a mould
into which molten metal or an alloy is cast. Materials such as gypsum, phosphate and
silicate are used for investing.

INVESTMENT- materials can withstand high temperatures, also known as refractory

materials
In general, an investment is a mixture of three distinct type or components of materials;
refractory, binder and modifiers

Classification:
•
o According to type of binder used:
▪ Gypsum-bonded investments-used for casting gold alloys, withstand
temperature up to 700C
▪ Phosphate-bonded investments- for metal ceramic and cobalt-chromium
alloys, withstand higher temperatures
▪ Ethyl-silica bonded investment- alternative to the phosphate-bonded for high
temperature casting, principally used in the casting of base-metal alloy partial
dentures.
o According to the type of silica used:
▪ Quartz investment
▪ Cristobalite investment
o According to the use and melting range of alloy

Properties of an ideal investment

1. Setting time
2. Porosity
3. Smooth surface
4. Easily manipulated
5. Setting expansion
6. Normal setting expansion
7. Hygroscopic expansion
8. Thermal setting expansion
Requirements of Investment Materials:

1. wax pattern.
2. Easily manipulated
3. Setting time should be less
4. Should maintain the integrity at higher temperatures and should not decompose
to give off gases.
5. Possess sufficiently high value of compressive strength at the casting
temperature to withstand stresses set up when the molten metal enters the
mould.
6. Should expand to compensate for the casting shrinkage
7. Investment should be porous enough to permit the air or other gases in the mold
cavity to escape easily during the casting.
8. Investment should produce a smooth surface and fine detail and margins on the
casting.
9. Should be inexpensive

M9 Lesson 3 CASTING
PROCEDURE
Casting can be described as an object formed by the solidification of a fluid that has
been poured or injected into a mold.
The procedure involves three steps:

1. Fusing the alloy or thermoplastically softening the ceramic material.

2. Transporting the thermally treated investment to the casting machine.
3. Forcing the melt into the investment mold.

Casting Procedure:

• Finidhing and polishing

• Divesting
• Casting
• Burnout procedure
• Die preparation
• Wax pattern preparation
• Spruing
• Investing procedure
• Impression
• Tooth/teeth preparation
M10 Introduction
Dental ceramics
May consist primarily of glasses, porcelains, glass-ceramics, or highly crystalline
structures and exhibit chemical, mechanical, physical, and thermal properties that
distinguish them from other materials such as metals and acrylic resins. The properties of
ceramics are customized for dental applications by precise control of the type and amount
of the components used in their production.
Dental ceramics are nonmetallic, inorganic structures, primarily containing
compounds of oxygen with one or more metallic or semi metallic elements (aluminum,
calcium, lithium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, silicon, sodium, titanium, and
zirconium). Ceramics are more resistant to corrosion than plastics, and metals are much
tougher than either ceramics or plastics. Generally, it does not react with most liquids,
gases, alkalis, and acids and also remain stable over long time periods.

M10 While Task

Dental Ceramics
Dental ceramics exhibit fair to excellent flexure strength and fracture toughness. One
of the strongest ceramics, zirconium dioxide, has flexure strength similar to that of steel,
although the fracture toughness of steel is far greater than that of zirconia. Although
ceramics are strong, temperature-resistant, and resilient, these materials are brittle and
may fracture when flexed or when quickly heated and cooled. Most dental ceramics are
compounds of oxygen with lighter metals or semi-metals (metalloids) that have some
properties of metals and nonmetals, but they are generally nonmetallic in nature.
Ceramic materials are currently used in two categories of application for restorative dentistry,
namely, all-ceramic fixed-partial dentures (FPDs) and implantable components.

Definition of Terms:

• Dental ceramic- An inorganic compound with nonmetallic properties typically

consisting of oxygen and one or more metallic or semi-metallic elements (e.g.
aluminum, calcium, lithium, magnesium, potassium, silicon, sodium, (tin, titanium, and
zirconium) that is formulated to produce the whole or part of a ceramic-based dental
prosthesis.
• Ceramic- An inorganic compound with non-metallic properties typically composed of
metallic (or semi-metallic) and non-metallic elements (e.g. AI2, O2, CaO and Si3N4)
• Sintering- The process of heating closely packed particles to a specified
temperature(below the melting point of the main component) to denisfy and strengthen
a structure as a result of bonding, diffusion, and flow phenomena.
• Overglaze-The surface coating of glass formed by fusing a thin layer of glass powder
that matures at a lower temperature than that associated with the ceramic substrate.
• Natural glaze- A vitrified layer that forms on the surface of a dental ceramic containing
a glass phase when the ceramic i s heated to a glazing temperature for a specified
time.

Classifications of Dental Ceramics (Anusavice)

According to Composition:

1.
1. Pure Alumina
2. Pure Zirconia
3. Silica Glass
4. Leucite-based glass ceramic
5. Lithia-based glass ceramic

According to Uses:

1.
1. Anterior and Posterior Crown
2. Veneers
3. Post and Core
4. Ceramic Stain
5. Ceramic Glaze

According to Firing Temperature:

1.
1. Ultralow fusing
2. Low fusing
3. Medium fusing
4. High fusing

Fabrication process:

1. Condensation
o Porcelain for ceramic and metal-ceramic prostheses, as well as for other
applications, is supplied as a fine powder that is designed to be mixed with water
or another vehicle and condensed into the desired form.
o An initial ceramic processing method of packing the material particles together until
the liquid binder is removed.

2. Sintering/Firing
o The purpose of firing is simply to fuse the particles of powder together properly to
form the prosthesis.

3. Glazing (Overglazing and Shading of Ceramics)

o Process of rendering the surface a ceramic smooth which stimulates a natural
tooth surface
 o It is effective in reducing crack propagation within the outer surface because the
surface flaws may be bridged and surface will be under a state of compressive
stress.

4. Cooling
o Proper cooling of porcelain prosthesis from its firing temperature to room
temperature

Other Ceramic Methods of Processing (Initial methods):

1.
1. Hot Pressing
2. Casting
3. Slip Casting
4. Computer-Aided Machining/Milling (CAM)
5. Copy-Milling
6. Milling of Dry pressed powder on enlarged die

M11 Introduction
Abrasive and Polishing Materials
The oral cavity is very sensitive to all appliances and restorations that are placed in
it. This pushes the clinician to make sure that restorations and appliances are highly
smooth and polished as not to affect the oral structures of the mouth. Restorations not
highly polished may lead to problems such as injury to the oral structure, food debris may
cling to the restoration which may lead to tarnish and corrosion of the restoration. This
emphasizes the importance of studying the abrasive and polishing agents in Dental
materials.
All dental restorations and appliances when placed inside the mouth must have a surface
finish that is smooth and polished. Otherwise it may result to the patient being
uncomfortable or the restoration becomes dirty because debris will cling to it and
deterioration of the restoration or appliance may occur. This is the reason why knowledge
of abrasives and polishing agents is important in the study of Dental Materials.

Abrasives
• A material or agent that has the ability to cause abrasion (wear off) on a surface.

Abrasion
•
o denotes the wearing off one surface against another by friction.
o Useful in order to smooth a roughened surface in preparation for polishing
Abrasive Actions
• Essentially a cutting action
• Cuts through the surface of a material in a manner similar to a sharp pointed chisel
• A shaving is formed which immediately crushes to a fine powder, which may clog
abrasive tools
• These minute powder-like particles maybe removed by washing, such cleaning should
always be done before polishing.

Desirable Characteristics of an Abrasive

1. Should be irregular in shape
2. Should be harder than the material or surface it abrades.
3. Possess a high impact strength or body strength
4. Possess an attrition resistance so it does not wear

Grading of Abrasives and Polishing Materials

• Abrasives are graded on the basis of the fineness
• Finer abrasives are designated as powders or flours and are graded in increasing
fineness as F, FF, FFF etc.; for impregnated papers (sand papers) as 0, 00,000 etc.

Binder
• Abrasive wheels and discs has its abrasive particles held together by a binder
• A ceramic bond is used in many cases
• Electroplating process provides a metallic binder maybe sometimes used
• Rubber or shellac is used for soft grade disc

Factors Affecting the Rate of Abrasion

1. Size of abrasive particle
2. Pressure of the work against the abrasive
3. Speed at which the particle travel across the work
Types of Abrasives
1. Emery – consist of natural oxide of aluminum (corundum), with presence of
impurities such as iron oxide.
2. Aluminum Oxide – from bauxite and supplied in various grain sizes and has
partially replaced emery.
▪ Levigated Alumina (from water flotation process) is used extensively as
abrasive agents for metal
3. Garnet – comprises the silicates of any combinations of aluminum, cobalt,
magnesium, iron and manganese. Common denture abrasive disks.
4. Pumice- Highly siliceous material of volcanic origin. Used either as abrasive or
polishing agent.
5. Kieselguhr – composed of siliceous remains of aquatic plants known as diatoms. It
is a mild abrasive and polishing agent.
6. Tripoli – derived from a light weight, porous friable silicone sedimentary rocks. Frist
found in Northern Africa near Tripoli. Can be white, gray, pink, red or yellow. Grey
and red type is most frequently used in dentistry.
7. Rouge – a fine red powder composed of iron oxide. It is usually cake form.
Excellent polishing agent for gold and precious metal alloy.
8. Tin Oxide – also known as putty powder. It is pure white powder.
9. Chalk – calcium carbonate prepared by precipitation. Abrasive often found in
dentifrices,
10. Sand – sand and other forms of quarts are used as abrasive agents. Common
example is sand paper.
11. Carbides – Silicon carbide (SiC) and boron carbide (B4C). Most of the stone burs
employed for cutting tooth structure are made of silicon carbide.
12. Diamond – the hardest and most effective abrasive for tooth enamel.
13. Zirconium Silicate – occurring in nature as zircon, and used as a polishing agent in ground
form. Common constituent in prophylactic pastes. Also used as an abrasive impregnated
polishing strip and discs

Abrasives and their Uses in Dentistry

1. Natural Diamond – ceramic and resin based composite materials.
2. Synthetic Diamond – tooth structures, ceramic and resin, composite materials
3. Arkansas Stone – tooth enamel and metal alloys
4. Chalk – tooth enamel, gold, amalgam and resin materials.
5. Corundum – metal alloys
6. Emery – metal alloys and acrylic resin
7. Garnet – metal alloys and acrylic resin
8. Pumice – tooth enamel, gold, dental amalgam, acrylic resin
9. Quartz – metal alloy, tooth enamel
10. Sand - metal alloys and acrylic resin
11. Zirconium Silicate- prophylactic paste
12. Cuttle – metal alloys, dental amalgam.
13. Silicon Carbide – metal alloy, ceramics and acrylic resins
14. Aluminum Oxide – Tooth enamel, metal alloys, resin composites, and ceramic
materials
15. Tin Oxide – tooth enamel, metallic restorations
M11 While Task (Continuation)
Polishing
•
o Production of a smooth, mirror-like surface without the use of a film
o Producing a virtually scratch free surface
o If particle of abrasive is reduced sufficiently, the scratches finally becomes
extremely fine and may disappear entirely, the surface acquires a smooth shiny
layer known as polish.

•
o During the polishing procedure, polishing agents remove material from the surface,
molecule by molecule, and thus produce a very smooth surface. In the process,
fine scratches and irregularities are filled in by the powdered particulate being
removed from the surface. This microcrystalline layer is referred to as
the Beilby Layer or polish layer.
o The difference between an abrasive agent and polishing agent may be hard to
define. E.g. a given agent having a large particle size may act as an abrasive and
the same abrasive with a smaller particle size may leave a polished surface.

Polishing Procedure
•
o Polishing should initially be performed with coarse abrasion.
o Followed by fine abrasion
o Gradual shift from coarser to finer abrasives results in scratched lesser that 0.5µ .
These scratches have a diameter lesser than the wavelength of the visible light,
thereby making the surface
o Abrasive agent should be carefully selected as the hardness of the agent should
not exceed the hardness of the surface to be polished.

Dentifrice
o Its primary function is to assist the tooth brush in cleaning the surfaces of the teeth
of debris and stains.
o French word for toothpaste

Composition of Dentifrice
1. Abrasive and polishing agent (20-55%)
▪ For the removal of plaque/stains and polish tooth surface
 ▪ e.g. Calcium Carbonate, Dibasic Calcium Phosphate dihydrate, Hydrated
alumna, Hydrated silica, Sodium Bicarbonate or mixtures of abrasives
2. Humectant (20-35%)
▪ Maintains moisture
▪ e.g. Sorbitol, glycerin
3. Water (15-25%)
▪ e.g. Deionized water
4. Flavoring Agent
5. Sodium and alginate derivatives
▪ Control the consistency of the paste and aid in keeping the solid paste in
suspension

Types of Toothpaste
1. Children's toothpaste
▪ Contains less fluoride and abrasives than those designed for adults.
2. Teeth-whitening Toothpaste
▪ Contain abrasives and cleansers that help remove stains
3. Sensitive Teeth Toothpaste
▪ Contains potassium nitrate, substance that can reduce painful sensation
4. Herbal Toothpaste
▪ A natural cleaning alternative . May have fluoride component or not.

M12 Lesson 1 Dental Implants

DENTAL IMPLANTS
A dental implant is an artificial tooth root that is placed into your jaw that acts as an
anchorage device to hold or support a replacement tooth or a dental prosthesis such as a
crown, fixed bridge or partially and complete dentures. Dental implants may be an option
for people who have lost a single or multiple teeth due to tooth decay, dental infections,
periodontal disease, an injury, or some other reason.
This video discusses the components of Dental Implants By Dr. Ryan/Mental
Dental:
Definition of Terms:
•
o Abutment – refers to a structure/tooth that acts as an anchor or a common
attachment to a jacket crown, fixed bridge or a removable dental prosthesis.
o Edentulous – it is the state of lacking or missing or absence of teeth
o Endosteal – into/inside the bone
o Osseointegration – histological intimate connection between the alveolar bone and the
implant.
o Periosteum - a dense outer layer of vascular connective tissue enveloping the bones except
at the surfaces of the joints
o Prosthesis – an artificial replacement of an absent part of the human body
o Subperiostal – under the periosteum
 o Titanium - is a chemical element with the symbol Ti and atomic number 22. It is a lustrous
transition metal with a silver color, low density, and high strength. It is a type of metal
often used in dental implants because its properties are known to fuse well with human
bone. It has been used for decades, and it's so strong and lightweight that surgeons use it for
hip and knee replacements.
o Titanium alloys - are alloys that contain a mixture of titanium and other chemical
elements. Such alloys have very high tensile strength and toughness (even at extreme
temperatures). They are light in weight, have extraordinary corrosion resistance and the
ability to withstand extreme temperatures.
o Transosteal – through the bone
o Zirconia - (zirconium dioxide) is a white, powdered metal oxide. Like other common
dental crown materials, it is a ceramic. It is made from zirconium, a metal with similar
properties to titanium
o Zirconium - is a silver-gray transition metal, a type of element that is malleable and ductile
and easily forms stable compounds. It is also highly resistant to corrosion and makes a
good choice for dental material because it is chemically unreactive.

Classifications of Dental Implants:

Implants can be classified according to implant design, implant properties, or implant attachment
mechanism. There are four types of implant designs that have evolved during centuries of
development.
Main classifications:

1.
1. Subperiosteal Implants
2. Transosteal Implants
3. Endosteal Implants
4. Epithelial Implants (Anusavice)

Subdivisions of Endosteal Implants :

1. Blade form/ Platform wedge

2. Root form or Cylindrical

Categories of Endosteal Implants

1. One-stage type
2. Two-stage type

IMPLANT COMPONENTSTo understand the material characteristics and function of an

implant, one must first be knowledgeable of its numerous parts Although each implant
system varies, the parts are basically consistent.
Components of Dental Implants (Endosteal):

o Implant Body or Fixture - Commonly referred to as “root form implants” as it

takes a form of a cylinder or tapered cylinder (simulating a form of the root of a
tooth)
o Cover or Healing Screw - A low profile , intraimplant cover screw that acts as a
seal to the implant body’s platform which is placed after the implant fixture/body is
surgically placed in a two-stage approach.
o Healing or Interim Abutment - are dome-shaped intraimplant screws which
provide permucosal access to the implant platform which are place at the
completion of implant placement surgery in a one-stage surgical approach or after
uncovering of the healing screw in a two-stage surgical approach.
o Impression coping - used to replicate or facilitate the transfer of the intraoral
location of the implant to the same position on the laboratory cast upon performing
an open/closed tray impression technique.
o Implant analog or replica - used to replicate the position and orientation of the
implant inside the bone of the patient’s mouth
o Implant (Prosthetic) Abutment- Portion of the Implant that supports the
prosthesis (crown) or implant superstructure.
o Implant Crown - tooth like form that is placed to cover the implant abutment.
o Prosthesis Retaining Screws (Abutment screw)- are intended to attach
prosthetic abutments, or frameworks to the implant fixture or implant abutment.

M12 Lesson 2 Orthodontic & Pediatric

Materials
In this lesson, special materials that are commonly used in the practice of
orthodontics and pediatric dentistry is introduced. Orthodontics which deals with the
growth and development of the masticatory apparatus require materials which are used
for the it prevention and treatment of irregularity and malocclusion of the teeth. While
Pediatric dentistry deals with the comprehensive preventative and therapeutic oral health
care of children from birth through adolescence.

M12 Lesson 3 Endodontic,

Periodontal & Other Surgical
Materials
It is important to know, other than the materials that are currently being used in dentistry,
the new trends for Endodontics, Periodontics and other surgical materials.
 Endo-Perio & other Surgical Materials

Endodontics
Biocompatible materials

▪ Biodentine– is a calcium-silicate based material that has drawn attention in

recent years. It is a dentin replacement material that is bioactive and
biocompatible.

Indications:

1. Deep caries
2. Pulp exposures
3. Perforations
4. Internal/external resorptions
5. Apical surgery
6. Pulpotomies
7. Apexifications

*safe to use for pediatric patients

*setting time: 10-12 minutes

▪ Bio-C sealer- A premixed bioceramic sealer developed for permanent filling

and sealing during root canal treatment. It is available in a single syringe.

Composition:
Calcium silicates
Calcium aluminate
Calcium oxide
Zirconium oxide
Iron oxide
Silicon dioxide
Dispersing agents
*Its bioactivity is attributed to the release of calcium ions that stimulate the formation of
mineralized tissue.

▪ TotalFill BC Sealer – A calcium silicate bioceramic based sealer that has

shown good physical and biological properties and has the ability to release
calcium ions.
Periodontics and Surgery:

▪ Bone Grafts – are used as fillers and scaffold to facilitate bone formation and
promote wound healing. They are bioresorbable and acts as a mineral reservoir
which induces new bone formation.

Types and tissue sources of bone grafts:

▪ Autografts– utilizing bone obtained from the same individual

receiving the graft.
▪ Allografts– harvested from an individual other than the one
receiving the graft.
▪ Xenografts– bone grafts from species other than human. (pigs &
cow)
▪ Alloplasts– are made from hydroxyapatite, a naturally occurring
mineral(main mineral content of bone).
▪ Barrier Membranes – used in Oral Surgery and Periodontal Surgery
to prevent epithelial migration into a specific area in the guided
tissue regeneration procedure.

▪ Nonresorbable
▪
▪ Cellulose Acetate
▪ Expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (e-PTFE) with or w/o titanium
reinforcement
▪ Dense polytetrafluoroethylene (d-PTFE)
▪ Titanium-reinforced high density polytetrafluoroethylene (Ti-d-
PTFE)
▪ Resorbable
▪
▪ Natural
▪ Synthetic

▪ Periodontal Dressing – used to protect wound from mechanical trauma and

stability of the surgical site during the healing process. It also helps in patient
comfort during tissue healing after the surgery.
 M12 Lesson 4 Preventive and
Bleaching Materials (1)
Lesson 4A: Preventive Dentistry Materials
Every dental procedure is performed with the aim to preserve healthy oral structures and
not for the mere restoration of what has been lost. Therefore preventive dentistry, the
practice to maintain good oral health and prevent oral pathologies, is the foundation on
which all oral health care must be built.
In this lesson, you will be introduced to some specialty materials used practice of
preventive dentistry.

Fluoride application and pits & fissure sealant placement are two of the simplest
preventive dental procedures. Watch the videos below to understand how each procedure
is performed.
Fluoride varnish application:How to Apply Enamelast Fluoride Varnish | Step-by-
Step (Links to an external site.)
Pit& fissure Sealant:Sealant Placement Procedure (Links to an external site.)

Flouride
Fluoride is a mineral that is found in all-natural water sources and is the ionic form of the
trace element fluorine, which is commonly found in the environment; fluorine. The use of
fluoride is considered safe and effective in preventing tooth decay for both children and
adults. Fluoride can be delivered topically and systemically.

Systemic fluoridation:
Systemic fluorides are those that are ingested and become incorporated into forming tooth
structures. Systemic fluorides also provide topical protection because fluoride is present in
saliva, which continually bathes the teeth.
Community water fluoridation is the process of adjusting the fluoride content of fluoride-
deficient water to the recommended level for optimal dental health, which is currently
recommended at 0.7 parts fluoride per million parts water
Fluoride supplements can be prescribed for children ages 6 months to 16 years who are
at high risk for tooth decay and whose primary drinking water has a low fluoride
concentration

Topical Fluoridation
Topical fluorides strengthen teeth already present in the mouth, making them more decay-
resistant
Self-applied topical fluorides include toothpaste, mouth rinses, and gels. Professionally
applied topical fluorides include higher-strength rinses, gels, and foams;and fluoride
varnishes

Fluoride toothpaste
Fluoride-containing toothpaste is the most commonly used form of self-applied fluoride
worldwide. Fluoride in toothpaste is taken up directly by the dental plaque and
demineralized enamel and also increases the concentration of fluoride in saliva. Fluoride
toothpastes available over the generally contain a fluoride concentration of 1,000 to 1,500
ppm

Fluoride Mouthrinses:
A concentrated solution intended for daily or weekly use and designed to be rinsed and
spit out.
The most common fluoride compound used in mouth rinse is sodium fluoride. The fluoride
from mouth rinse is retained in dental plaque and saliva and helps prevent tooth decay

Fluoride mouthrinse, Gels, or Foams.

Professionally applied fluorides are in the form of a gel, foam or rinse, and are applied by
a dental professional during dental visits. These fluorides are more concentrated than the
self-applied fluorides and therefore are not needed as frequently.

Fluoride Varnish
Varnishes are available as sodium fluoride or difluorsilane preparations. High-
concentration fluoride varnish is painted by dental or other health care professionals
directly onto the teeth and sets when it comes into contact with saliva. Fluoride varnish is
not intended to adhere permanently; this method holds a high concentration of fluoride in
a small amount of material in close contact with the teeth for several hours. Varnishes
must be reapplied at regular intervals with at least 2 applications per year needed for
sustained benefit.

Pit & fissure sealants

Anatomical grooves or pits and fissures on occlusal surfaces of permanent molars can
trap food particles and promote the presence of bacterial biofilm, increasing the risk of
developing caries lesions. Effectively penetrating and sealing these surfaces with a dental
material, e.g., pit-and-fissure sealants, can prevent lesions and is part of a comprehensive
caries management approach
Dental sealants are systems that can be applied to the occlusal surfaces of teeth to
penetrate anatomic surface pits and fissures and form a physical barrier on the tooth
surface.
Sealant materials can be broken down into two main categories based on the type of
reaction that takes place as they set in the mouth. Glass ionomers undergo an acid-base
reaction as they set, while composite resins set through a polymerization reaction that is
usually initiated by a dental curing light. Resin-modified glass ionomers and polyacid-
modified resins set by a combination of these two reactions, resulting in sealant products
with differing characteristics that vary across a continuum from those of traditional glass
ionomers to composite resins.

M12 Lesson 4 Preventive and

Bleaching Materials (2)
Lesson 4B: Bleaching materials
One of the most frequent reasons patients seek dental care is discolored anterior teeth.
One possible treatment is Bleaching, the lightening of the color of a tooth through the
application of a chemical agent to oxidize the organic pigmentation in the tooth.
In this lesson, you will be introduced to the bleaching materials used in different bleaching
techniques.

Watch the video below to understand how in-office vital bleaching is

performed. Bleaching (Links to an external site.)

Bleaching techniques may be classified as to whether they involve vital or non-vital

teeth and whether the procedure is performed in the office or outside the office. Most
bleaching techniques use some form or derivative of hydrogen peroxide in different
concentrations and application techniques. The mechanism of action of bleaching teeth
with hydrogen peroxide is considered to be oxidation of organic pigments, although the
chemistry is not well understood. Bleaching generally has an approximate lifespan of 1 to
3 years, although the change may be permanent in some situations.

Bleaching Technique Bleaching Material

In-Office Nonvital Bleaching Technique 30-35% hydrogen peroxide

Walking Bleach Technique Sodium perborate

In-Office Vital Bleaching Technique 30% to 35% hydrogen peroxide

Dentist- Prescribed, Home- Applied

10% to 15% carbamide peroxide
Technique
M12 Lesson 5 CAD-CAM Materials
In the last decades, new technologies paved the way for the development and
improvement of CAD (computer aided design) and CAM (computer aided manufacturing)
in Dentistry. This enables dentists and laboratories the use of computers to design and
fabricate esthetically pleasing and durable restorations or prosthesis. An overview
regarding the systems and process of CAD/CAM will be presented.

Key terms:

• CAD/CAM: The term CAD refers to computer-aided design technology, which is based
on the use of computer software and systems to assist in the creation, modification,
analysis, and optimization of two-dimensional or three-dimensional models of objects.
Any computer program that embodies computer graphics and an application program
that facilitates engineering functions in the design process can be classified as CAD
software. The term CAM refers to computer-aided manufacturing of a restorative
device using the CAD input file. CAM may be additive (buildup) or subtractive
(machining of a device from a larger starting piece of material).
• Copy milling: Process of cutting or grinding a desired shape to the same dimensions
as a master pattern in a manner similar to that used for cutting a key blank from a
master key.
• Optical Scanning/ 3D Scanning: is the process of analyzing a real-world object or
environment to collect data on its shape and possibly its appearance. The collected
data can then be used to construct digital 3D models.
Module 1 Post-Task
1. He described a method for making mouth impression in wax and constructed a
model with Plaster of Paris = Pfaff
2. He proposed a standardized cavity preparations and manufacturing processes for
dental amalgam products in 1895 = G V Black
3. Who developed a more refined method for producing cast inlays in 1907? = Taggert
4. The ability of a material to elicit an appropriate biological response in a given
application in the body. = Biological properties
5. Which of the following is an optical property of dental materials? = Transluscency
6. Which of the following is an electrical property of a dental material? = Galvanism
7. These properties are based on the laws of mechanics, acoustics, optics,
thermodynamics, elasticity, magnetism, radiation, atomic, structure or nuclear
phenomena. = Physical properties
8. These properties are related to the behavior of the material in response to externally
applied forces or pressure. = mechanical properties
9. It contains the requirements for properties of dental materials which will ensure their
quality and usefulness. = ADA Specification
10. Who is the father of modern dentistry? = Pierre Fauchard
11. All of the following are rheological properties, except: = adsorption
12. An Optical property which is the relative intensity of the color of an object. = chroma
13. These properties define the ways in which a material behaves during a chemical
reaction or in a chemical environment. = chemical properties
14. Solubility, cohesion and wetting ability are examples of properties. = chemical
properties
15. The following are properties of dental materials, expect: =none of the choices
16. A Physical property which governs the manner in which deformation or flow
behaviors occur. = rheological
17. This refers to the appropriate biologic response of the body to a material used in a
specific application. = biocompatibility

Module 2 Post-Task
1. A type of gypsum that is dehydrated in an autoclave in the presence of sodium
succinate = dental stone
2. It refers to the time when the dental plaster has completely hardened. = final setting
time
3. The beta form of calcium sulfate hemihydrate is called . = Plaster of Paris
4. The following are chemical accelerators of gypsum products, except: = Borax
5. They regulate the setting time of the gypsum and reduce the setting expansion.
= chemical modifiers
6. A process whereby the water of crystallization from the dihydrate is removed.
= Calcination
7. The following properties are desirable for a gypsum product, except: = Thermal
conductivity

Module 3 Post-Task
1. A dental wax that exhibits high adhesion to dry, clean surfaces when heated.
= sticky wax
2. The ability of wax to plastically deform when it is heated slightly above body
temperature. = flow
3. Which of the following is classified as clinical wax? = disclosing wax
4. The tendency of solid wax form partially returns to its original shape when stored at
a higher temperature than that to which it was cooled. = elastic memory
5. A wax used to establish the initial arch form in the construction of complete
dentures. = baseplate wax
6. The following are pattern waxes, expect: = sticky wax
7. A dental wax used to record the occlusal surfaces of teeth to record
maxillomandibular relationships. = bite wax
8. A dental wax that is used to provide enclosed boundary for the base of the cast to be
made from a poured gypsum. = boxing wax
9. A procedure in which a wax pattern is prepared on a die. = indirect wax technique

Module 4 Post-Task (Can choose more than 1 answer)

1. Which of the following statements is True about Diatomaceous earth? (0.67/1 pts)
= Diatomaceous earth strengthens hydrocolloid
= Diatomaceous earth is a filler
= It improves plasticity of the gel
= It contains silica that may cause silicosis when inhaled for a long time
2. When hydrocolloids are exposed to air, will happen.
= It will lose water
= It will shrink
3. When alginate is wrapped in a very wet, dripping cloth, it will undergo .
= Imbibition
4. Which of the following statement is true about alginate?
= Alginate is easy to manipulate
5. Ethyl alcohol is a by-product of the setting reaction of Polyether. = False
6. ZOE paste is dispensed in two tubes: catalyst and accelerator. = False
7. It is a rigid, reversible impression material which sets by physical change. =
Impression Compound
8. Polysufide impression material is noted for its long working time = True
 9. A composition of impression compound which acts to improve rigidity of the
impression material. = Filler
10. Zinc oxide eugenol paste is an elastic and irreversible impression material. = False
11. The correct way of mixing alginate is by? = Figure of eight motion
12. Why do we need to use dustless alginate? (0/1)(Bahala ka na mamili)
= It is inexpensive = To prevent inhalation of alginate dust particles
= It smells good = It is more accurate
13. Cool spatula shortens the setting of ZOE paste. = False
14. What is the main component of reversible hydrocolloid? = Agar

M5 Post – Task
1. A material that is used to protect the pulp in a prepared cavity by providing
thermal insulation. = base
2. The following are liquid composition of zinc phosphate cement EXCEPT; = eugenol
3. According to ADA Specification no. 96, the film thickness of cement should be less
than
micrometers. = 25
4. A material applied to the floor of a prepared cavity for protection of the pulp that is
made of a solution of natural gum and resin dissolved in a volatile solvent. = varnish
5. Which type of cements are classified as luting agents? = Type 1
6. Identify the powder composition of zinc oxide eugenol cement = all of these
7. A dental cement that fills a gap between to bonded materials such as tooth and
prosthesis.
= luting agent
8. It is a biocompatible base and liner with a high pH value suitable for protecting the
pulp.
= calcium hydroxide
9. A material applied to the floor of a prepared cavity for protection of the pulp that is
made of a solution of natural gum and resin dissolved in a volatile solvent. = varnish
10. A material that is used to protect the pulp in a prepared cavity by providing
thermal insulation.
= base

M6 Post – Task
1. An amalgam alloy composition which contributes mainly to the hardness and
strength of the alloy = Copper
2. A process by mixing liquid mercury with one or more metal or alloys to form an
amalgam = Amalgamation
3. ADA Specification no. for amalgam alloys lists dimensional change,
compressive strength, and creep as measures of amalgam quality = 1
4. Amalgam particle alloy are shaped as the following: EXCEPT: = cuboidal
5. Amalgam is a special type of alloy one of its constituents is: = mercury
6. The major contents of amalgam alloys are: = silver and tin
7. What phase is the weakest during the setting reaction of amalgam? = gamma 2
8. This results in a dry, dull and crumbly alloy. = under trituration
9. Delayed expansion of amalgam is associated with the presence of: = zinc
10. This occurs when a solid material slowly deforms plastically under the influence of
stresses.
= creep
11. The compressive strength of of a satisfactory amalgam restoration should be at
least MPa. = 310
12. Second largest component of an amalgam alloy. = tin

M7 – Post Task
1. A component of composite resin which forms a continuous phase in which the
reinforcing filler is dispersed. MATRIX
2. Which is not a major component of dental resin-based composites? ALLOY
3. The silica fillers of this type of composite is approximately 40nm which can be polished
to a highly smooth surface. MICROFILLED COMPOSITE
4. These are various minerals provides strength and reduces curing shrinkage and
thermal expansion of composite. FILLER
5. A hybrid composite with reduced filler level and ha a narrower particle size distribution.
FLOWABLE COMPOSITE
6. What is the suggested polymer to monomer ration when mixing acrylic resin powder
and liquid? 3:1
7. What causes the decomposition of benzoyl peroxide in self-cured resin? DIMETHYL-
PARA-TOLUIDINE
8. A heating process used to control polymerization is termed. CURING CYCLE
9. Hydroquinone prevents undesirable polymerization of acrylic resin during storage.
Hydroquionone acts as. INHIBITOR
10. Which is in proper order of polymer-monomer interaction stages? SANDY, STRINGY,
DOUGHLIKE, ELASTIC, STIFF

M8 – Post Task
1. This refers to the pressurized adaptation of the gold from within the space between the
cavity walls that have been slightly deformed elastically. WEDGING
2. It is added to gold sheets to ensure cleanliness of the foil during storage. AMMIONIA
3. It increases the hardness and wear resistance of the gold foil. PLATINUM
4. Laminated structure with one sheet of platinum foil between two gold foils.
PLATINIZED GOLD
5. It increases the hardness of mat gold by dispersion strengthening without affection
handling properties. CALCIUM
6. A form of direct filling that is provided in sheets which can also be physically
transformed into pallets or cylinders by the dentist. GOLD FOIL
7. The process in which gold segments are compacted by pressure and bonded by
metallic bonds. COLD WELDING
8. A form of direct filling gold formed by electrolytic precipitation which is sandwiched
between sheets of gold foil and formed into strips. MAT GOLD
9. A form of direct filling gold prepared by chemical precipitation or atomization from
molten gold. GOLD POWDER
M9 – Post Task
1. The following may cause a defective casting of alloy, except: NONE OF THE
CHOICES
2. What form of gypsum is generally the binder for investments used in casting gold-
containing alloys? ALPHA HEMIHYDRATE
3. The elimination of wax or resin pattern by heating the mold to a specific temperature
and for a specific time. BURNOUT
4. This occurs when gypsum is allowed to set in contact with heated water. SETTING
TIME (not sure)
5. The process of attaching a sprue former to the wax pattern to provide channel to which
the molten alloy can reach the mold. SPRUING
6. What is the setting time for dental inlay casting investment? 5-25mins
7. The setting time of an investment can be measured and controlled in the same manner
as plaster. TRUE
8. Its purpose is to maintain a molten pool of metal to ensure complete filling of the crown
area of the mold cavity and prevent porosities. RESERVOIR
9. The channel in a refractory investment mold through which molten metal flows.
SPRUE
10. This type of investment is used for casting alloys that can withstand temperature up to
700C. GYPSUM-BONDE

M10 Post-task
1. The process of heating closely packed particles below their melting temperature to
promote atomic diffusion across boundaries. = sintering
2. A partially stabilized zirconium oxide that is used primarily as a core for dental
protheses. = Zirconia
3. A superficial layer on a ceramic – or metal – ceramic prosthesis formed by heating a
dental porcelain to form a smooth glassy layer. = natural glaze
4. A coating of glass formed by fusing glaze particle on a ceramic surface. = overglaze
5. An inorganic compound of nonmetallic properties typically consisting of oxygen and
one or more metallic or semi-metallic elements that is used to produce the whole or a
part of a ceramic-based dental prosthesis. = dental ceramic
6. The following are desirable characteristics of dental ceramic, except: = brittleness
7. The following are applications of ceramics in Dentistry, except: = abrasive agent

M11 Post-Task

1. An abrasive manufactured from bauxite. = Aluminum Oxide

2. The process of removing material from a substrate by abrasion with relatively coarse
particles. = grinding
3. Dental abrasives are used for the following except: = none of the choices
4. A highly siliceous material of volcanic origin. = pumice
5. Finished and polished restorations provide a better gingival health, chewing efficiency,
patient comfort and esthetics. = True
6. A fine powder composed of iron oxide, usually employed in cake form, used for
polishing precious metal alloys. = Rouge
7. Calcium carbonate prepared by precipitation method = Chalk
8. It assists the toothbrush in removal of plaque stains and polishes the tooth surfaces.
= dentrifice
9. Also known as putty powder and used extensively as polishing agent. = Tin Oxide
10. The process of removing surface defects or scratched created during the contouring
process through the use of cutting or grinding instruments. = buffing, finishing,
polishing, grinding.
11. A fine glass powder containing pigments that is applied toa ceramic restoration
superficially. = ceramic stain

M12 Post-task

1. CAD/CAM stands for __. = Computer-Aided Design and Computer-Aided

Manufacturing
2. A bleaching material that is usually used for dentist-prescribed, home-applied
bleaching technique. = carbamide peroxide
3. A preventive method where in a material is placed in the placed in the deep pits and
fissures of the tooth to prevent the development of caries. = pits and fissures sealing
4. A therapeutic treatment option for primary posterior teeth with extensive destruction of
the crown. = stainless streel crown
5. An implant component that engages with the bone. = fixture
6. A process of designing and manufacturing a custom-made dental device from
industrialized product with an aid of computer. = CAD/CAM
7. A device placed into the alveolar and/or basal bone of the mandible or maxilla that
transects only one cortical plate. = endosteal implant
8. A sodium fluoride preparation that is painted on directly to the teeth by a dental
professional. = fluoride varnish
9. These are fillers that acts as reservoir which induces new bone formation and promote
wound healing. = bone grafts
10. A bone graft that is harvested from another individual other than the recipient of the
graft. = allograf