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Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge
Vol. 10 (1), January 2011, pp. 156-166

Traditional Intellect in Disaster Risk Mitigation: Indian Outlook–Rajasthan and

Bundelkhand Icons
Anil K Gupta* & Anjali Singh
National Institute of Disaster Management (Govt. of India), IIPA Campus, New Delhi–110 002 India
E-mails: envirosafe2007@gmail.com; anil.nidm@nic.in
Received 06.12.2010; revised 07.01.2011
Natural disaster’s impact on the community and development’s sustainability are occurring in aggravated and
multiplied size and intensity. Global concern for finding appropriate ecological indicators stems partly from our inability to
interpret early warning signals of a major ecological change, given the complexity of ecological systems. Traditional
ecological knowledge represents experience acquired over thousands of years of direct human contact with the environment.
Communities have evolved with the nature, its resources, its risks and natural processes as well which in certain conditions
act as disasters due to their damaging impacts. Traditions of food, culture, spirituality, ethics and livelihoods have developed
in the background of these natural or anthropogenic challenges in the background of interface between nature and human
development, and thus, communities possess experience and knowledge to foresee, analysis, prepare for and face these
challenges to sustain with resilience. India has a treasure of such indigenous and traditional knowledge of natural resource
management and these can be extrapolated to understand the modern concepts of disaster risk management – in terms of
early warning, preparedness, mitigation, response and relief as well. Rajasthan and Bundelkhand, the regions historically
known for drought disaster present icons showcasing the traditional wisdom. Present paper reviews the concepts and
associated ecological hypothesis, traditional knowledge framework for disaster management in Indian context and discusses
cases from Rajasthan and Bundelkhand in order to evolve recommendations for science and policies.

Keywords: Disasters, Water, Drought, Traditional knowledge, Rajasthan, Bundelkhand

IPC Int. Cl.8 : A47G 19/26; G09G 5/00; G08B 5/00; G08B5/36; G08B 5/38; G08B 5/40; G04B 25/02

Global concern for finding appropriate ecological
indicators stems partly from our inability to interpret
early warning signals of a major ecological change,
given the complexity of ecological systems. But this
concern also stems from a faith that a large number of
communities around the world have survived
precisely through interpretation of such signals for
various short term and long term adaptations1. Local
and traditional knowledge is the knowledge held by
individuals that comes from their own observations,
experiences, beliefs or perceptions rather than from
scientific research. “The first author reveals “my
grandfather’s prediction of water bubbles over
shallow runoff over open grounds as more rains likely
to continue. I, then after years, heard my father
saying this and now I do so. Similar is case of birds
taking sand-bath indication of rains to follow in next
few hours”. This is some kind of practical idea about a
traditional knowledge”. India is a vast country that is
extremely vulnerable to a large extent and diversity of
natural as well as man-made disasters, with boundaries
____________
*Corresponding author
between the two blurred due to increasing human
influence superseding over natural systems. Natural
disaster’s impact on the community and development’s
sustainability are occurring in aggravated and
multiplied size and intensity due to complexity of
environmental disfigurations, ecological imbalances
and socio-economic disparities. Ecosystems sustain
themselves in a dynamic balance based on cycles and
fluctuations, which are non-linear processes…..
ecological awareness, then, will arise only when we
combine our rational knowledge with an intuition for
the non-linear nature of our environment. Such
intuitive wisdom is characteristic of traditional, non-
literate cultures2.
Besides, documented practices like in “Arthasastra”
a world famous book of Vishnu Gupta written as
Kautilya3 recognized as first known book on political
science and public administration, although not a
reference under catalogue on environment but depicted
several important provisions and guidelines on natural
resource management and disaster risk reduction. It
held strong attitudes on forests, fauna, punishments,
town planning, etc. and have enumerated the clauses on
 GUPTA & SINGH : TRADITIONAL INTELLECT IN DISASTER RISK MITIGATION : INDIAN OUTLOOK
provisions for water management7, relief and
preparedness, etc. 4. Work on documenting traditional
knowledge with the ethnic communities in the hilly
states of India has already started and taking a good
pace5. Rawat and Sah6 (2009) have documented and
discussed the traditional knowledge on water and
drought management in Kumanon Himalaya that in
turn also reduced flood risk and likely impacts of flash
floods on community’s resources. Indigenous
knowledge is often used interchangeably with local
knowledge, but sometimes a distinction is drawn
between the ‘indigenous’ to describe primitive
communities living in remote areas and the ‘local’ to
describe people or community who have lived in an
area for a long period of time8. There are two major
cosmovision traditions in India. The 'Great Tradition',
which represents the Sanskrit or classical tradition
described in the Vedas and the 'Folk Tradition',
representing popular Hindu tradition and the tradition
of the tribal peoples. The rituals and practices of the
Hindu tradition, both classical and folk, is a continuing
history. Traditional knowledge for disaster risk
management and response comprised from drawn from
the three facets, i.e. – ecological, social, and nature-
human interface, and addresses issues of risk
perception and warnings, disaster avoidance or
reduction, impact control and preparedness for the
situations. Fig. 1 depicts example set of environmental
hazards as driver of changes that cause or aggravate
various disasters related with water and climate9.
Indicators as Traditional Knowledge
Boundaries of most natural systems are fuzzy and
thus amenable to contraction and expansion over time
and space due to interaction of various natural and
human variables. Fuzzy boundaries often require
homeostatic indicators of threshold values so that
changes conform to system properties and goals. The
homeostatic indicators are a kind of buffer solutions
which do not tell us the precise moments of change
which may take place in a system. Indicators are also
like thumb rules which guide and regulate our
relationship with nature within and outside. Nature
within refers to our tendencies to internalize external
shocks through various psychological, spiritual and
social responses. The stresses produced by these
emotions become evident through various indicators
that we can experience and feel in day-to-day life.
The nature without or outside is what we perceive
through categories that we inherit as well as create or
recreate. These categories also require indicators so
157
that we can make sense of changes in these categories
and deal with them accordingly 1.
In all dryland regions of the world are found local
communities who have long histories of interaction
with the natural environment. Associated with many
of these communities is a cumulative body of
knowledge, know-how, practices and symbolic
representations. These sophisticated sets of
understandings, interpretations and meanings are part
of a cultural complex that encompasses language,
naming and classification systems, resource use
practices, ritual, spirituality and worldview. This local
and indigenous knowledge is a key resource for
empowering communities to combat desertification 10.
Traditional ecological knowledge represents
experience acquired over thousands of years of direct
human contact with the environment. Indigenous and
local communities often have their own names and
classifications (or ‘taxonomy’) for resources, places
(particularly significant sites such as fishing grounds,
and possibly fish spawning aggregation sites), and
marine-related activities. Traditional knowledge
differs from scientific knowledge in following terms:
1. TK is mainly qualitative (not quantitative)
2. TK is holistic (not reductionist)
3. TK is mind and matter together (not separation)
4. TK is moral (not supposedly value free)
5. TK is spiritual (not mechanistic)
6. TK is empirical observations and accumulation of
facts by trial-and-error (not experimentation and
systematic, deliberate accumulation of facts)
7. TK is data generated by resource users themselves
(not by specified cadre of researchers)
8. TK is based on diachronic data, i.e. long-time-series
on information on one locality (not synchronic data,
i.e. short time-series over a large area).
Water: Droughts and Desertification
In view of desertification and land degradation
processes, traditional knowledge comprises a wide
range of accumulated experience to manage natural
resources in farming, grazing, landscape restoration,
and other relevant sectors, institutional and
organizational arrangements, as well as beliefs and
values8. Many scientists, community-based
organizations and non-governmental organizations
working with farmers and herdsmen have compiled a
large body of traditional knowledge and local
technologies associated with different production
systems and agrarian typologies11. A roundup
158 INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 10, No. 1, JANUARY 2011
Fig. 1Schematic of hazards and making of humanitarian disasters
evolution of short-term, medium-term and long-term
vision for sustainable approach of drought risk
reduction is shown in Fig. 2.
The wells in Rajasthan’s Alwar District had dried
up, thrusting the people into abject and seemingly
inescapable poverty. The revival of traditional earthen
dams to capture rainwater for recharging the
underground water supply provided a tipping point
that brought the wells back to life. Another example is
of Jaisalmer in Rajasthan receives few hundred
millimeters of rainfall every year yet has been able to
meet its water requirements for centuries using
traditional water conservation practices. Cherapunji,
on the other hand, has always had such an abundance
of rainfall. It never felt the need to value the
importance of rainfall is now facing serious water
shortage after monsoon due to deforestation1. They
never thought of rainwater harvesting. Here is a
lesson to learn that if a society has a good relationship
with its water, respects it, knows how to store it, and
does not pollute it, there cannot be a shortage of water
even in a low rainfall area.
Traditional Knowledge refers to the knowledge,
innovations and practices of indigenous and local
communities around the world. Developed from
experience gained over the centuries and adapted to the
local culture and environment, traditional knowledge is
transmitted orally from generation to generation
(United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity -
UNCBD). Traditional Knowledge Systems are a body
of knowledge that is ancient and deep rooted in the
cultures and habits of the people. They have the origins
in the remote past. Ancient knowledge and technology
incorporates the wisdom distilled through millennia of
experimentation and trial and error. This knowledge is
non-sentential and often not well documented in the
modern sense rather it is transmitted to generations
orally and through practice and gradually perfected by
tradition. Now the traditional knowledge is in danger of
extinction and its disappearance would not only cause
the loss of people’s capability to keep and pass on the
artistic and natural heritage12, but also of an
extraordinary source of knowledge and cultural
diversity from which appropriate innovative solutions
can be derived today and in the future more
importantly to manage the natural resources and
disaster risks. This paper is an attempt to highlight the
consequences of development on water resources and
the need of revival of traditional water management
practices to cope up with present water crisis.
Drought and flood disasters–be any of the diverse
kinds origins, affects society and its community by
impacting its resources–agriculture & forests,
medicines, livelihoods, industry, etc13. In case of
vegetation and besides direct physical damages and
injuries, these are varieties of diseases and pest
infestations which develop manifestations and
sometimes disastrous impacts on resources of the
 GUPTA & SINGH : TRADITIONAL INTELLECT IN DISASTER RISK MITIGATION : INDIAN OUTLOOK
society36. Traditional knowledge called as
‘Vrikshayurveda’ or traditional plant science is the
treasure of indigenous knowledge on using various
plant materials in preventing impacts of drought and
flood conditions on crops, other vegetations and post-
harvest products14.
Risk Assessment and Early Warning Communication
Early warning systems play a crucial role especially
in disaster risk reduction. But in most of the cases it is
highly technical where community has little role to
play with32. Fig. 3 manifests the schematic of
environmental risk assessment and its various stages or
components for disaster risk and vulnerability
assessment. Communication is not a function of
technology alone; it has to reach all sections of people
irrespective of their level of education, understanding,
etc.33. However, local knowledge was rarely taken into
consideration by policy makers in designing risk
reduction strategies and very few institutional
mechanisms exist to mainstream traditional coping and
adaptation. Various studies reveal that a proper
communication system coupled with traditional
knowledge can actually bring down the effect during a
disaster situation and is helpful for risk reduction. It is
concluded that a shift in paradigm from "top-down
strategy" to a "bottom up participatory approach" and
designing a policy framework comprising both
"scientific"' and "indigenous" knowledge is vital to
facilitate disaster risk reduction30.
Traditional knowledge is often the subject of
‘scientific study’, but does not usually constitute an
input into the scientific process, or into decision-
making based upon scientific information15. Under a
technologically driven, fast-changing environment
traditional knowledge may not always catch the
attention of decision-makers yet it continues to
receive attention, in part because of discussions in
such fora as the Convention on Biological Diversity
and the UNCCD10. Different knowledge systems have
been linked to emerging legal and market interests in
developing cross-cutting activities on traditional
knowledge.
To be precise, there are many indigenous methods
of forecasting monsoon rains, storms, and earthquakes
rooted in astrology, and folklores, and rituals
including yagnas and chanting of mantras for
minimizing the adverse effects of natural disasters16.
There are references to such rituals in the Vedas – the
oldest store house of knowledge. People living in
remote rural areas of India still believe in and follow
159
those methods and rituals. Some of the indigenous
methods have been found to be having scientific bases
also and hence need to be used in conjunction with
the modern methods. For example, there are many
indigenous breeds of cattle which can thrive in very
harsh climatic conditions such as those prevailing in
Rajasthan desert on very low levels of nutrients and
produce reasonably good quantity of milk. Similarly,
there are many crop varieties which are drought-and
pest-resistent and which can withstand floods and
high levels of salinity. We need to conserve and
propagate such breeds of animals and varieties of
crops through a national policy17.
Health Risk, Agricultural Disasters and Social Vulnerability
Public health services are conceptually distinct from
medical services. They have as a key goal reducing a
population’s exposure to disease – for example through
assuring food safety and other health regulations;
vector control; monitoring waste disposal and water
systems; and health education to improve personal
health behaviours and build citizen demand for better
public health outcomes. In India, current public
policies and programmes have focused largely on the
provision of curative care and personal prophylactic
interventions such as immunization, while public
health activities have been relatively neglected18. A key
reason of this serious neglect is non-recognition of
traditional knowledge in health systems, and that
resulted in general high vulnerability to health risks
associated with disasters especially those related with
water and wind, and also of epidemiological disasters.
Fig. 2Short term and sustainable mitigation framework for
drought disaster management
160 INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 10, No. 1, JANUARY 2011

Traditional knowledge had always contributed to on such subjects as the collection and selection of
modern medicine and health care. Further for centuries, seeds, germination, seed treatment, soil testing and
indigenous communities were used to surviving and preparation, methods of cultivating plants, pest control
adjusting their agriculture, fishing and hunting in the and crop protection, the rearing of cows and the care of
event of changes in climate19, 20. India won a crucial draught cattle, for example. Outbreaks of disease and
patent dispute against China for treating influenza and pest attacks on plants are viewed as being based on the
epidemic fever through medicinal formulations using same principles as the epidemics that affect the human
'pudina' (mint) and 'kalamegha' (Andrographis). and animal species. The basic understanding is that
Department of Ayurveda and Siddha (AYUSH) has epidemics occur because of imbalances in the
maintained a “Traditional Knowledge Digital Library ecosystem. One of the major causes of such imbalance
(TKDL) set up with CSIR. is human error or living in the wrong way which leads
In a case study, ethno-botanical surveys were to an incorrect intervention in natural processes. The
conducted during 1998 and 1999 in villages of Bhadra main protection against epidemics is a thorough
Wild Life Sanctuary area, situated in the Western knowledge of nature which makes it possible to avoid
Ghats region of Karnataka21. The utilisation of leaves causing serious imbalances in the ecosystem.
of Centella asiatica, and roots of Ichnocarpus
Present water challenges
frutescens in the treatment of jaundice, diabetes were
Our historically water rich country is now facing
found to be noteworthy21,20. It is ironical that at a time
acute water crisis. Sixty-eight percent of area in India is
when the West is seeking solace in our traditional
drought prone. In the last 200 yrs, the age old eco-
practices be it medicine, meditation or Yoga, we,
balance has been seriously disturbed with increasing
despite having a rich herbal wealth, have a share in
rapidity. Every revolution has increased its fall; the
the world herbal market that is not even 1.5 %.
industrial revolution, the education revolution, the
Another example is that of medicinal expertise of
green revolution, the development revolution and now
Yanadi tribals in Chittoor, Andhra Pradesh. The
globalization, privatization and information technology
alienation of the Yanadi from forest resources and the
revolutions29. Changes such as economic growth and
resultant loss of Yanadi traditional knowledge is a
serious issue. Ample evidence exists to substantiate
the flourishing of medical practice in India many
centuries before the birth of Christ. Art forms such as
the icons, friezes, and frescoes in the caves and
temples of Ajanta and Ellore and on the Buddhist
Stupas of Amaravathi and Nagarjuna Konda portray
medical concepts. There are innumerable references
to the science of medicine and surgery in Indian epics
like Mahabharata and Ramayana. The earliest
documentation of medical practice in India is found in
Athervaveda. The first Indian textbook of medicine
Atreya Samhita was written by the sage Atreya during
the Sutra period following the Vedic ages; this book
united previously scattered medical care details into a
comprehensive compendium. Agnivesa Samhita also
documents the art of healing in a textbook containing
about twelve thousand verses22.
In the Vedas, particularly Rig Veda and Atharva
Veda a great deal of attention is paid to agriculture,
implements, cattle and other animals, and the rains
and harvests. Ancient texts relating to agriculture are
the Vrkshayurveda (Ayurveda of plants) and the Fig. 3Environmental risk assessment framework for disaster
Krishisastra (science of agriculture) and Mrgayurveda predictions and impact perception for traditional knowledge
(animal science). They provide a wealth of knowledge documentation and mapping along DRR framework
 GUPTA & SINGH : TRADITIONAL INTELLECT IN DISASTER RISK MITIGATION : INDIAN OUTLOOK
urbanization have all put enormous pressure on its
freshwater resources. With 16% of the world’s
population but only 2.45% of the world’s land area and
4% of the world’s water resources, India’s demand for
water is outstripping its supply. Meanwhile, the
population is increasing with great rate. If the current
rate of water exploitation continues sooner
groundwater reservoir will dry up by 2025 in up to 15
states (The Central Groundwater Board of India,
CGWB). Punjab state is estimated to have already used
up 98% of its groundwater, which means that if current
trends continue, this breadbasket of the nation could
turn into a desert. Moreover, water distribution is
dramatically unequal from 9000 millimeters of rainfall
in Meghalaya in the west of India to 100 millimeters in
western Rajasthan in the east of the country. The
reservoir of groundwater, estimated at 432 billion cubic
meters, is rapidly being depleted with major
metropolitan centers estimated to go dry by 2015.
Water is a precious national asset. Planning,
development and management of water resources need
to be governed by national perspectives23.
Modern V/s traditional techniques
The recently engineered terms like ‘ground water
technology’ and ‘artificial ground recharge’ are the
official jargon for the undisciplined water extraction
technology that reveals water illiteracy among the
trained engineers who fail to recognize traditional
knowledge and try to put in abstractions and awkward
technologies, like ‘artificial groundwater recharge’
ignoring the proved local traditions like Johads.
Despite of an understanding on the traditional
technology like the Tanka, they feel compelled to
‘improve’ it, like using cement instead of lime, Cement
Concrete (RCC) slabs instead of brick domes, thus
degrading the tradition and its relevance, due to the
limited understanding (as expressed by Waterman
Rajendra Singh of Tarun Bharat Sangh, Alwar). The
natural methods are not only forgotten, their vestiges
are day after day more deeply dug into the ground.
Tank irrigation is the appropriate technology for
Orissa. Where land distribution is equitable, tanks can
provide food security. But where land ownership is
skewed, tank irrigation can hasten land alienation and
promote a shift to water intensive hybrid mono
cropping. Uniform community stakes are necessary to
use tanks for sustainable agriculture24.
Frequent Floods and Droughts
In 1999, Ahmadabad, Bangalore, Calcutta, Delhi,
Chennai and Mumbai had faced the fury of water,
161
which is due to rapid urbanization with land-use
flaws, improper modifications of environment and its
landscape, changing entire drainage pattern, reducing
water infiltration and recharge, lost wetlands and
degraded tanks, etc. The biggest reason for urban
floods is the total lack of attention to the nature of
India’s hydrological system. When we know that
heavy downpours are inevitable every few years or so,
then we must ensure that natural drainage channels
are well maintained and instead of encroaching upon
and filling up urban lakes to use the high-value urban
land for buildings, these lakes and tanks are well
protected. This is something our ancestors knew but
our current urban planners and politicians don’t worry
about such ordinary things. Urban land is valuable. So
illegal filling of urban water bodies is unchecked25.
Bundelkhand had a rich history of traditional water
harvesting structures; people were able to manage
their water demands. Due to lack of maintenance,
structures are in disrepair and the region is facing
consecutive drought since last five to six years.
Rajasthan Context
“The key to the well-being of our country’s water
resources lies in the indigenous water conservation
systems which are being forgotten by the society”.
- Late Sri Anil Agarwal, CSE25
Rajasthan receives very less rainfall, which led to
surface and sub surface water depletion. People were
facing acute water scarcity followed up by decline
agriculture, job and food insecurity and migration 31.
In the recent years revival of rich tradition of building
‘Johads’ which are simple mud and concave shaped
barriers built across the slope to arrest the rainwater
run-off with a high embankment on three sides while
the fourth side is left open for the water to enter took
place 36. The first Johad got completed in three years,
in the fourth year they built 50 Johads, 100 in the
fifth. In 2001 number increased to 1,000 water
structures and total 9,000 water harvesting structures
were built in more than 1,000 villages by the
community members without consulting any
engineer. This resulted in Rise of the water table and
increased river flow, resulting in enhanced water
storage capacity of villages after the construction and
restoration of Johads. Significant increase of crop
production and stockbreeding, resulting in increased
income and improved welfare of the villagers26 A
noted writer on indigenous methods of water
conservation (author of “Aaj Bhi Khare Hain Taalab,
means “Ponds Are Still Relevant”) quoted -
162 INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 10, No. 1, JANUARY 2011

“Even in the 25th century, Rajasthan will continue
to use only indigenous methods of water conservation.
The knowledge they have gained through experience is
revered. Any attempt to introduce non-indigenous
technology is bound to fail.”
- Sri Anupam Mishra, Gandhi Peace Foundation27
Water knowledge of Bundelkhand
Historically Bundelkhand have the problem of poor
water retention in which was resolved by constructing
large tanks and wells (Fig. 4). The Chandela ruling
dynasty was one of great tank builders, and some tanks
were probably built in an earlier period also. From the
design of the tanks and the conspicuous absence of
channels, it appears that the tanks were built primarily
as ‘water storage’ rather than irrigation structures.
Some of the larger tanks did have sluice gates and
some structures for feeding water to nearby lands, but
the area so irrigated directly was quite small. However,
the tanks helped increase groundwater levels in the
surrounding region, enabling construction of wells. The
man-made historical tanks of Bundelkhand have been
observed for some typical features. The tanks were
formed by building earthen embankments of 60 meters
or more across rivulets flowing between low hills. The
hills, along with long, impermeable stretches of quartz
reefs running underneath them, acted as 'natural
groundwater barriers'. The earthen embankments were
supported on both sides by walls of coarsely cut stones,
forming a series of steps. The stone, like the soil, was
procured locally. The width to height ratio of
embankments was 7:1 or higher. Lime and mortar was

Fig. 4a-e Bundelkhand’s historical wisdom, a Belatal, inJaitpur block of Mahoba district, is one of the largest tanksbuilt by Chandelarulers,
b Madansagar tank, c Chandela tank–a Photo curtsey CPR environmental education centre, Chennai, d Traditional well with steps, used for
drinking water tank, and e Madansagar tank, another view
 GUPTA & SINGH : TRADITIONAL INTELLECT IN DISASTER RISK MITIGATION : INDIAN OUTLOOK
used for construction of waste weirs, which were
strong enough to survive for hundreds of years. Some
large tanks were interconnected. The largest tanks are
found in Mahoba, which was the capital of the
Chandelas. The larger tanks have a periphery of around
4 km, and are understandably called 'sagar' (ocean),
with the name of the king who ordered its construction
attached-hence there is a Kirtisagar, a Madansagar and
a Rahilyasagar in Mahoba.
The Chandela tank (Fig. 4) construction tradition
was carried forward by Bundela rulers, who came to
power in the 16th century AD. Apart from building new
tanks, they repaired and reconstructed tanks from an
earlier time, and built canals for irrigation. There seems
to have been no formal system to regulate use of tank
water. It appears that all people had access to the water,
which was mainly used for domestic consumption and
for cattle. People were also allowed to fish, and for
some communities this became the primary mode of
livelihood. In the late 19th century and subsequently,
after Independence, irrigation departments took over
the maintenance of big tanks and provided sluice gates
and distribution canals for direct irrigation. Some new
tanks were also constructed. The biggest impact of
these efforts is seen in Tikamgarh district, which has
close to 1000 historical tanks; around 100 of these are
used for direct irrigation. Area under irrigation by
canals in the district grew from around 3000 hectares in
the mid-1950s to close to 20,000 hectares in the late
1990s. This was mainly on account of extension and
improvement of canals linked to tanks; there is no
large-scale irrigation project yet in Tikamgarh. Lift
irrigation schemes have also been taken up from tanks.
Unfortunately, most of the historical tanks of
Bundelkhand are in poor shape. They are all prone to
heavy siltation and little effort has been made to clear
the silt. There are vested interests in reducing storage
capacity of tanks; a lot of land with fertile soil
becomes available for cultivation. Tanks generally are
full of water only in the monsoon. The irrigation
department leases out dry tank beds for agriculture.
But many leaseholders do not wait till the water dries
up, usually manage to breach the embankments and
release the water before the appointed time to take
two crops a year.
Mainstreaming Traditional Knowledge in DRR –
Science and Policy Concerns
Traditional knowledge is often the subject of
‘scientific study’, but does not usually constitute an
input into the scientific process, or into decision-
163
making based upon scientific information. Under a
technologically driven, fast-changing environment
traditional knowledge may not always catch the
attention of decision-makers yet it continues to
receive attention, in part because of discussions in
such flora as the Convention on Biological Diversity
and the UNCCD. Different knowledge systems have
been linked to emerging legal and market interests in
developing cross-cutting activities on traditional
knowledge. Relationship between “Set of Traditions”
components, social and biogenic factors that influence
the traditions, resulting implications and types of
sources for prediction and forewarning of disasters are
shown in DRR. An example list of traditional wisdom
and indigenous knowledge in DRR is given
following:
(1) Control of wind or water erosion
a) Windbreaks: creation around plots of barriers
comprising trees, or in some instances, non-living
material36;
b) Erection at right angles to the prevailing wind of
obstacles (walls, banks, fences) made of stone,
earth or vegetable matter (tree branches or palm
fronds). These structures, the height of which is
periodically increased, cause sand to accumulate;
the sand can then be stabilized by covering it with
branches or earth. The operation can be continued
by planting species with an extensive root system
or by biological fixing of the dunes30;
c) Erection of obstacles at an angle to the wind so as
to force it to change direction: this leads to
deviation of the sand, which therefore ceases to
accumulate; (d) Placing of large stones on the tops
of dunes: this accelerates the wind around the
stones, so increasing the lifting force on the sand,
which is then carried further away;
d) Spreading of water on land after ploughing: this
stabilizes the fertile components of the soil by
increasing soil cohesion25;
e) Building cultivated terraces separated from each
other by low stone walls running along the contour
lines. The distance between the walls depends on
local conditions (rainfall amount, distribution and
rate, geology, soil, crop types, etc.). Associated
with the terraces are ditches to channel the excess
water to gullies serving as natural outlets for it;
f) In gullies: fixing in place of flat dry stones
together with logs and large branches. A simple
planting scheme will help to reduce the water
velocity;
164 INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 10, No. 1, JANUARY 2011
g) Use of vegetation to control erosion: the species
used are chosen for their rapid growth, high
density and well-developed root system 36.
(2) Water conservation – drought and flood mitigation
(a) Construction of ponds, pools and lagoons to collect
water during the rainy season for irrigating crops
and watering livestock. The structures are made
using local materials; construction of
impoundments on small water courses 35;
(b) Controlled flooding: a very old technique for
conserving water and the soil which is well-suited
to desert environments. During the heavy rains,
part of the precipitation is absorbed by the ground
and some (the proportion varies with the intensity
of the precipitation and the characteristics of the
soil) runs over the ground surface towards lower-
lying areas. This runoff can be directed onto walled
plots where its impoundment between the walls
promotes infiltration. The land can then be
cropped, with good yields. The critical question
with this technique is whether the degree of
infiltration is adequate for the intended crops 36;
(c) Cultivation of large areas in order to reduce soil
evaporation;
(d) Greenhouse farming with water management;
(e) Construction of watertight clay or tile drains and
irrigation channels in order to reduce evaporation;
(f) Construction of “qanats”, underground dykes and
tunnels for the transfer of subsurface water to the
surface by gravity (for agriculture or consumption);
multi-level “qanats”: channels at various depths;
impoundments for artificial recharge of “qanats”34;
(g) Use of clay jars for irrigation;
(h) Use of textiles to keep garden soil moist;
(i) Irrigation of hillside terraces by means of channels
built by the farmers along the inner edge of each
terrace. The water runs along these contour-line
channels from the highest to the lowest terrace;
(j) Collection of water on house tops, etc. (installation
of tanks)for consumption in the desert or other
areas with an inadequate water supply;
(k) Rice-growing based on the use of surface water in
the rainy season: berms some 1.5 m high are built
to prevent flooding and retain the water.
(3) Plant protection/ Agricultural disaster reduction
a) Preservation of the natural vegetation: choosing
of species to suit micro-climatic conditions;
growing of drought and heat-resistant species;
growing of salt-resistant species35;
b) Prohibition of grazing: preservation and
protection of areas of rangeland, especially in
depressions rich in alluvial deposits and forage
plants 35;
c) Harvesting of spontaneous fodder and burning of
land to promote re-growth;
d) Irrigation of crops in winter to control frost;
e) Use of birds (e.g., starlings) to control insects
(e.g. crickets);
f) Harvesting outside full-moon periods in order to
minimize insect infestation;
g) Application of ash to plants;
h) Application of dilute urine to plants and seeds in
order to clean them and give them some
protection against disease and insects;
i) Use of common, usually stronger species of plant.
(4) Housing and Energy
a) Protection of structures (houses, equipment sheds,
stables, etc.) by siting them outside natural-
disaster (flood, storm, etc.) hazard zones;
b) Building of chimneys in houses to improve
ventilation and thereby reduce summer
temperatures; inclusion in buildings of arches,
domes and high ceilings to keep down temperatures;
insulation of walls with clay or straw to keep out
heat or cold; construction of basements for their
cooling and food-conservation capabilities; making
of hinged doors and windows and wooden venetian
blinds to shield against solar radiation, Buildings
with artificial drainage systems so as to retain some
moisture in dry areas24;
c) Construction of ice pits in mountainous areas and
around towns so as to be able to build up stocks
of ice for the summer;
d) Building of dovecotes with a view to using the
birds‘ droppings as a manure supplement;
e) Use of windmills and water mills; use of solar
energy; use of rice straw as fuel; use of briquetted
sugar-industry waste as a household energy source
(residual crop matter is dried and briquetted);
f) Construction using maize or millet stalks, wheat
straw, weeds and other waste. This contributes
towards keeping villages clean and limiting
numbers of rodents and insects.
From local and environmental points of view,
traditional knowledge and its technology plays a
primary role in poverty alleviation. Traditional
knowledge is not proposed because it is less expensive
technology compared to the ‘top-down’ modern ones,
 GUPTA & SINGH : TRADITIONAL INTELLECT IN DISASTER RISK MITIGATION : INDIAN OUTLOOK
but because it has better results, technologically
speaking, when placed within its environmental and
social context. Sometimes, it has the most refined
technologies, other times, it is very simple but still
more appropriate, ecologically compatible and locally
manageable. It is good to know that our efforts at
preservation of natural resources have been recognized
the world over with the latest survey by National
Geographic magazine calling Indians as the most
environment-friendly people20.
Revitalization of traditional knowledge should not
be considered as strictly implementing more and more
sets of simple techniques but should be viewed as an
integrative means to be evaluated in the framework of
environmental1, productive and cultural conditions of
societies. Local people are the custodians of
traditional systems. These people are well informed
about their own situations, their resources, what
works and what does not work 36. They are also aware
of the possible impact of a change in one factor on the
other parts of the production system. Systematic
integration of cultural heritage and traditional
technology, skills and local knowledge systems within
the environment and development as effective means
of reducing the impact of disasters; and into existing
sustainable development goals and policies at
international, national and local levels are central
needs for developing capacities28.
Acknowledgement
The paper has been developed based on cross
examination of range of literature on traditional and
indigenous knowledge, ecological sociology, and
disaster risk reduction–from published and
unpublished papers, reports, books, internet web, etc.
and have been interpreted to develop this write up. All
original sources and contributors are sincerely
acknowledged. Documentation and researches of
various NGOs are also acknowledged gratefully.
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