Aerodynamic characteristic of aerospace

vehicle using Tornado VLM 3D

A Project Report

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the

Requirements for the award of the degree of

Bachelor of Technology

In

Aeronautical Engineering

By

Mehraj Begum

17951A2143

Department of Aeronautical Engineering

INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING (Autonomous)

Dundigal, Hyderabad – 500 043, Telangana April, 2020 © 2014,

Mehraj Begum. All rights reserved

 DECLARATION

I certify that

a. The work contained in this report is original and has been done by me under
theguidance of my supervisor(s).

b. The work has not been submitted to any other Institute for any degree or diploma.

c. I have followed the guidelines provided by the Institute in preparing the report.

d. I have conformed to the norms and guidelines given in the Ethical Code
of Conduct of the Institute.

e. Whenever I have used materials (data, theoretical analysis, figures, and text) from
other sources, I have given due credit to them by citing them in the text of the report
and giving their details in the references. Further, I have taken permission from the
copyright owners of the sources, whenever necessary.

Place: Hyderabad Signature of the Student

Date: Roll No.:17951A2143

i
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report entitled Aerodynamic characteristic of

aerospace vehicle using Tornado VLM 3D submitted by Mehraj Begum (17951A2143) to
the Institute of Aeronautical Engineering, Hyderabad in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the Degree Bachelor of Technology in Aeronautical
Engineering Branch is a Bonafide record of work carriedout by him/her under my/our
guidance and supervision. The contents of this report, in full or in parts, have not been
submitted to any other Institute for the award of any Degree.

Supervisor: Head of the Department

Date:

ii
 APPROVAL SHEET

This project report entitled Aerodynamic characteristic of aerospace vehicle using

Tornado VLM 3D by Mehraj Begum is approved for the awardof the Degree Bachelor of
Technology in Branch Aeronautical Engineering.

Examiners Supervisor(s)

Principal

Date:
Place:

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to record my deep sense of gratitude and profound thanks to my research

supervisor Priyanka, Assistant professor, Aeronautical Department, IARE,
Hyderabad, for his keen interest, inspiring guidance, constant encouragement with my
work during all stages, to bring this thesis into fruition.
I am extremely I indebted to Dr. Naveed Ali, Scientist D, DRDL, Hyderabad for
their valuable suggestions and support during the course of my research work.
I also thank the faculty and non-teaching staff members of the Aeronautical
Department, Institute of Aeronautical Engineering, Hyderabad for their valuable
support throughout the course of my research work.

iv
 LIST OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION……………………………………………………………….……i
CERTIFICATE…………………………………………………………………...…ii
APPROVAL SHEET……………………………………………………………….iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT………………………………………………………….iv
LIST OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………………v
LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………...…vi
LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………......ix
1. CHATPER
1.1 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………....1
1.2 LITERATURE SURVEY…………………………………………………...7
2. CHAPTER
2.1 MEHTODOLOGY………………………………………………………...18
2.3ALGORITHM……………………………………………………………...20
2.4 PROCEDURE……………………………………………………………...21
3. CHAPTER
RESULT………………………………………………………………...……….37
4. CHAPTER
DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS………………………………………………66
5. CHAPTER
CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………….67
6. CHAPTER
REFERENCES …………………………………………………………………68

v
 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig 1. Flow over airfoil and generation of lift…………………………........................2

Fig 2. Angle of attack in an airfoil………………………………………………….….3
Fig 3. Shapes of airfoil……………………………………………………………….…3
Fig 4. Coefficients indicating fore body pressure drag of a series of cylindrical
bodies…………………………………………………………………………………....4
Fig 5. Velocity contours for different nose cone shapes……………………………...8
Fig 6. Shock structure and detachment for fitness ratios, on the left is spherically
blunted nose cone and on the right is parabolic…………………………………..….9
Fig 7. A quantitative comparison of drag characteristics……………………………9
Fig 8. Velocity, Temperature and pressure contours over spherical nose……....…11
Fig 9. Fin configuration for a) subsonic and b) supersonic speeds………………….12
Fig 10. Computational domain for given optimal designs…………………………..13
Fig 11. Kill envelop of various generation of s-75 system…………………………...14
Fig 12. Coded 3D sketch of missile from missile lab………………………………...15
Fig 13. Graph between Cf vs Mach number…………………………………………15
Fig 14. Hydra rocket………………………………………………………………..…16
Fig 15. Wrap around fins MK66 rocket motor…………………………………...…16
Fig 16. Predicted impact points………………………………………………….…...17
Fig 17. Simulation of an airplane on VOGEL………………………………………18
Fig 18. Tornado program in MATLAB…………………………………………..…21
Fig 19.Tornado Main Menu……………………………………….............................21
Fig 20. Aircraft geometry setup menu………………………………………………22
Fig 21 Wing Parameters…………………………………………………………...….22
Fig 22. Mesh distribution Options………………………………………………...…23
Fig 23. Flight state menu……………………………………………………………...23
Fig 24. Alpha and angular velocities………………………………………………....24
Fig 24. The move reference point menu………………………………………….….24
Fig 25. Plot no.1………………………………………………………………….…....25
Fig 26. Plot no.2…………………………………………………………………....….25
Fig 27. Plot no.3…………………………………………………………………….....26
Fig 28. Delta Cp Distribution on wing, alpha=5 Degrees…………………………..26
Fig 29. Text output for a simple solution, in tornado………………………………27
vi
Fig 30. Solutions plot of an alpha sweep calculation………………………….…..28
Fig 31. Files of output……………………………………………………………….28
Fig 32. Partitions of wing…………………………………………………………...29
Fig 33. Panel layout for a one partition wing ……………………………………..29
Fig 34. The semi spans of the partitions and wing……………………………......30
Fig 35. The semi spans of the partitions and the wing ………………………..… 30
Fig 36. Sweep of division is 0 degrees, the quarter chord line is perpendicular to the
Y-axis ………………………………………………………………………………..31
Fig 36. Double wing design, with three flaps (control surfaces)………………….32
Fig 37. Asymmetrical flap, deflected 20 degrees………………………………......32
Fig 38. Flap with chord being 0.25 of the local chords…………............................33
Fig 39. Number of panels in span (Y) direction…………………………………33
Fig 40. Sample Run Fig 1…………………………………………………………....34
Fig 41. Sample Run fig 2…………………………………………………………….35
Fig 42. Sample Run fig 3…………………………………………………….………36
Fig 43. Panels with the panel Normal………………………………………….…..38
Fig 44. 3D-plot of the planform with layout of wings, partitions and panels…….38
Fig 45. Orthographic projection and isometric projection of the wing………….39
Fig 46. 3-D image of the wing……………………………………………………....39
Fig 47. Panels with the panel Normal…………………………………………...…41
Fig 48. 3D-plot of the planform with layout of wings, partitions and panels…….42
Fig 49 Orthographic projection and isometric projection of the wing………..…42
Fig 50. 3-D image of the wing……………………………………………………….43
Fig 51. Panels with the panel Normal…………………………………………..…45
Fig 51. 3D-plot of the planform with layout of wings, partitions and panels…….45
Fig 53. Orthographic projection and isometric projection of the wing…………46
Fig 54. 3-D image of the wing………………………………………………………46
Fig 55. Panels with the panel Normal……………………………………………..48
Fig 56. 3D-plot of the planform with layout of wings, partitions and panels……49
Fig 57. Orthographic projection and isometric projection of the wing…………49
Fig 58. 3-D image of the wing………………………………………………………50
Fig 59. Panels with the panel Normal……………………………………………..52
Fig 60. 3D-plot of the planform with layout of wings, partitions and panels……52
Fig 61. Orthographic projection and isometric projection of the wing………….53
Fig 62. 3-D image of the wing………………………………………………..…......53
vii
Fig 63. Panels with the panel Normal……………………………………………...55
Fig 64. 3D-plot of the planform with layout of wings, partitions and panels…….55
Fig 65. Orthographic projection and isometric projection of the wing………….56
Fig 66. 3-D image of the wing……………………………………………………....56
Fig 67. Panels with the panel Normal……………………………………………...58
Fig 68. 3D-plot of the planform with layout of wings, partitions and panels….....58
Fig 69. Orthographic projection and isometric projection of the wing……….....59
Fig 67. 3-D image of the wing……………………………………………………....59
Fig 71. Panels with the panel Normal……………………………………………..61
Fig 72. 3D-plot of the planform with layout of wings, partitions and panels….....61
Fig 73. Orthographic projection and isometric projection of the wing………....62
Fig 74. 3-D image of the wing……………………………………………………...62
Fig 75. Panels with the panel Normal……………………………………………..64
Fig 76. 3D-plot of the planform with layout of wings, partitions and panels……64
Fig 77. Orthographic projection and isometric projection of the wing…………65
Fig 78. 3-D image of the wing……………………………………………………...65

viii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Input for no sweep condition…………………………………………...…37

Table 2: Output for no sweep condition……………………………………………37
Table 3: Input for Sweep Angle-15°condition…………………………………......40
Table 4: Output for Sweep Angle-15° condition………………………………......41
Table 5: Input for Sweep Angle-30° condition………………………………….…44
Table 6: output for Sweep Angle-30° condition………………………………..….44
Table 7: Input for Sweep Angle-45° condition……………………………………..…47
Table 8: Output for Sweep Angle-45° condition………………………………………48
Table 9: Input for Aspect Ratio-2.5 condition…………………………………………51
Table 10: Output for Aspect Ratio-2.5 condition…………………………………...…51
Table 11: Input for Dihedral Angle-10° condition………………………………….…54
Table 12: Output for Dihedral Angle-10° condition………………………………..…54
Table 13: Input for Dihedral Angle-20° condition………………………………......…57
Table 14: Output for Dihedral Angle-20° condition…………………………………...57
Table 15: Input for Twist Angle-5° condition……………………………………….…60
Table 16: Output for Twist Angle-5° condition………………………………………..60
Table 17: Input for Twist Angle-10° condition…………………………………………..63
Table 18: Output for Twist Angle-10° condition………………………………………63

ix
 CHAPTER 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter emphasize the introduction to Aerodynamics. A brief review of
literature pertaining to the present work is also presented.

Aerodynamics is the flow of air through an object. It is divided as Aero and

Dynamics. That is aero means air and dynamics is study of bodies under force. Fluid
is allowed to flow through an object and its aerodynamic study is carried out. When
any aircraft or missile is built first comes its aerodynamic study. It is designed on the
basis of their aerodynamic study only. As in the case with aircraft, on the basis of its
aerodynamic study there are four forces acting on an aircraft. There are two examples
practical objective:
1. The prediction of forces and moments on, and heat transfer to, bodies moving
through a fluid (usually air). For example, we are concerned with the generation of
lift, drag, and moments on airfoils, wings, fuselages, engine nacelles, and, most
importantly, whole airplane configurations. We want to estimate the wind force on
buildings, ships, and other surface vehicles. We are concerned with the hydrodynamic
forces on surface ships, submarines, and torpedoes. We need to be able to calculate
the aerodynamic heating of flight vehicles ranging from the supersonic transport to a
planetary probe entering the atmosphere of Jupiter. These are but a few examples.
2. Determination of flows moving internally through ducts. We wish to calculate and
measure the flow properties inside rocket and air-breathing jet engines and to calculate
the engine thrust. We need to know the flow conditions in the test section of a wind
tunnel. We must know how much fluid can flow through pipes under various
conditions. A recent, very interesting application of aerodynamics is high-energy
chemical and gas-dynamic lasers (see Ref. 1), which are nothing more than
specialized wind tunnels that can produce extremely powerful laser beams. Figure 1.5
is a photograph of an early gas-dynamic laser designed in the late 1960s.

1
The above example 1 describes the external aerodynamics and example 2 describes
the internal aerodynamics because it deals with the flow inside a duct.
Basics of Aerodynamics
In the case with aircraft, on the basis of its aerodynamic study there are four forces
acting on an aircraft. Lift is a force which keeps it airborne, Drag, which holds it back
and thrust, which moves the airplane.
Lift is a force developed on wings gives rise to a “carry over” lift on body itself. Drag,
which holds it back
And thrust, which moves the airplane. The fourth one is its weight acting downwards.
Lift can be properly explained by using Bernoulli's principle. Bernoulli's principle
states that the pressure of a moving gas decreases as its velocity increases. In case with
aircraft the shape of the wing which airfoil, it is a curve. So, when the air flows through
it the pressure above the surface is less and below the surface it is more. That results
in high pressure at lower surface then the pressure at upper surface. So, because of
high pressure the lift is produced.

Fig 1. Flow over airfoil and generation of lift

LIFT
Lift can also be explained by newton’s second law. Isaac Newton did not propose a
theory of flight but he did not provide Newton's Laws of Motion the physical laws
which can be used to explain aerodynamic lift.
F = M a = d/dt (M v)

2
And also, third law which provides the upwards force. It states for every action there
is equal and opposite reaction. Lift occurs when the flow of air is turned by a solid
object. By newton’s third law the lift is produced.

Pressure difference creates lift, and it depends on angle of attack, airfoil shape, air
density, and airspeed.
Pressure difference
Pressure is normal force per unit area. The pressure difference occurs above and
below the surface of airfoil. The direction of net force implies that the average
pressure on the lower surface is more than the average pressure on upper surface.
Angle of Attack
Angle of attack is the angle between the chord line of the airfoil and the flow of air.
As the angle of attack increases the lift also increases. Zero lift is produced for a
symmetric airfoil.

Fig 2. Angle of attack in an airfoil

Shape of airfoil
The shape of the airfoil plays an important role in production of lift. If camber is
more that airfoil will produce more lift.

Fig 3. Shapes of airfoil

3
The symmetric airfoil will produce zero lift, because the chord line is horizontal the
trailing edge has a downward direction and since the air follows the trailing edge it
is deflected downward. When it comes to cambered airfoil the curvature of airfoil
creates pressure difference in upper and lower surface of airfoil. Due to this pressure
difference the lift is produced.
Drag
A resistance force is produced when the body is in air and this force is called as
drag. It is also called as wind resistance or fluid resistance. For laminar flow the
drag is directly proportional to velocity. For turbulent flow the drag is proportional
to square of the velocity.

Fig 4
Types of Drag
1. Induced drag
When the turbulence or vortices on wing or fuselage are formed the drag is induced
drag. This induced drag has two components first is drag due to formation of vortices
on trailing edge, and the other is viscous drag. As the angle of attack increases the
induced drag increases.
2. Pressure drag
Pressure drag depends on shape and size. Bodies with large cross-section area will
have high drag and streamlined bodies will have low drag. Drag increases with
velocity can be shown in the drag equation:
D = .5 * Cd * r * V^2 * A

4
Thus, for high-speed vehicles it is very important. Every vehicle is built in order to
reduce the drag and increases the lift.
3. Friction Drag
It is due to the friction of fluid against the skin of the object that is moving through it.
It is caused by viscous drag and boundary layer.
The skin friction coefficient,

4. Profile drag
It is a sum of form drag and skin friction drag. Profile drag is parasitic drag acting on
wing.
5. Parasitic drag
It is the drag produced when the fluid is flowing through air. At low-speed parasitic
drag is high. High angle of attack is required to maintain lift producing high drag. As
speed increases angle of attack reduced and induced drag reduced. If fluid moves
faster over the body parasitic drag increases, also increasing friction drag.
6. Wave drag
This is a drag when the body is moving in compressible fluid and the speed which is
close to the speed of sound. Wave drag is reason for formation of shock waves in
transonic speed. Associated with passing the sound barrier it is a sudden and
dramatic increase in drag which only comes into play as the vehicle increases speed
through transonic and supersonic speeds. Independent of viscous effects.
3. Aerodynamic efficiency:
In the design of an aircraft, the critical performance parameters are lift/drag ratio,
which are achieved mainly through the aerodynamic design. These, lift and drag are
aerodynamic forces. Aerodynamic efficiency is lift-to-drag ratio (or L/D ratio).

5
The lift equation is written as:
L = 0.5 * Cl * r * V^2 * A
Similarly, the drag equation relates the aircraft drag D to a drag
coefficient Cd: D = 0.5 * Cd * r * V^2 * A
Dividing these two equations give:
Aerodynamic efficiency = Cl/ Cd = L/D
An airplane has a high L/D ratio if it produces a large amount of lift or a small
amount of drag. An aircraft with a high L/D ratio can carry a large payload, for a long
time, over a long distance. All the studies done in aerodynamics is to increase the lift
and reduce the drag, also considering Mach number. Because various aerodynamic
shapes behave differently at different Mach number. At supersonic and hypersonic
Mach numbers shock waves are produced so large differences in their aerodynamic
design because of the radical differences in the behavior of flows above Mach 1.
Missiles to reduce the drag, aerodynamic shape of nose is important. The blunt
cone shape produces more drag when compared to cone shape and parabolic/ spherical
shape. A flat plate gives the highest drag and a streamlined symmetric airfoil gives
the lowest drag.
4. Nose cone drag in missile
The drag is a main component in the aerodynamics. Any vehicle or aircraft before
its design the designers try to reduce the drag. Even today many experiments are
conducted to reduce the drag. Drag reduction and lift increment are main concepts of
any aerodynamic experimentation. Now in case of missile, as it carries its whole
payload in the nose. The drag reduction in missile is done by changing the nose cone
design.

6
1.2 LITERATURE SURVEY

A literature survey of many papers was analyzed and report is noted. The report of
each survey is discussed below.
An experiment was conducted by students on nose cone drag reduction of
missile and it is A REVIEW ON NOSE CONE DESIGNS FOR DIFFERENT
FLIGHT REGIMES.

1. A REVIEW ON NOSE CONE DESIGNS FOR DIFFERENT FLIGHT

REGIMES (Aditya Rajan Iyer, Anjali Pant)
In the paper it is discussed about the different nose cone designs for high
performance vehicles that a designer to choose a nose cone with appropriate
aerodynamic efficiency and geometry.

The nose cone is selected by considering its aerodynamic guidance and structure.
The generally used aerospace applications are Conic, spherically blunted conic, bi-
conic, tangent ogive, and spherically blunted tangent ogive, secant ogive, and elliptic,
parabolic, power series and Haack series. The main factor for effect of the nose cone
profile on aerodynamic characteristics is friction drag, which depends on wetted area,
smoothness of surface, presence of any discontinuities in shape.
Effect of nose shape on drag is more when pressure drag increases for transonic
region. For the shape of nose cone, fineness ratio, bluffness ratio are the factors
influencing pressure drag. Ratio of length of nose cone to its base diameter is fineness
ratio.
For the shape of nose cone, fineness ratio, bluffness ratio are the factors
influencing pressure drag. Ratio of length of nose cone to its base diameter is fineness
ratio. As the fineness ratio increases the wetted drag increases and then skin friction
component of drag increases. As the fineness ratio and Mach number increases
overall drag decreases.

7
 Drag is compared based on skin friction drag, wave drag and base drag. The
following plots and numerically generated contours help us understand the flow
interaction with different nose cone profiles.

Fig 5
As angle of attack increases the adverse pressure gradient becomes more. A pair of
vortices are formed, catastrophic yaw is developed as the vortices pair moves aft. As
Cp local gets minimum or close to zero the adverse gradient weakens.
Analytical method to calculate the three drag components:
The equation makes use of the wetted area and viscosity to determine the drag and
is measured at zero angle of attack.

8
 For hypersonic regime only blunt nosecone is applicable, the sharp nose cone is
prohibited due to adverse heat transfer characteristics. To reduce drag and heat flux
the modifications in flow and shock structure is important.

Fig 6. Shock structure and detachment for fitness ratios, on the left is spherically
blunted nose cone and on the right is parabolic.

Fig 7

9
Finally, the conclusion is for a subsonic flow regime, where Von Karman is preferred
for slightly above subsonic to transonic. For supersonic flow more than the design it
is a compromise between the different kind of drags and for hypersonic geometric
parameters of the nose cone have to select in accordance because of aerodynamic
heating is a crucial problem.

2. An Aerodynamic Optimization of Supersonic Flow over the Nose Section

of Missiles. ( B.Kaleeswaran, S.Ranjith Kumar, Jeniwer Bimro.N)
In the paper it is discussed about aerodynamic study of 2D supersonic nose cone
models Spherical nose cone model and Spherical model with a parabolic nose cavity
were tested with a Mach speed of 3. They were designed in GAMBIT and analyzed
in FLUENT. Then different plots were obtained which are taken as result. And the
result was the new model of nose cone showed better thermal resistance to high
temperature.
As we know missile carries the payload in its nose so if any change in
temperature of the nose area can cause the missile to endorse itself to many thermal
Unequilibrium conditions. As there are different nose cone designs but spherical one
most used in missile design. Two models Sphere cone, Sphere cone with a curvature
at the nose (nose cavity) a 2D model was designed as the rocket/missile nose cones
possess the symmetric shape. Both the models were designed, grid generated and
meshed in GAMBIT. The mesh files are read in fluent software and accurate results
were obtained.
As the speed is supersonic that is it is high so the Reynolds number is also high.
Viscous flow is neglected due to high Reynolds number. This, is because the viscous
forces are small when compared to the inertial forces. Inviscid solver model was
chosen as the shock front region is considered as inviscid. Four conditions are applied
density base solver, energy equation, inviscid flow ideal, and ideal gas equation.
The models were solved in inviscid conditions. Various obtained contour plots of the
results were shown

10
Fig. 8

11
In nose cone cavity High pressure is created before the nose section and not in the
nose section, so the temperature in that region reduces. And this is positive sign to
store chemical payload in it. Whereas in aspherical nose the high-pressure region is
just before nose section which leads to increase in temperature. Similarly, velocity
and temperature in both models were noted.
Results were the parabolic nose cavity model of the missiles shows less temperature
effects (resistances) when compared to the existing spherical nose cone model.

3. Aerodynamic Design Optimization of Long-Range Projectiles Using Missile

DATCOM (JosephD Vasile, Joshua T Bryson, and Frank E Fresconi):
In the paper it is discussed about the optimization and improvement of flight
performance for long range guided projectiles in missile DATCOM. In the current
work, an automated design optimization was developed and implemented to
recommend aerodynamic characteristics to maximize the lift-to-drag ratio (L/D) for
each projectile for a given diameter, length-to-diameter ratio, and ogive length.
Optimal Body-
Fin configuration for a 4-inch diameter, length-to-diameter of 10, and ogive length of
30% of overall length projectile, for a) subsonic and b) supersonic speeds.

Fig. 9

12
The SEAP code Missile DATCOM was used to predict the aerodynamic forces and
moments for all configurations at 12 Mach numbers (i.e., M∞ = 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6,
0.8, 0.9, 1.02, 1.2, 1.5, 2, 3, 4) and at
seven angles of attack (α = 0°, 2°, 4°, 6°, 8°, 10°, and 12°).
The optimization was written in MATLAB to produce input for desired design
configurations. This has given fitness of each configuration and then another swarm
of design configuration is selected and repeated for each of the 32 body baseline
projectiles. The PSO algorithm together with Missile DATCOM was used to find out
the optimal configurations. Later for each given optimal design, static aerodynamic
coefficients from multiple angles of attack were computed using CFD.

Fig. 10
Missile DATCOM was able to predict the force coefficient for finned projectiles at
low angle of attack, but it could not predict the center of pressure location. The
aerodynamic data sources were compiled to improve the accuracy of the aerodynamic
database used in flight trajectory simulations.
4. AERODYNAMIC PREDICTIONS, COMPARISONS, AND
VALIDATIONS USING MISSILELAB AND MISSILE DATCOM (97) (Teo,
Hoon Hong)
In the following paper the writer explained about wind tunnel test carried on SA-2
missile suitable modeling was provided by MSIC. Data developed in this became
benchmark for validating the Missile Datcom that was used for performance of
missile. The geometry of the missile was designed by missile lab. In the paper two

13
quantities are compare axial force coefficient and skin friction. Basically, it is a
comparison between computations, simulations, and wind tunnel test data to predict
the missile performance. It involved different flow conditions like Mach number,
angle of attack, altitudes, Missile surface geometry conditions, Boundary layer
conditions. SA-2 missile is a missile with two stage propulsion system and booster
detaching with 2-3 sec after launch.
Due to its maneuvering, it has high angle of attacks, it can operate over a wide
regime of altitudes, accelerating through subsonic to supersonic speeds.

Fig. 11

In determination of range and maneuverability of missile axial force coefficient is

important. Based on the flow conditions on wall the skin friction is important.
The primary data of missile was provided through wind tunnel test. Additional data
was given by MATLAB. Geometry coding was done by missile lab it enables the user
to check the geometry at any input. Nose of the missile was tangential ogive nose.
Twelve angles of attacks are there for this missile.

14
 Fig. 12

Missile Datcom (97) calculates the axial force coefficient by including the various
components of friction, pressure/wave, and base drag for the missile body as well as
all the fins. Base drag contributes 50% to the overall missiles axial force coefficient.
Skin friction decreases with Mach number monotonically. It affected by the
boundary layer on missile surface.

Fig. 13
The result of this paper found a match for skin friction using a roughness 0.000106m
at sea-level conditions. For coefficient of axial force, a good match was obtained for
the power ‘on’ condition up to about Mach 2.0.
5. A Comparative Study on 6-DOF Trajectory Simulation of a Short-Range
Rocket using Aerodynamic Coefficients from Experiments and Missile
DATCOM Pawat Chusilp*, Weerawut Charubhun, and Navapan Nutkumhang
In this paper trajectory simulation of a short-range solid propellant rocket is done
using aerodynamic coefficient determination by different methods. First method is
using missile DATCOM and the second one is using the published experimental data.
Then data provided by two methods is applied to the 6-DOF rigid body model for
trajectory simulation. Hydra70, which is a short-range solid propellant rocket is

15
choose for this experiment. In this 6-DOF there are three translational components
and three rotational components. Two Cartesian planes are considered body frame
and earth frame. Aerodynamic forces and moments are determined. The
configuration selected for this study is the MK66 Mod1 rocket motor the wrap-
around fins of MK66 Mod1 rocket motor are curved, the rocket is simply a Body-
Tail configuration. In the range of Mach number, an error in the power on CA is
higher than the error of power-off CA.

Fig. 14

Fig. 15
Total of sixteen runs were performed. It was observed that larger the elevation angles
the more is the error. Less roll damping force is estimated in hence higher predicted
spin rate during the power-on period. As the Mach number increases to supersonic to
first 1sec then decreases to subsonic after 8sec. The predicted range and drift of
impact points from 16 runs are presented below:

16
 Fig. 16 Predicted impact points

The coefficient from DATCOM can give some errors. Impact drift errors are much
smaller than impact range errors, the greater the elevation angle the more error in
drift and range. Simulated angle of attack, side slip angle, and spin rate are inaccurate.

17
 CHAPTER 2

2.1 METHODOLOGY
The Vortex lattice method (VLM) is a numerical approach used in computational fluid
dynamics, mostly in early phases of aircraft design. In order to compute lift and gen-
erated drag, the VLM represents an aircraft's lifting surfaces, such as a wing, as an
endlessly thin sheet of discrete vortices.  

     
Fig. 17 Simulation of an airplane using Open VOGEL

Thickness and viscosity have no effect. With only a simple geometrical specification,
VLMs can compute the flow around a wing. By modelling the flow field, in the case
of the VLM, the force distribution around the simulated body may be extracted. This
is then applied to determine the aerodynamic coefficients and derivatives required for
analyzing the aircraft's handling qualities during the conceptual design phase. Alt-
hough the VLM cannot compute viscous drag, it can estimate induced drag caused by
lift generation. As a result, because drag must be matched with thrust in the cruising
mode, the propulsion group may also benefit from the VLM simulation. The vortex
lattice approach is based on ideal flow theory, commonly known as potential flow.

18
 Here flow is assumed to be incompressible, irrational and inviscid. The lifting surfaces
are also thin. Angle of attack and side slip angle both are small.
The components of total force vector F are x, y, z. if the side slip angle is zero the lift
and drag are given by:  

                                                         
        
                 
  The simulation is done using software Tornado-VLM. Tornado is an aerodynamic
analysis tool used in wing design applications and aviation education to solve linear
aerodynamic wing design problems.
Tornado was written in MATLAB in order to be readily portable. Tornado is based
on standard vortex lattice theory. The wake generated by the trailing edge of every
lifting surface is flexible and changes its form depending on the flying conditions. 
It is generally designed to use in the conceptual design stage of aircraft building,
as well as in training and education. It supports multi wing design swept, cambered,
dihedral (if needed) tapered and twisted. Compressibility effects is neglected due to
the thickness of lifting surfaces.

19
2.2 ALGORITHM

Steps involved in the AVL-VLM

1. Start Tornado T135_expot

 Star MATLAB
 Connect to the directory containing Tornado
 To start type tornado and press enter

2. Load a geometry 
 Select option <Aircraft Geometry Setup>
 Select <Define Geometry>
 Give the parameters values
 Save the geometry file
 Load the geometry
3. Load the state 
 Select option <Flight state setup>
 Select option <load state>
 Load the geometry file by typing its name and press enter

4. Calculate the solution 

 Select option<Processor Access>
 Select option<Simple solution calculation>

5. View result 
 Select option<Post Processor>
 Select option<solution plot, simple plot>

20
2.3 PROCEDURE

1. First go to the windows explorer then open T135_expot. Then a number of files
will open search for file named Tornado click on it. 
2. As it is an M file it will open in MATLAB. Then there appears a small program
just run the program. 

Fig 18. Tornado program in MATLAB

3. In the command window there appears many options.  
4. Then enter the option ‘aircraft geometry setup’ which is the Tornado main menu
(TMM).

Fig 19. Tornado Main Menu 

21
5. Then you can make your own geometry from aircraft geometry setup menu. So,
select the define new geometry that is enter no.1. 

Fig 20. Aircraft geometry setup menu

 

6. Next it displays no. of wings so type the number (including the tail as well) as per
the required specifications of your aircraft design. 
7. Again, it displays no. of semi span partitions that if the wing has any partitions,
then enter the number. 
8. It asks to enter center of gravity and reference points (x, y, and z). And then enter
the root chord. 
9. Next enter the chord airfoil (example NACA 2412). Then enter number of pan-
els chord wise. 
10. Followed by dihedral angle if required or else enter zero. 
11. Enter the taper ratio of the wing. Enter the airfoil name for the trailing edge. 

Fig 21. Wing Parameters

12. Enter the sweep angle of the wing if no swept angle,  then enter zero. Followed
by twist angle.
 
22
13. Choose the proper mesh distribution type (linear, span wise half cosine, chord
wise cosine etc.) 

Fig 22. Mesh distribution Options

14.It will ask that if partition is flapped enter 1 to answer yes and 0 to no. 
15. Now geometry file is completed we can save this file by following to the options
displayed. And name the file. 
16. We can again edit the file by choosing the option if want to add a wing, remove
a wing, add partitions, or edit wing. 
17.Load the geometry to see the wing. Type 0 to go to the flight state. 
18. Select the option ‘setup the flight condition’, select the option ‘define a new state’
from the flight state setup menu. 

 
Fig 23. Flight state menu

23
 19. Give the values of alpha, beta, role angular velocity, and Mach number. Then en-
ter the true airspeed and altitude. 

Fig 24. Alpha and angular velocities

20. Generate the lattice before that choose a reference point from the move refer-
ence point menu.

 
Fig 24. The move reference point menu

21. Now generate the lattice by entering its option. 

22. There are two options tornado method or standard VLM method, select the option
processor access and then specify the file name for result. 
23. To see the result exit from the tornado and go to the output folder there are ge-
ometry file, reference file, result etc. 
24. Click on the file to check the result. 

24
2.3.1 Plots:  
1. Geometry plots: 
 In the postprocessor menu when the option <draw geometry> is selected three
plots are displayed. The first plot (plot no.1) is a 2D planform with wings, partitions,
and panels laid out. This illustration is on the XY plane. 

 
Fig 25. Planform with wings, partitions, and panels laid out.

The second plot (plot no. 2) displays the planform pattern in three dimensions. The
“Rotate3D” capability is activated, allowing you to grasp and rotate the figure. This
plot will also show the panel collocation points, with the panel normal shown as
dashed lines. 

Fig 26. The planform pattern in three dimensions

25
The third plot (plot no. 3) depicts the panel design with visible trailing vortices.  

Fig 27. Panel design with visible trailing vortices

2. Simple solution plots:  

The option in the postprocessor menu <solution plot, simple state> will when selected
yield plots 4 to 7. It (plot no. 4) displays the delta cp distribution across the aircraft.
The color bar indicates the values. 

Fig 28. Delta Cp Distribution on wing, alpha=5 Degrees

 
Plot no. 5 displays the panel force's Z-component displayed as an arrow on each
panel. 

26
Plot no. 6 displays the wing vorticity as an elevated surface above the planform. This
plot will only be useful, or accurate, if you have a “convex hull” geometry. 
Plot no. 7 displays will present calculation results as hard numbers.

Fig 29. Text output for a simple solution, in Tornado

3. Central difference solution plots:  

The results are displayed in the post processor after the calculations are done.
Theresults are displayed in two text figures first fig plot 8 gives stability derivatives
withrespect to different state variables. And plot 9 gives rudder derivatives Sweep
plots if the sweep is calculated in processor access menu the result is viewed in
solutionalpha sweep. All this are displayed in a plot having 6 subplots. Each of these
subplotswill show a coefficient as a function of the selected sweep parameter. 

27
 Fig 30. Solutions plot of an alpha sweep calculation

Tornado produces many numbers of files of output from different calculations. 

 
Fig 31. Files of output

28
2.3.2 Design features involved in the tornado VLM:
Following are the design features:  
1. Co-ordinate system: The Tornado used a Cartesian coordinate system, with the
X-axis running down the aircraft's fuselage and rising aft. When there is no dihedral,
the Y-axis is oriented positive out through the starboard wing. The Z-axis is perpen-
dicular to the X- and Y-axes on the right. That is, positive “upwards.” The span is
entirely aligned in the Z-positive direction when the dihedral is 90 degrees (as for a
fin).  
2. Main wing reference: Root chord of the main wing is along the X-axis. The
main wing is the wing which is entered first. 
3. Wings: In Tornado every plain surface is considered as the wing. Input and cal-
culations are same for wing, stabilizer or fin.
4. Partitions: 
                     Wing without partition             wing with two partitions 

 
Fig 32. Partitions of wing

1. Panels: panels are numbered from the leading edge backwards in row-by-row

outwards  

Fig 33. Panel layout for a one partition wing 

29
2. Wing features: Each wing has unique characteristics that define the form of the
wing. Inputs which are to be given are:
1. Apex coordinates: Apex coordinates must be given for each wing. The apex is
placed at the leading edge of the first division root chord. It is critical to understand
that all moments are computed around the system origin (0,0,0) so that the primary
wing apex is positioned correctly.
2. Span:  the distance from the innermost to the outermost part of the partition. 

Fig 34. The semi spans of the partitions and wing 

3. Taper ratio: Taper ratio for wing partition is given by 

 
             Taper ratio is the ratio of tip chord to the root chord. 
           c is the local chord of the partitions. 
4. Sweep Angle: Angle between the quarter chord line and Y axis is sweep angle. 

Fig 35. The semi spans of the partitions and the wing 

30
5. Camber: Camber lines are taken from NACA series. 
6. Dihedral Angle: The angle between the XY plane and quarter chord line is dihedral
angle. 

 
Fig 36. Sweep of division is 0 degrees, the quarter chord line
is perpendicular to the Y-axis 

7. Twist Angle: The partition twist is defined as the angle between the tip chord of
the partition and the root chord of the main wing 
8. Symmetry:  The symmetry option which when set as “true” mirrors the wing in
the XZ plane.  
9. Root chord (One per wing): For each wing, the root chord must be entered. For a
multiple partition wing, the root chords of each successive partition after the first are
specified by the first partition's root chord and taper ratio  (see section on taper). This
is carried out automatically. 
10. Flaps: When this option is enabled, the partition's whole trailing edge is consid-
ered to be a control surface. 

31
                   
Fig 36. Double wing design, with three flaps (control surfaces)  

11. Flap symmetry. (If flap is present): If the wing's symmetry is selected, you will
be asked if the flap should be deflected symmetrically. 

 
Fig 37. Asymmetrical flap, deflected 20 degrees. 

32
12. Flap chord in parts of root chord (If flap is present): To allow this first we have
to enter what fraction allocation of flap to the local wing chord.

 Fig 38. Flap with chord being 0.25 of the local chords 

13. Number of panels in chord (X) direction:  The number of panels in the chord
direction will only have to be specified for the first partition of a wing.

14. Number of panels in span (Y) direction: number of panels are given in span
wise direction and it is given for each partition.     

 
Fig 39. Number of panels in span (Y) direction

15. Number of panels on the flap (If flap is present): Number of panels are given in
chord wise direction and given to each partition if the flap is defined or given. 
Here is the sample of a program run in Tornado:  

33
Below are Sample Run: - 

     
Fig 40. Sample Run Fig 1

34
Fig 41. Sample Run fig 2

35
  Fig 42. Sample Run fig 3

36
 CHAPTER 3
RESULT

Case A: No Sweep condition

Table 1: Input for no sweep condition
Inputs Values

Root chord (Cr) 1m

Root Chord Airfoil NACA 4412
Tip Chord Airfoil NACA 4412
Dihedral angle 0°
Total span (b) 10 m
Taper Ratio () 1
Sweep Angle () 0°
Twist 0°
Velocity (V) 50 m/sec
Altitude (alt) 1000 m

Table 2: Output for no sweep condition

Lift Drag
Aerodynamic
 Coefficient Coefficient
Efficiency (Cl/Cd)
(Cl) (Cd)
0 Deg 0.3685 0.0044 83.75
5 Deg 0.8009 0.0204 39.26
10 Deg 1.2273 0.0478 25.68
15 Deg 1.6441 0.0856 19.21

20 Deg 2.0480 0.1326 15.45

37
 Fig 43. Panels with the panel Normal

Fig 44. 3D-plot of the planform with layout of wings, partitions and
panels

38
Fig 45 Orthographic projection and isometric projection of the wing

Fig 46. 3-D image of the wing

39
Description of Figures
Fig 43 shows the collocation points of the panels with the panel Normal drawn as
dashed lines.
Fig 44 this plot is a 3D-plot of the planform with layout of wings, partitions and panels.
Fig 45 shows the orthographic projection and isometric projection of the wing.
Fig 46 is 3D image of the wing and also its partitions layout. The “Rotate3D”
functionis enabled so you can grab the figure and rotate it.

Case B: Sweep Angle-15° condition

Table 3: Input for Sweep Angle-15° condition

Inputs Values

Root chord (Cr) 1m

Root Chord Airfoil NACA 4412
Tip Chord Airfoil NACA 4412
Dihedral angle 0°
Total span (b) 10 m
Taper Ratio () 1
Sweep Angle () 15°
Twist 0°
Velocity (V) 50 m/sec
Altitude (alt) 1000 m

40
Table 4: Output for Sweep Angle-15° condition

Lift Drag
Aerodynamic
 Coefficient Coefficient
Efficiency
(Cl) (Cd)
(Cl/Cd)
0 Deg 0.3582 0.0042 85.29
5 Deg 0.7794 0.0196 39.77
10 Deg 1.1934 0.0458 26.05
15 Deg 1.5964 0.0818 19.52

20 Deg 1.9843 0.1261 15.74

Fig 47 panels with the panel Normal

41
Fig 48. 3D-plot of the planform with layout of wings, partitions and
panels

Fig 49. Projection and isometric projection of the wing

42
 Fig 50. 3D image of the wing

Description of Figures
Fig 47 shows the collocation points of the panels with the panel Normal drawn as
dashed lines.
Fig 48 this plot is a 3D-plot of the planform with layout of wings, partitions and panels.
Fig 49 shows the orthographic projection and isometric projection of the wing.
Fig 50 is 3D image of the wing and also its partitions layout. The “Rotate3D”
functionis enabled so you can grab the figure and rotate it.

43
Case C: Sweep Angle-30° condition
Table 5: Input for Sweep Angle-30° condition
Inputs Values

Root chord (Cr) 1m

Root Chord Airfoil NACA 4412
Tip Chord Airfoil NACA 4412
Dihedral angle 0°
Total span (b) 10 m
Taper Ratio () 1
Sweep Angle () 30°
Twist 0°
Velocity (V) 50 m/sec
Altitude (alt) 1000 m

Table 6: output for Sweep Angle-30° condition

Lift Drag
Aerodynamic
 Coefficient Coefficient
Efficiency (Cl/Cd)
(Cl) (Cd)
0 Deg 0.3270 0.0036 90.84
5 Deg 0.7137 0.0171 41.74
10 Deg 1.0934 0.0397 27.54
15 Deg 1.4622 0.0707 20.68

20 Deg 1.8163 0.1087 16.71

44
 Fig 51. Panels with the panel Normal

Fig 52. 3D-plot of the planform with layout of wings, partitions and
panels
45
 4
Fig 53. Orthographic projection and isometric projection of the wing

Fig 54. 3D image of the wing

46
Description of Figures
Fig 51 shows the collocation points of the panels with the panel Normal drawn as
dashed lines.
Fig 52 this plot is a 3D-plot of the planform with layout of wings, partitions and panels.
Fig 53 shows the orthographic projection and isometric projection of the wing.
Fig 54 is 3D image of the wing and also its partitions layout. The “Rotate3D” function
is enabled so you can grab the figure and rotate it.

Case D: Sweep Angle-45° condition

Table 7: Input for Sweep Angle-45° condition

Inputs Values

Root chord (Cr) 1m

Root Chord Airfoil NACA 4421
Tip Chord Airfoil NACA 4421
Dihedral angle 0°
Total span (b) 10 m
Taper Ratio () 1
Sweep Angle () 45°
Twist 0°
Velocity (V) 50 m/sec
Altitude (alt) 1000 m

47
Table 8: Output for Sweep Angle-45° condition

Lift Drag
Aerodynamic
 Coefficient Coefficient
Efficiency (Cl/Cd)
(Cl) (Cd)
0 Deg 0.2751 0.0027 101.89
5 Deg 0.6027 0.0128 47.08
10 Deg 0.9247 0.0298 31.03
15 Deg 1.2377 0.0530 23.35

20 Deg 1.5387 0.0814 18.90

Fig 55. Panels with the panel Normal

48
 Fig 56. 3D-plot of the planform with layout of wings, partitions and
panels

Fig 57. Orthographic projection and isometric projection of the wing

49
 Fig 58. 3D image of the wing

Description of Figures
Fig 55 shows the collocation points of the panels with the panel Normal drawn as
dashed lines.
Fig 56 this plot is a 3D-plot of the planform with layout of wings, partitions and
panels.
Fig 57 shows the orthographic projection and isometric projection of the wing.
Fig 58 is 3D image of the wing and also its partitions layout. The “Rotate3D”
functionis enabled so you can grab the figure and rotate it.

50
Case E: Aspect Ratio-2.5 condition
Table 9: Input for Aspect Ratio-2.5 condition

Inputs Values

Root chord (Cr) 2.5m

Root Chord Airfoil NACA 4412
Tip Chord Airfoil NACA 4412
Dihedral angle 0°
Total span (b) 10 m
Taper Ratio () 1
Sweep Angle () 0°
Twist 0°
Velocity (V) 50 m/sec
Altitude (alt) 1000 m

Table 10: Output for Aspect Ratio-2.5 condition

Lift Drag
Aerodynamic
 Coefficient Coefficient
Efficiency (Cl/Cd)
(Cl) (Cd)
0 Deg 0.2878 0.0063 45.68
5 Deg 0.6124 0.0287 21.32
10 Deg 0.9308 0.0667 13.96
15 Deg 1.2393 0.1188 10.43

20 Deg 1.5345 0.1832 8.37

51
 Fig 59. Panels with the panel Normal

Fig 60. 3D-plot of the planform with layout of wings, partitions and panels

52
Fig 61. Orthographic projection and isometric projection of the wing

Fig 62. 3D image of the wing

53
Case F: Dihedral Angle-10° condition
Table 11: Input for Dihedral Angle-10° condition

Inputs Values

Root chord (Cr) 1m

Root Chord Airfoil NACA 4412
Tip Chord Airfoil NACA 4412
Dihedral angle 10°
Total span (b) 10 m
Taper Ratio () 1
Sweep Angle () 0°
Twist 0°
Velocity (V) 50 m/sec
Altitude (alt) 1000 m

Table 12: Output for Dihedral Angle-10° condition

Lift Drag
Aerodynamic
 Coefficient Coefficient
Efficiency (Cl/Cd)
(Cl) (Cd)
0 Deg 0.3647 0.0044 82.89
5 Deg 0.7898 0.0202 39.10
10 Deg 1.2126 0.0477 25.42
15 Deg 1.6291 0.0862 18.90

20 Deg 2.0356 0.1347 15.11

54
 Fig 63. Panels with the panel Normal

Fig 64. 3D-plot of the planform with layout of wings, partitions and panels

55
Fig 65. Orthographic projection and isometric projection of the wing

Fig 66. 3D image of the wing

56
Case G: Dihedral Angle-20° condition
Table 13: Input for Dihedral Angle-20° condition

Inputs Values

Root chord (Cr) 1m

Root Chord Airfoil NACA 4412
Tip Chord Airfoil NACA 4412
Dihedral angle 20°
Total span (b) 10 m
Taper Ratio () 1
Sweep Angle () 0°
Twist 0°
Velocity (V) 50 m/sec
Altitude (alt) 1000 m

Table 14: Output for Dihedral Angle-20° condition

Lift Drag
Aerodynamic
 Coefficient Coefficient
Efficiency (Cl/Cd)
(Cl) (Cd)
0 Deg 0.3511 0.0043 81.65
5 Deg 0.7452 0.0194 38.41
10 Deg 1.1402 0.0455 25.06
15 Deg 1.5322 0.0824 18.60

20 Deg 1.9168 0.1295 14.80

57
 Fig 67. Panels with the panel Normal

Fig 68. 3D-plot of the planform with layout of wings, partitions and panels

58
Fig 69. Orthographic projection and isometric projection of the wing

Fig 70. 3D image of the wing

59
Case H: Twist Angle-5° condition
Table 15: Input for Twist Angle-5° condition

Inputs Values

Root chord (Cr) 1m

Root Chord Airfoil NACA 4412
Tip Chord Airfoil NACA 4412
Dihedral angle 0°
Total span (b) 10 m
Taper Ratio () 1
Sweep Angle () 0°
Twist 5°
Velocity (V) 50 m/sec
Altitude (alt) 1000 m

Table 16: Output for Twist Angle-5° condition

Lift Drag
Aerodynamic
 Coefficient Coefficient
Efficiency (Cl/Cd)
(Cl) (Cd)
0 Deg 0.5688 0.0122 46.63
5 Deg 0.9977 0.0342 29.17
10 Deg 1.4185 0.0670 21.17
15 Deg 1.8278 0.1094 16.71

20 Deg 2.2226 0.1601 13.88

60
 Fig 71. Panels with the panel Normal

Fig 72. 3D-plot of the planform with layout of wings, partitions and panels

61
Fig 73. Orthographic projection and isometric projection of the wing

Fig 74. 3D image of the wing

62
Case I: Twist Angle-10° condition
Table 17: Input for Twist Angle-10° condition
Inputs Values

Root chord (Cr) 1m

Root Chord Airfoil NACA 4412
Tip Chord Airfoil NACA 4412
Dihedral angle 0°
Total span (b) 10 m
Taper Ratio () 1
Sweep Angle () 0°
Twist 10°
Velocity (V) 50 m/sec
Altitude (alt) 1000 m

Table 18: Output for Twist Angle-10° condition

Lift Drag
Aerodynamic
 Coefficient Coefficient
Efficiency (Cl/Cd)
(Cl) (Cd)
0 Deg 0.7661 0.0245 31.27
5 Deg 1.1896 0.0520 22.87
10 Deg 1.6031 0.0895 17.91
15 Deg 2.0034 0.1357 14.76

20 Deg 2.3876 0.1888 12.64

63
 Fig 75. Panels with the panel Normal

Fig 76. 3D-plot of the planform with layout of wings, partitions and panels

64
Fig 77. Orthographic projection and isometric projection of the wing

Fig 78. 3-D image of the wing

65
 CHAPTER 4
DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS

In designing of any spacecraft, aircraft any aerodynamic model first the researchers
try to reduce the drag. So, in this paper I have worked on how much each wing
parameter can produce drag. I have taken parameters like sweep angle, dihedral
angle, twist angle, aspect ratio. And I have got different drag value for each of them.
Reduction in drag is nothing but increase in lift or overall, it can be written as
increase in aerodynamic efficiency.

So, in this paper I have the highest L/D ratio for sweep angle 45°, and lowest L/D
ratio for aspect ratio 2.5. This is conducted in a software named Tornado
VLM. Tornado is meant to be used primarily in the conceptual design stage of
aircraft construction or in training and education. Tornado supports multi-wing
designs with swept, tapered, cambered, twisted and cranked wings with or without
dihedral. Any number of wings may be utilized as well as any number of control
surfaces. Canards, flaps, ailerons, elevators and rudders may be employed.

In the tornado the inputs given were root chord, airfoil for both root and tip, sweep
angle, twist angle, dihedral angle, velocity and altitude. And when executed the
design (outlook) of our aircraft appears in four graphs with panels, panel Normal's
and partitions. Further the aerodynamic coefficients are also produced. I have taken
five different Alpha α values for every different case. And as we know that if angle
of attack increases lift produced decreases hence L/D ratio also decreases. After
getting aerodynamic coefficients from the Tornado software the values of lift and
drag the values are divided to get L/D ratio which is nothing but Cl/Cd. Finally, I
got high aerodynamic efficiency for highest sweep angle I.e., 45° and lowest for
aspect ratio 2.5. Because of low sweep the wing produces high lift, whereas due to
small wingspan (aspect ratio 2.5) the lift generated will be less than the sweep angle
wing lift.

66
 CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION

 This study deals with the investigation of drag produced when different wing
parameters are used.
 Wing parameters in this study are sweep angles (0°, 15°, 30°, 45°), dihedral
angle (10°, 20°), twist angle (5°, 10°), aspect ratio (2.5, 5).
 For determining the aerodynamic efficiency specific parameter is used for
specific case and L/D ratio is noted.
 The maximum L/D was found for sweep angle 45° and lowest was found for
aspect ratio 2.5
 The dihedral angle has less effects on aerodynamic coefficient of wing.
 As the taper ratio decreases, the aerodynamic shape of wing becomes better,
then drag coefficient decreases.
 Maximum variation of drag coefficient depends on the angle of attack and
twist angle.
 Hence angle of attack has main effects of it on lift coefficient, drag coefficient
as well as L/D ratio.

67
 CHAPTER 7
REFRENCES

1. Aditya Rajan Iyer, Anjali Pant “A REVIEW ON NOSE CONE DESIGNS FOR
DIFFERENT FLIGHT REGIMES” Volume: 07 Issue: 08 | Aug 2020
2. B.Kaleeswaran, S.Ranjith Kumar, Jeniwer Bimro.N “An Aerodynamic
Optimization of Supersonic Flow Over the Nose Section of Missiles” Vol. 2
Issue 4, April – 2013
3. Joseph D Vasile, Joshua T Bryson, and Frank E Fresconi “Aerodynamic Design
Optimization of Long-range Projectiles Using Missile DATCOM” ARL-TR-
8936 ● APR 2020
4. Xinghui Yan, Jihong Zhu, Minchi Kuang, Xiangyang Wang “Aerodynamic
shape optimization using a novel optimizer based on machine learning
techniques”
5. Teo, Hoon Hong “aerodynamic predictions, comparisons, and validations
using missilelab and missile datcom” December 2008
6. Pawat Chusilp, Weerawut Charubhun, and Navapan Nutkumhang “A
Comparative Study on 6-DOF Trajectory Simulation of a Short-Range Rocket
using Aerodynamic Coefficients from Experiments and Missile DATCOM”19-
21 October, 2011, Krabi.
7. Tomas Melin “User’s guide and reference manual for Tornado” Royal Institute of
Technology (KTH), Department of aeronautics.

68