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Case study on Agricultural Autonomous Drones

Experiment Findings · February 2022

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.31964.46724

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Case study Cooperative and
Autonomous System

Case study: Autonomous Drone

Student Authors:
Pranjal Mujmer
Harshil Rank
Sohangkumar Patel
Darshankumar Malaviya
Ashishkumar Sutariya
Malay Pipaliya
Ankitkumar Gajera

Supervisor:
Prof. Thomas Benesch
Table of Contents
1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 6
1.1 What is an autonomous drone? ........................................................................................ 6
1.2 Importance & history of an autonomous drone ................................................................ 6
1.3 Requirement of this case study: ....................................................................................... 8
2 System Description of Autonomous Drone ............................................................................ 9
2.1 Scientific Background ...................................................................................................... 9
Physical and structural mechanics Used ................................................................... 9
Electrical Analytics used......................................................................................... 10
Electronics system used. ......................................................................................... 11
2.2 Components & System parameters ................................................................................ 12
Components ............................................................................................................ 12
System Parameters .................................................................................................. 13
2.3 Popular Flight Mechanisms............................................................................................ 17
Types of Mechanism ............................................................................................... 17
Kinematic Structure of system ................................................................................ 19
Dynamic Structure of system .................................................................................. 20
2.4 Propulsion Mechanism ................................................................................................... 22
2.5 Functional behaviour of drone ....................................................................................... 22
3 Autonomous Drone in Agricultural application ................................................................... 24
3.1 Precision agriculture ....................................................................................................... 24
Definition of precision agriculture .......................................................................... 24
Advantages of precision agriculture ....................................................................... 24
Role of UAV in precision agriculture ..................................................................... 25
Structuring and key elements of Agriculture .......................................................... 25
Limitations of UAV in Precision farming .............................................................. 26
3.2 Crop Spraying application.............................................................................................. 27
Contribution of UAV in pesticide spraying ............................................................ 27
Parameters in Pesticide Spraying application ......................................................... 28
UAV based Pesticide application............................................................................ 29
 3.3 Crop monitoring ............................................................................................................. 30
Remote Sensing technology.................................................................................... 30
Seedling Emergence analysis .................................................................................. 32
3.4 Soil and field analysis .................................................................................................... 32
Soil mapping using multispectral sensors. .............................................................. 32
Soil water-logging analysis ..................................................................................... 33
3.5 Crop Health Monitoring ................................................................................................. 33
CWSI Monitoring ................................................................................................... 33
Plant pathogen identification .................................................................................. 34
3.6 Additional techniques used Agriculture Autonomous drones for application ............... 35
Variable rate technology ......................................................................................... 35
Vegetation indices ................................................................................................... 35
Image mosaicking ................................................................................................... 37
3.7 Condition criteria or Flight parameters .......................................................................... 38
Boundaries .............................................................................................................. 38
Altitude ................................................................................................................... 38
Legal or not? ........................................................................................................... 38
Environmental criteria ............................................................................................ 39
3.8 Drones available in market ............................................................................................. 39
Agricultural Spraying Drone................................................................................... 39
Mapping and analytics solution .............................................................................. 43
4 Modern technical approaches ............................................................................................... 46
4.1 Mechatronic System ....................................................................................................... 46
Sensors .................................................................................................................... 46
Common Sensors................................................................................................. 46
Actuator................................................................................................................... 49
Microcontroller’s systems ....................................................................................... 54
Programming systems ............................................................................................. 56
4.2 Digital enhancement for drones ..................................................................................... 64
mobile & web development .................................................................................... 64
use of cloud system. ................................................................................................ 65
Use of AI & ML systems ........................................................................................ 65
 4.3 Remote controlling Device............................................................................................. 65
remote controller ..................................................................................................... 65
Communication System .......................................................................................... 66
Gesture controlled system. ...................................................................................... 68
Automatic flight control .......................................................................................... 69
4.4 Safety Systems ............................................................................................................... 69
Automatic safe landing/Emergency landing ........................................................... 69
Damage in flight propulsion ................................................................................... 69
Communication Failure .......................................................................................... 70
Whether protection.................................................................................................. 70
Onboard Malfunction .............................................................................................. 70
5 Impact of agricultural autonomous drones ........................................................................... 71
5.1 Business opportunities & economic impact ................................................................... 71
Statistics of Current Businesses .............................................................................. 71
Market scope ........................................................................................................... 72
Entrepreneurship and Start-Ups .............................................................................. 72
5.2 Social & health impact ................................................................................................... 73
Social....................................................................................................................... 73
Health impact .......................................................................................................... 74
5.3 Limitation & drawbacks of autonomous drones in agricultural ..................................... 75
Limitations .............................................................................................................. 75
Drawbacks............................................................................................................... 76
6 Conclusion & future scope.................................................................................................... 77
7 Bibliography ......................................................................................................................... 79
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1 History of Drone ............................................................................................................ 7
Figure 2 Analog to digital convertor ......................................................................................... 11
Figure 3 Multi Rotor ................................................................................................................... 17
Figure 4 Fixed Wings Drone ...................................................................................................... 18
Figure 5 Single Rotor .................................................................................................................. 18
Figure 6 Flapping Wing.............................................................................................................. 19
Figure 7 Kinematics structure of drone .................................................................................... 19
Figure 8 Free body diagram of hexa-copter drone .................................................................. 20
Figure 9 A single axis tilting Quadcopter. ................................................................................ 21
Figure 10 Propulsion mechanism of drone ............................................................................... 22
Figure 11Accelerometer ............................................................................................................. 46
Figure 12 IMU ............................................................................................................................. 46
Figure 13 Current & volatge Sensor ......................................................................................... 47
Figure 14 Magnetic Sensor......................................................................................................... 47
Figure 15 Flow measurement..................................................................................................... 47
Figure 16 LIDAR sensor ............................................................................................................ 47
Figure 17 Ultrasonic Sensor ....................................................................................................... 48
Figure 18 Thermal/ Infrared sensor.......................................................................................... 48
Figure 19 GPS Sensor ................................................................................................................. 48
Figure 20 Humidity & Temperature Sensor ............................................................................ 48
Figure 21 Barometric Sensor ..................................................................................................... 49
Figure 22 Rain Sensor ................................................................................................................ 49
Figure 23 PH Sensor ................................................................................................................... 49
Figure 24 Frame of drone........................................................................................................... 51
Figure 25 Microcontroller's system ........................................................................................... 54
Figure 26 Flight controller board .............................................................................................. 55
Figure 27 Flowchart - Remote control ...................................................................................... 66
Figure 28 Satellite Communication ........................................................................................... 67
Figure 29 Internet communication ............................................................................................ 68
Figure 30 Flowchart - Gesture control...................................................................................... 69
Figure 31 Global agriculture & drone market revenue .......................................................... 71
1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 WHAT IS AN AUTONOMOUS DRONE?

An autonomous drone is very different from a traditional drone. It is able to fly without human
interaction with the help of artificial intelligence, power navigation and advanced software. There
are numerous applications of an autonomous drone like, field surveying, data collection in
hazardous places, security monitoring, delivery of goods and spraying pesticide on farms.
Nowadays an autonomous drone changes the aviation industry and drones are becoming smarter
day by day. Obstacle avoidance technology, augmented reality technology and virtual reality
technology have taken autonomous drones to a higher level. Battery technology also plays a vital
role in the enhancement of drone technology.

1.2 IMPORTANCE & HISTORY OF AN AUTONOMOUS DRONE

Drones have been around us for centuries. In the mid-19th century drones were introduced by
Austrian military for the first time during the war. They used air balloons with explosives after
that this type of drone were used by British army to take aerial photographs of German movement
in 1915. The USA made a Kettering bug to drop bombs on targets during world war I. After some
years queen bee and Curtiss N2C-2 was invented which has a better design as compared to previous
drones. The USA made Radio plane OQ-2 during world war II which was the first radio controlled
aircraft in the world. Number of these types of drones were made by the USA at that time. The
lightening bug was invented by the USA for secret surveillance during the cold war. Israel made
history in the drone field after creation of Mastiff UAV and IAA scout in 1973 which were
unpiloted surveillance machines. After some years the USA and Israel produced the RQ2 pioneer
as a joint venture. It was a medium size reconnaissance drone. The USA produced a new generation
of drone for surveillance application in 2001 which was a predator. After 2003, drones were used
in commercial application and this type of drone majorly used in search and rescue field. Amazon
used drone technology to deliver their product in 2014 and Facebook also planned to use drone
technology to carry signals in remote locations for direct internet access.
Nowadays drones have numerous applications in various fields. In the era of the digital and
electronics world, drones have become more advanced by electronic sensors, actuators, artificial
intelligence systems and advanced software. An autonomous drone changed the agricultural
industry by automated spraying pesticides on crops, assessment of plants and assessment of soils.
Traditional drone cannot able to work efficiently in aerial mapping and spraying pesticides on
crops as compare to an autonomous drones.
Figure 1 History of Drone
1.3 REQUIREMENT OF THIS CASE STUDY:
Technology is growing exponentially fast and due to that choosing the right technology for
your applications is difficult. This case study is targeted to discuss the most frequent and modern
approaches of technical aspects used in autonomous drones which are used in agricultural
applications. This case study has captured some agricultural specific applications, application
specific technicalities, Business opportunities, Market growth from autonomous drones and impact
of it on social and global point of views. Technicalities is the biggest challenge for any unfamiliar
person to find and this case study will help to find out how one can understand all aspects of
autonomous drones. The nature of drone as application specific must be deterministic by its
component and structure design which has also been described in this study. This study also
includes some market information like which popular drones and material are available in market,
which designs or design methods for components are most popular. The next portion of study will
describe how different basic fundamental laws have been used for making drones and how it will
be affected to the drone’s performance. Then in the next portion the study will illustrate how drones
can be useful for agricultural application and which part of drones needs to be modified for specific
applications. Applications and specifications with some advanced drones available in the market
are also described in that section. In going further study will tell us how modern systems are
applied in drones to make it a successful autonomous system. Sensors, Communications and
microcontroller system is the essential part for the drone which are discussed in modern system
description. Some advanced flow charts of programming systems and programming structures are
also described in this section. In the final impact section one can find useful market trends details
based on previous statistical data. After referring to this study one can be enabled to understand
how to design autonomous drones or which devices should help to improvise systems for
application specific systems.
2 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION OF AUTONOMOUS DRONE

2.1 SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND

Physical and structural mechanics Used

Gravitational Force
Equations of Gravitational force is the base to calculate the resultant force for lifting the
drone due to its own weight. Equation for stating gravitational force for calculating gravitational
acceleration is as follow:
𝑚 𝑚
𝐹=𝐺 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑟
Where F is force, m1 m2 represent mass, r represent separation and G represent gravitational
constant.
Here, force can be implemented as a resistance force due to its Opposing nature. This force will be added
as a negative force into the final force applied with the help of the motor to the blade.

Newton’s laws of motion

𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗
force = - (Accelerating force) = -(m*a)
In classical mechanics, Newton's laws of motion are three laws that illustrate the relationship
between the motion of an object and the forces acting on it. Calculation of all acting forces are
resultant from this fundamental law. This law can add one other resistance force to applied
perpetual force which is inertia force.

gyroscopic effect
Gyroscopic effect is the cause of change in angular momentum from two perpendicular
axes; this can cause loss of control where the drone travels fast in any of the rotational directions.
Due to rotational motion of propeller blades Gyroscopic couple will be also effectful to overcome
force in turning operation.
𝐶 =𝐼∙𝜔∙𝜔
Where 𝐶 is gyroscopic couple, I is moment of inertia of rotor and 𝜔 is angular velocity of rotor,
𝜔Pmax is maximum angular velocity of precession.
 Fluid Mechanics
Every flight mechanism must have to face air resistance due to the earth’s atmosphere, and
the final force can be achieved by resulting in the effect of drag and lift force. The drag force is
considered as opposite whether lift force is considered as required force or positive force. The
approach of fluid mechanics helps to reduce drag and increase lift for optimistic flight mechanisms.
This can be done by practically observing velocity & pressure profiles of airflow on the propeller
& body of the drone.

Drag coefficient.
𝐹
𝐶 =
𝐴

Where CD is drag coefficient, FD is darg force , 𝜌 is mass density, v is flow speed of the object,
and A is reference area.
Lift coefficient
𝐿
𝐶 =
𝜌𝑉

Where, 𝐶 is lift coefficient, L is lift, 𝜌 is mass density, v is flow speed of the object, and A is
reference area.

Electrical Analytics used

Ohm's Law
It's a basic law that can be used in any circuit for calculating power consumption and heat rejection
during operations. For calculating efficiency of drone and its performance ohm’s law is important
as a consideration.
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅

Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)

Battery is a movable powerhouse for any autonomous system and its basic charging and
discharging processes are calculated based on KCL and KVL analytic equations of circuits. Also,
Other power supply and Onboard circuit designs are very much dependent on these two laws.
𝐼 =𝐼

Current In = Current Out

𝑉 +𝑉 =0

Voltage in = - Voltage out

 Faraday's Law
This law is used to design DC motors for maintaining torque and rpm output of motors with respect
to output voltage and current. The bigger the change you have in the magnetic field, the greater
the amount of voltage and vice versa.
∆𝜙
𝐸𝑚𝑓 = −𝑁
Δ𝑡
𝑑𝐵
𝐸=
𝑑𝑡
Where, N is number of loop, E is induced voltage, t is time, ∆𝜙 is change in magnetic flux

Electronics system used.

Physical parameter sensing.
Sensing physical parameters consist of energy interaction and cross coupling of other physical
parameters. The most common principles for this are piezoelectricity, pyroelectricity and
photoelectricity. This can also be implied with the magnetic field. These principles are most
affected as a sensitive element of any autonomous system. Sensors bring the challenge of accuracy
in measurement and also resolution of measurement. Exchanging different forms of principle gives
always a new approach for sensing parameters.

Analog to digital convertor.

Analog to digital converter is used to send signal data from remote control to drone in order to
control camera system, motor, speed, Direction, etc. Pulse code Modulation is the most popular
method to do Analog to digital conversion. This principle uses three basic processes: sampling the
analogy signal then quantized sample and in final encode quantized sample into bit stream. This
principle is the heart of Embedded systems because sensing elements and remote-control systems
are based on this principle. Position of the drone is sensed by the drone as an analogy signal, but
this analogy system is only useful when it is used as a digital signal.

Figure 2 Analog to digital convertor

2.2 COMPONENTS & SYSTEM PARAMETERS
Components
Mechanical Structure & Joints

Frame BOOM

Mounting Base Propeller Guard

Rotational Components

Gimble

Lending Gear

Propeller shaft
Propeller Blade
 Electrical & Electronic component

Sensors Camera Brushless motor

Battery Power Distribution Communication

Cable module

Flight Controller board Electronic

System Parameters
Effect of system parameters on performance of drone

Structure stability & Design Failure

The design failure of structure is purely dependent on mechanical designs of mechanics of frame,
boom, joints, and mounting base whether stability relies on kinematic redundancy of structure.
Design and kinematic systems must be optimum due to cost increase in the form of high-strength
material and difficulty in the production of complex mechanisms.
Lift force
The lift force also acts as a vertical thrust force for the drone. The magnitude of lift varies
proportionally with speed, air density, shape and size of the air foil, and angle of attack. During
straight-and-level flight, lift and weight are equal. Lift can be useful in vertical flight and reduction
in one of the rotor lift forces can create directional movement according to resultant force balance
like left, right movement or inclined movements. For balancing couples the lift forces at any node
of rotor must be opposed by other opposite side rotors.
 𝑟𝑉
𝐿=𝐶 𝐴
2
𝑑(𝑢 − 𝑉 )
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡
Where, L is lift, 𝐶 is lift coefficient, v is velocity, r is density, A is reference area.

Weight
At the time of flying, the body of any kind of system must have as little weight as possible because
it has to overcome this gravitational force which is the largest negative force. If unnecessary weight
is added to the drone, it needs extra power and for that larger size of battery must be require.
𝑊 =𝑚∙𝑔
Drag force.
Drag force consists of two main basic operations in calculation in flight mechanism: first one is
braking and second one is directional stability. It is a resistance force that is considered as an
opposite force that reduces the speed of a drone.
𝑟𝑉
𝐷=𝐶 𝐴
2
Where, CD is drag coefficient, FD is darg force , 𝑟 is mass density, v is flow speed of the object,
and A is reference area.

Induced drag
This type of drag is created when lift force induces vertex with an increase in the angle of attack
so if the wing is not producing lift, then drag will be zero. At the effect point, this drag reduces the
airspeed.
2𝐿
𝐷 =
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝜌𝑆𝑣
Where, Di is induced drag coefficient, L is lift, s is span, 𝜋 is numeric constant, A is area, 𝜌 is
density, v is speed of object and e is efficiency factor.
Parasite drags.
Parasite drag is all drag force that is not caused from the production of the lift force. All of
these forces are the movement of an object through an air mass. It helps to increase with
speed and adds skin friction drag, which also increases the interference drag and the form
drag.
 1
𝐹 = 𝜌𝑣 𝐶 𝐴
2
Where, FD is Parasite drag force, 𝜌 is density, v is speed of the object related to fluid, CD is
drag coefficient and A is Area.

RPM
The Basic concept is, the High RPM of the motor, the faster the Propeller spin, thus more lift is
created. Basically, more RPM will result in more force. The RPM of each motor would be
responsible for the flight’s orientation (forward, backward, up, down).

Angular speed and moment

Angular motion occurring in the transverse direction creates angular speed in pitching action which
can help to control downfall and instant fall during operation. Clockwise and anticlockwise motion
for yaw moment enables moving the left and right orientation of the drone. Forward and backward
motion as rolling moment helps to control increasing and decreasing the speed of the drone in
linear motion. Angular motion control also enables the gimbal control for three perpendicular axes.
Torque
torque is the parameter that is used to control the motion stability and acceleration of drone
movements. Torque is directly implied by a motor which can vary according to voltage and current.
Higher torque, instantaneous motion, and lower torque implies slow motion but for power
consumption, higher torque consumes more power whether lower torque consumes low power.
So, torque distribution must be calculated according to optimum power consumptions for the last
long flight.
voltage & current
Voltage is the main parameter as a power any device at its minimum requirement as in operational
conditions. The battery has a fixed output voltage, and it should not be perfect for every electronics
component so a distribution channel of voltage must be required. The higher the voltage the more
the torque and the lower the voltage lower the torque at the motor output. The current is always
proportional to the voltage according to ohm’s law. The current rating of the battery is important
to calculate the total work done provided.
Position
Coordinate system or position system is important for movement system designing and all stability
actions will be calculated as per the previous position and desired position. The position is the key
to correction for movement errors and helps to reduce vibrational errors. Position calculation is the
key part of the flight board controller.
Couples
Torque by thrust force implied can receive the same amount of return force according to Newton’s
third law of motion so it must be controlled by two opposite couples on opposite rotor blades.
Couples are also produced as a gyroscopic couple due to change in angular momentum, but it may
be useful for directional stability. Also, couples are the main parameter for changing direction via
angular moments.
Size of component
Size of component decides area of motion applied and space occupancy for drag and lift force, so
size is the main factor for deciding force required to overcome resistance of aerodynamics of drone.
Size of components must include some important aspects like ergonomics and aesthetics of design
for increase in attraction of product. Nowadays compact systems are in demand due to less
available space for multiple accessories and mobile applications.
Flight time
Flight time is the parameter that would be good if it is as high as possible, but it will create a cost
of the battery or complex structure of drone that must give initial cost to a device which is not
feasible that's why flight time must be decided based on application requirement not based on
available resources. This approach must give an optimum design of the drone.

Relation of system parameters to components design

 Speed and torque are the essential input to design a perfect motor output. Also input voltage
and current is the parameter to design a perfect output of torque and speed.
 The optimum size of each and every mechanical component should be calculated from all
resultant forces and couples. Mostly Weight, Lift and drag forces are major participants.
 Rotational coordinate system, change in angular speed, and strength of joints are essential
parameters to design a more accurate and smoother gimbal mechanism.
 Position to global or local coordinate systems helps in the design of motion controlling or
flight controlling board based on sensor response time and error corrections.
 Propeller blades are designed based on multiple parameters. Couples, Component’s profile,
Resultant forces, and speed ratings.
 Power distribution systems are designed in such a way that each and every propeller should
feel the same flight thrust at the same time and for variation, it should behave like an
individual power source.
 Three-axis motion has difficulty acquiring system or position change to controller board
so flight controller board is designed in such a way that it will get all the data from sensors
and helps to determine the accurate position for making decisions of flight inputs like
voltage and current value from the battery.
 The battery is designed on a basis of the total flight time required for the desired operation
and based on the power consumption of each and every component of the drone. The main
consumptions are the weight and processing of the controller board.
2.3 POPULAR FLIGHT MECHANISMS
Types of Mechanism
Different applications require different forces and different capacities. This can only be fulfilled
by different mechanisms. But one should keep in mind about optimum selection of mechanisms
according to application. However, the basis of aerial platforms drones has five types [1].

Multi Rotor
In this type of mechanism, drones use rotors for propulsion and control. A non-zero upward force
is generated by rotors which is greater than the weight. Most common applications of multi rotor
drones are aerial photography and aerial video surveillance etc. As compared to other types of
drones these are easiest to manufacture. These types of drones are not suitable for large scale
projects like long distance aerial mapping or surveillance. The basic problem with this type of
drones is that a huge portion of their energy is used to fight against gravity and stabilize in the air.
The multi-rotor drone has four types: Trichopteran, Quadcopter, Hex copter and Octocopter. In
aerodynamics, there is less chance of object spin if there are fewer rotors. So, complexity of drone
stability is increased with a higher number of rotors. However, Octocopter produces more thrust
force as compared to Quadcopter so that it can reach higher altitudes because thrust force is directly
proportional to diameter of rotors.

Where,

Figure 3 Multi Rotor

 FIXED WINGS
Fixed wing drones have very different designs as compared to multi rotor drones. Wing is used in
this type of drone. Fixed wing type drones never utilize energy to stay afloat on air, but they cannot
stand still on the air like multi rotor drones. For the application of aerial photography, these types of
drones are not suitable. Fixed wing drones are expensive as compared to other drones and skill
training is required to operate this drone. A runway is required to launch this drone to land them
back in ground safely. This type of drone uses low grade energy due to this propulsion efficiency is
less, but it provides high speed which can only be achieved by this type of drone.

Figure 4 Fixed Wings Drone

Single Rotor
Single rotor drones are very similar in design and structure to actual helicopters. This type of drone
has just one big sized rotor and small sized rotor on the tail of the drone to control its heading. This
is more efficient as compared to multirotor drones. In aerodynamics, the lower the count of rotors
the less will be the spin of the object and that is the big reason why single rotor drones are much
more efficient than multi rotor drones. However, these machines come with much higher
complexity and operational risks.

Figure 5 Single Rotor

 Flapping Wing
The flapping wing is based on a bird flying mechanism. In this type of drone U shape mechanism
connects the driving disk to the wing. However, there are some disadvantages of his technology.
There is very less flight time because of the high-power consumption needed for the flapping
mechanism. Another disadvantage is the lack of mobility.

Figure 6 Flapping Wing

Lighter than air

Blimps and balloons are examples of lighter than air drones. This type of drones are famous for
quiet operation and their toleration. This type of drones can be used for surveillance and aerial
photography because of their continuous flight capability. This type of drones are tethered because
of their lack of mobility. The tether allows the user to maintain control and to keep the drone from
drifting due to winds. In some systems the tether can also act as a communication system to
download and upload information from the drone.

Kinematic Structure of system

First of all, it is necessary to understand how the drone moves in the space and how the coordinate
system is work in real space. Kinematic structure of drone describes the rotational motion of drone
while Dynamic structure of the drone describes all forces and resulted momentum.

Figure 7 Kinematics structure of drone

 Drones are able to rotate in three different dimensions which is measured by roll, pitch and yaw
angles. Those angles are change with rotational motion of propellers. Variation of pitch angle is
generated by different rotational speed of rear motors and front motors. By increase power of rear
motors and decrease power of front motors thrust is generated forward direction. Variation of roll
angle is generated by different rotational motion of right-side motors and left side motors.
Newton’s third law of motion helps to change yaw angle. Variation of yaw angle is generated by
different rotational motion of counter-clockwise motors and clockwise motors.
We can understand the rotational motion of a drone by this equation. P, q and r is angular velocity
of the drone along x, y and z direction respectively.
𝜑̇ 1 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)/𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)/𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑝
𝜃̇ = 0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 − sin 𝜑 𝑞
Ψ̇ 0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑/𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 cos 𝜑/𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑟
Equation of resulted velocity is:

𝑉= 𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤

where, u, v and w are the velocity of the drone along the x, y and z axis respectively.

Dynamic Structure of system

Dynamic structure of the drone indicates all the forces and angular torque acting on the system and
it also describes translation motion of the drone. Each propeller of the drone generates force and
torque. Propeller produces upward thrust force while the rotor rotates.
𝐹=𝐾 ∗ 𝜔

where, 𝐾 is constant, which is depends upon many factors like back EMF, torque proportionality
constant, density of surrounding air, area swept by propeller.

Figure 8 Free body diagram of hexa-copter drone

Rotating propellers also produce torque. There are two types of rotors which are counter-clockwise
rotors and clockwise rotors so that it helps to make the drone stabilized. Momentum of all the
counter-clockwise rotating rotors and all the clockwise rotating rotors neglect each other's
momentum and the drone does not spin about its body axis. This rotating torque is represented by,
𝐹=𝐾 ∗ 𝜔
where 𝐾 is constant which is depends upon many factors like back EMF, torque proportionality
constant, density of surrounding air, area swept by propeller
Majority of drones cannot rotate its arm where the propeller is located.
Nowadays, drones with rotors that can tilt around its axis. This type of drone provides more
stability as compared to traditional drones. The tilting rotor drone required an additional motor to
rotate arm of drone so that position and orientation of the drone become more precise.

Figure 9 A single axis tilting Quadcopter.

For calculation of inertia, the drone is assumed as an idol model as shown in figure. The drone is
assumed with a spherical dense centre with mass M and radius R. The motors act like four points
of masses located at distance l from the centre with mass m. Inertia of the whole system is that,
2𝑀𝑅
𝐽 = 𝐽 = + 2𝑚𝑙
5
2𝑀𝑅
𝐽 = + 4𝑚𝑙
5
Translation of motion of the drone is achieved by Newton's second law of motion. The Coriolis
force also acts on drones during the flight time. It is a kind of inertial force that acts on drones that
are in motion with a frame of reference that rotates with respect to an inertial frame. The
gravitational force is also considerable during dynamic modelling of the drone. Resultant force
acting on drone is that:

Force = Coriolis force + Gravitational force + 𝑀

As per above equation linear acceleration is calculated. Equation of linear acceleration of drone is
described as
 𝑢̇ 𝐹 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑟𝑣 − 𝑞𝑤
𝑔
𝑣̇ = 𝐹 +𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑝𝑤 − 𝑟𝑢
𝑊 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑞𝑢 − 𝑝𝑣
𝑤̇ 𝐹

Where, p, q and r angular velocity with respect to x, y and z direction respectively. u, v and w is
linear velocity with respect to x, y and z direction respectively.

2.4 PROPULSION MECHANISM

In the propulsion system of drones, electronic speed controllers and motors are vital components.
In the mechanism of drone electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy. Battery provides
electrical energy to the drone. Electrical speed controller is an electronic circuit, which controls
and regulates speed, acceleration and deceleration of the motor. Electronic speed controller
receives current from the battery and gives output to the motor. Brushless DC motors are quite
popular in the majority of drones. It is an electronically commutated DC motor which does not
have brushes. The electronic controller provides pulses of current to the motor windings which
control the speed and torque of the motor. Motor converts the electrical energy to mechanical
energy, and it provides mechanical energy to the propeller.

Figure 10 Propulsion mechanism of drone

2.5 FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR OF DRONE

Radar positioning systems help to detect drones. It is the automation process to calculate the
position of a drone. Highly accurate drone navigation is very important when flying, especially in
drone applications such as creating 3D maps, surveying landscapes and Search & Rescue missions.
Autonomous drones can detect their position efficiently by modern radar positioning systems.
The latest high-tech drones are now equipped with collision avoidance systems. Possibility of
drone crashes is very less because of the obstacle detection system. Nowadays autonomous drones
have become more advanced because they can automatically detect some obstacles by modern
detection technology. Also, this system will help with automatic object detection on ground and
AI systems can classify its type. These use obstacle detection sensors to scan the surroundings,
while software produces the images into 3D maps allowing the drone to sense and avoid. These
systems fuse one or more of the following sensors to sense and avoid.
· Vision Sensor
· Ultrasonic
· Infrared
· Lidar
· Monocular Vision
Gyro stabilization technology gives the autonomous drone its smooth flight capabilities. The
modern autonomous drone uses six axis gyro stabilization technology to achieve accurate
navigational information to the flight controller and helps to make the drone more stabilized. It
allows drones to fly in a strong wind environment. The gyroscope works almost instantly to the
forces moving against the drone, keeping it flying or hovering very smoothly.
The inertial measurement unit (IMU) works by detecting the current rate of acceleration
using one or more accelerometers. The IMU detects changes in rotational attributes like pitch, roll
and yaw using one or more gyroscopes. Some IMU include a magnetometer to assist with
calibration against orientation drift.
The Gyroscope is a component of the IMU and the IMU is an essential component of the
drone’s flight controller. The flight controller is the central brain of the drone
3 AUTONOMOUS DRONE IN AGRICULTURAL APPLICATION

3.1 PRECISION AGRICULTURE

Definition of precision agriculture
Precision Agriculture is a site specific managerial concept which accumulates, process and analyse
temporal, spatial and individual agricultural data and gather it with other source to support the
decision on the basis of temporal and geographical variability of the field for enhanced resource
efficiency, productivity, quality, cost-effectiveness, sustainability and reduced labour in
agriculture production. It is a multidisciplinary approach which incorporate latest IT tools,
analytical soft wares and electronic control systems, calibrated with various sensor-equipped
devices positioned throughout the field to co-ordinate machine movements, and getting their real
time geographical locations. Specially, the development in GNSS, GIS, orthomosaic and WSN
technology escalate the process .PF involves various remote sensing applications, aided with
various sensors (Li-DAR , hyperspectral , etc.) for different agriculture mapping , spraying and
harvesting applications like pesticide spraying and crop analysis .Moreover, precise utilization of
input enhances average yields with improved taste and quality of the agriculture output as well as
ensure its findability and history.

Advantages of precision agriculture

Precision agriculture serves a lot of farmers all over the world because of its key advantages
increasing the production rate with in minimal utilization of time and resources to fulfil the rising
food demand of the world which is estimated to be hyped by 60 % by 2050 with average calories
intake of 3070 Kcal. Moreover, it helps farmer to analyse spatial variability by dividing the field
at smallest scales with the help of satellite system. As a result, the producer may apply production
inputs precisely to areas with extreme heterogeneity and in exact quantity, required for maximum
economic yield and accurate plant health analysis. Moreover, temporal variability of the field can
also be taken care. It also helps in continuous real time monitoring of the field parameter aided by
several sensing devices, guaranteeing that the crops are always up to date. The goal of continual
and continuous crop monitoring at various stages of growth is to keep track of many elements that
may influence crop performance in the end. Implementation of PA has provided lower cost in crop
production to farmers all over the globe. For ex. Accurate nitrogen mapping of the field can save
40% of pesticide consumption and it has been estimated that medium-sized farmer in Europe can
save up to 15000 euro if PA techniques are applied. Resulting great economic benefits for farmers.
Furthermore, biofuels, chemical feedstock, and natural fibres as a recent alternative of fossil fuels
needed more plant output. As a result, increased productivity is requirement to cumulate these fuel
crops with food crops that could be attained by precision agriculture. Along with that, reduction in
greenhouse effect due to plant agriculture as compared to fossil fuel production and usage.
 Role of UAV in precision agriculture
Emerging technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT) have revolutionized smart farming up
to great extent by enabling real time data gathering. Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) can be used
for several crop management application because of their capabilities like ultra-high resolution
temporal and spatial image capturing due to the capacity of UAVs to fly at a low height (i.e., a few
centimetres). As a result, enhancing monitoring system performance and flexible image acquisition
technique. Various sensors equipped in UAV can distinguish between various crop zones
according to their specific need which enables farmer to respond quickly to any problems that
arise. multi rotor drones are the latest trend in UAV based precision agriculture due its easy
operability, reduced speeds, simple manoeuvrability comparably cost and ability of covering large
area in less time without field interruption as compared to manned aircraft and terrestrial system.
So several decision can be made on the data gathered by UAV to identify problems and
maximizing harvesting by analysing yield. UAV technology have been effectively used in a range
of Precision Agriculture applications to date and some of the important application are as follows:

 Weed mapping and management  Seedling Emergence analysis

 Soil moisture mapping  Fluorescence imagery
 Plant pathogen identification  Vegetation growth and yield monitoring
 Pesticide spraying  Irrigation management

Types of crops monitored by UAV system.

Now a days drone based system can be used to monitor differential crops located all over the globe.
The application of agriculture autonomous drones are observed in economically developed
countries in which chain and USA are the dominant ones. It has been recorded that more than
30diffrent varieties of crops like soya, wheat, grapes and maize can be looked around with the help
of the technology. crops with different with entirely different traits ex. Rice and olive can also be
tackled using drone systems.

Structuring and key elements of Agriculture

UAV includes numerous methodologies and key components for agriculture application like
hardware components based on parameters like weight, range of flight, payload, , autonomous
flight controlling systems, aerodynamic modelling and application. The key elements used in UAV
in the field of precision agriculture are as follows:-
1. single or swarm of un-manned aerial vehicle either operated autonomously
2. ground control system - The GCS is a ground computer station that interact with UAV
Control System and keeps track of information monitored and UAV flight status. It is the
step where processing of the data captured by UAV sensors with help of special
photogrammetry software is done for further information .
3. UAV control system - It is the control system on UAV, for its proper operation. This
system receives and processes data from the flight control system and could be either
controlled by remote control or computer incorporated within the device. Sensors for
detecting distance from ground, air force, and other flying parameters are typically
 included in the control system and can process data from sensors to solve any issues that
may develop, as well as connect with the Ground control station wirelessly and in real time.
Various sensors used for data accumulation are -

4. Data Accumulation - UAV equips specialized sensors complimented with IoT-based

methods. The sensors job is to acquire images with high spatial and temporal resolution,
which can help monitor a variety of vegetation properties and depending on crop factors
sensors are selected for different purpose ..Each sensor type can track different aspects of
the vegetation, such as color , geometric shape and texture. Furthermore, each sensors can
detect radiation at certain wavelengths. The information gathered by these sensors can be
used to track plant biomass, vegetative health, soil moisture, and other critical agricultural
properties at various phases of development. Various types of sensors used for data
acquisition are Lidar , multispectral or hyperspectral sensors.
5. Data processing - In this phase the data processing is done after the data accumulation for
various vegetation analysis. There are 3 standardized and established process for the image
analysis of the information acquired -
 Photogrammetry :- the photogrammetry technique is has the objective of getting geometric
relation between the different 2D images obtained and transforming them into 3D digital
surface or terrain models of the target area by processing . Orthophotos usually depicts
The information about the 3D properties of the crops based on the vegetation structure
(e.g., vegetation height, canopy, density, etc.) .This technique usually require several
images to gather whole information out of which most of them are the pair of overlapped
images from different viewing angles .
 Machine learning Method – Machine learning utilization has risen dramatically in recent
years as a result of rapid developments, particularly in the field of deep learning.ML has
the main purpose of forecasting and identification from the data collected and are
frequently used to extract information from the vast quantity of data collected by UAVs
for crop height estimation , detecting plant pathology and so on.
 Vegetative indices calculation – In remote sensing calculation of vegetative indies are one
of the most promising method . It uses the two electromagnetic spectral bands for the
mathematical calculation . VI aimed to maximize the contribution of vegetation traits while
reducing the impact of external variables involved to get the trustworthy spatial and
temporal data about the crops . VI are obtained with help of individual image analysis or
after the production of orthophotos and are quite useful for the estimation of various
biological as well as physical characteristics of the crop.
 Various software used for data processing application are Adobe Photoshop ,Agisoft photo
scan , MATLAB,QGIS and Pix4D

Limitations of UAV in Precision farming

 As PF requires rigorous data processing for the exploitation of the images, due to which a
typical farmer is forced to obtain training or recruit a trained professional which could be
expensive and creates a lack of interest in small farmers to use UAV technology
  Moreover the , expensive investment cost is another factor which affects UAV application
in agriculture industry . And for farmers having small lands (less than 5 hectors) finds UAV
based technology are quite uneconomical for them .
 As quadcopters and hex copters have low flight time , farmer need to have a swarm of that
which would be rather costly .
 Climatic conditions are the another setback for UAV application as , heavy rains or strong
winds can lead to delaying of the process . Furthermore , the commercial use of
autonomous drones bounds them to some government rules and legislation which needs to
be followed before initiating the application.

3.2 CROP SPRAYING APPLICATION

Pesticides, commonly known as agrochemicals, are commonly used in agricultural crop fields to
enhance yields, improve quality, and lower costs. Around 2.5 millions of pesticide is used all over
the globe but 40 percent of crops get damaged due to the conventional and imprecise application.
UAV-based systems have the potential to make a significant contribution to crop spray
management with application of pesticide and herbicide spraying. Conventionally used man
operated manual air pressure have drawbacks like ill health effect, time consumption and unequal
deposition if pesticide. A UAV system overcomes all these setbacks by applying Flexible altitude
shift and variable spraying rate technology for site specific management and low operator risk,
appropriate usage of resource and spraying in timely fashion. Crop spraying is crucial when
diseases have been diagnosed and pesticide use must be reduced without compromising crop yield.

Contribution of UAV in pesticide spraying

The use UAV for pesticide spraying can be advantageous for variety of reason like (1) reducing
human contact with the chemicals causing cancer and respiratory problems. (2) improving the
spraying operation's performance by avoiding the presence of chemicals outside of designated
areas. The drift of pesticide can cause severe damage to water sources, plantation and wildlife.
Moreover, the wind flow can cause the pesticide to spread out of the buffer zone even after the
deposition of the pesticide. Commonly there are two forms of spraying technology available 1.
Ground based spraying 2. Aerial spraying. As compare to ground based system which remains in
the vicinity of the land , aerial system flies over the field area and sprays the agrochemicals. UAV
does not harm plant during the change in path as well as provide the faster spraying process.
Furthermore, UAV moves independently without any need of experienced onboard piolet, it
reduces the risk of mechanical and human losses while travelling at low altitudes. Furthermore, it
contains the multi-purpose sprayers which have the capability of spraying both solid as well liquid
material with GPS and GIS technology to guide them over a large space. Hence The use of s
UAVs for pesticide spraying has been researched as a safe and precise alternative.
 Figure 11Drift of pesticide in dynamic weather conditions

Parameters in Pesticide Spraying application

There are certain parameters associated with the pesticide application via unmanned aerial vehicle
in precision agriculture. Mostly multi rotor drone’s are preferred for this type of application and
the classification of UAV on the basis of there. mass, size, flight time are done according to the
field area and the specific application purpose. Moreover drone's vertical landing and take-off
capabilities and reusability give it edge. The main concern among all the parameters in UAV is the
mass it carries of application tools (sensors, sprayers, GPS antenna, fertilizer) along with its own
weight i.e. Payloads which is 20-25% of the UAV mass as well as functioning load involves the
mass of motors, servos, software and hardware based control equipment’s. UAV for pesticide
application can have variable flight range (less than 30KM to 500 KM) based on the take-off
weight and payload it have which could be as low as 25 KG of total weight with only 7.5 KG of
useful weight or as high as 1500 kg of take-off weight with 450 kg of useful weight. These mass
parameters can evaluated with the help of a mass balance equations. It comprises of Mt as take of
mass, Mst as mass of structure, Mpr as propulsion mass, Mcs as mas of various control system and
Mpl as mass of payload.
Mt = Mst + Mpr + Mcs + Mpl
To calculate the relative form of the equation to obtain the value of an element with respect mass
of the UAV the equation can be transformed as
1= M’st + M’pr + M’cs + M’pl

Where M’ =
Another Parameter to be estimated is the geometric area covered by the UAV and it flight range
during the shuttling process. so, when a pesticide drone works on a field with length Li and width
as W of spraying, where all the X-Y coordinates are considered for longitude and latitude . then
the total area sprayed by the UAV is
S area = ∑i=1n Li W
Where n is the no. of area processed. The length of total area processed is determined by
L total = ∑i=1n Li
and the last parameter is the estimation of the quantity of pesticide and herbicide require for the
respective target section of the field , which generally in rectangular section length as the length
of path selected and width as the working width of spraying . As a result the flow rate of the fluid
on application area is calculated.
Let the flow rate through a single nozzle is Fϕ , quantity of nozzle as N for spraying , deposition
width as W and spraying velocity as V then the working fluid mass Mf can be represented as –
Mf = W ∑i=1n L[N. Fϕ /W.V]
where n is the number of locations that need to be treated for a single flight based on the digital
map field.

UAV based Pesticide application

one of the most common method is by using the wireless network system (WSN) for the accurate
and safe application of aerial spraying. The major advantage of using such technology is that UAV
can rectify its path way according to the dynamic weather condition so that the problem of drifting
out or overlapping of pesticides can be resolved with help of constant feedback technology. The
WSN consist of a several parallel grids like structure spread all over the crop field. Each matrix
grid consists of various communicating sensors, which interacts with UAV in every 10 second of
interval for regular feedback of climatic conditions and deposition concentration and if the
deposition reaches certain threshold the drone adjust its track accordingly. Like if the drone is
flying at the middle of track and effect by wind towards it in left it automatically shift towards
right side until the sensors confirms for the precise deposition of pesticide instead of drift. Sensors
needed for detecting the chemical deposition must be able to detect the specific substance in the
pesticide to respond and should be calibrated according to the distinct model during the application
of WSN.

3.2.3.1 The AdEn system – Adaptation to the Environment

The above explanation above is quite applicable however the factors needed for the changing the
route is decided prior to the application and thus are less accurate or get delayed during the high
variable weather conditions and thus the method of adaption to environment is adapted for solution
for good route rectification is proposed by (…..).The system consist of two components (i)
Collector and Actuating (Collect),and (ii) Optimization Core (OPTIC).first components checks for
weather information and update UAV from a ground based station accordingly and second is
responsible for route changing factor with help of embedded system installed on UAV. Firstly the
whole field is divided into the several subparts and the real time updating of route changing factor
is applied at every transition step. Collect gathers the weather information with the help of WSN
system by requesting the response from the every next sub part sensors and transmit to the OPTIC
ground station via wireless communication which further transmit it to CollAct to get new route
changing factor and the process goes on till the end of the field . in case of any failure from the
information from ground station to UAV the previous weather information are taken into account
and the UAV proceeds accordingly.

Figure 12Proposed AdEN work flow architecture

3.3 CROP MONITORING

Remote Sensing technology
Remote sensing is a valuable instrument for timely monitoring and providing an accurate image
of the agricultural sector with a high repeatability and precision along with various GNSS and GIS
technology. Agriculture requires the use of remote sensing since it is particularly susceptible to
changes in soil, weather, and other chemical factors. Thus, agricultural systems should be
monitored on a regular basis.RS application are mainly based on the EM radiation reflection from
visible and near infrared region it receives from the crops and soil and to monitor a variety of crop
and vegetation factors. Crop yield management highly depends on the study of NIR reflectance so
that one could get a precise information before the harvest. Moreover, EM radiation in ultraviolet
and microwave region also enabled the use of RS for light detection and ranging and different
spectroscopy application along with that thermal remote sensing can also used to estimate the
water stress in plants by studying emission emitted by the leaf or canopy in response to the
temperature .Various spectral indexes can also be obtained by getting the ratio of reflected value
in red and NIR region to to analyse various aspects of the plants like leaf area index or nitrogen as
well as chlorophyll content. Thus , remote sensing with UAV is a game-changer, It has unrivalled
spectral, geographical, and temporal resolution, as well as the ability to deliver comprehensive
vegetation data and multangular measurements
Site specific weed management
The goal of SSWM spraying technique is to get the proper amount of herbicide in the right spot at
the right time. . SSWM is made up of four primary parts: 1) mapping and sensing of weeds; 2)
treatment selection 3) application of treatment; and 4) documentation. To reduce weed infestation
and assure a crop yield, chemical management is required. SSWM suggests a suitable herbicide
dose based on weed density, to carry out accurate spraying for the weed cover map and prescription
map development . Based on weed coverage, SSWM suggests a chemical decrease in the
application and use of sufficient herbicides. The prescription map also give absolute information
for a variable-rate spraying equipment in the context of SSWM, Remote sensing UAV is a
constructive and economical platform for monitoring weed infestations quickly by monitor small
weed patches.
OBIA Technology
The OBIA techniques can overcome pixel-based approach limitations by introducing fresh data to
the analysing routine. The OBIA methodology groups neighbouring pixels with homogeneous
spectral values into "objects," which are then combined with spectral, topographical, and
contextual data to greatly increase picture classification accuracy. The OBIA analysis algorithm
combines object-based features such as spectral, position, orientation, and hierarchical
relationships, and is divided into three phases: 1) crop row discrimination using a dynamic
classification approach, 2) weed discrimination using apparent positions to crop rows, and 3)
production of a weed patch map in a matrix structure for additional use in location specific weed
control. It is primarily founded on the assumption that plants growing between crop rows are
weeds. As a result, the algorithm is set up to recognise crop rows using a dynamic classification
method, and then categorise vegetation elements outside of the rows as weed plant.

Figure 13shows application of OBIA technology with original UAV picture at left, segmentation step at middle and
classification output at right with crop in red , weed patches in green and bare soil in white
 Seedling Emergence analysis
A popular agricultural application of imagery taken with a UAV is seedling emergence observation
and mapping. If seed germination is delayed or ineffective in some areas of the field due to
environmental variables, the producer usually has a brief window following seed emergence to
replant. The field can be mapped at very high resolution in the early phases of crop development
to examine seedlings and identify zones where germination was failed. The required resolution is
determined by the size of the plants' leaves immediately following emergence. Before canopy
coalescence, aerial imaging of the field should be done so that each plants may be seen clearly in
the images. When spectrally distinguishing tiny leaves from the surrounding soil environment,
vegetation indices frequently produce better results. After the whole imagery of the field is taken
orthophoto are produced with the help of that. the plant layer seen in the Orth mosaic must be
categorised, to match seedling density classes in the Ortho mosaic with ground-validated seedling
counts. Later, the analyst would split the field into zones where seedling density is insufficient,
and the producer should consider replanting.

3.4 SOIL AND FIELD ANALYSIS

soil variability is one of the most challenging factors on agriculture since history. In the study of
soil mapping, SSWM requires a detailed information which can be obtained with the help of
various UAV attached sensors and photogrammetry software. One of the most dependable and
widely used techniques for obtaining rapid and high-resolution soil maps is to map soil electrical
conductivity (EC) using geophysical proximate soil sensors. However, secondary data from optical
sensors in the visible region (VIS), near-infrared (NIR), and thermal infrared (TIR) domains can
be used in conjunction with EC data to describe soil spatial variability like NDVI index for soil
properties like nitrogen and water content. Along with that, In the VIS-NIR and TIR areas, the soil
thermal inertia technique is commonly used to estimate soil moisture from spectral imagery of
bare soil. Hence, Light weight UAV has given a several application in soil and field analysis.

Soil mapping using multispectral sensors.

In this application multispectral aerial data about soil and crop are collected for producing
multispectral and multi temporal map of an area which is precise and described, UAV survey was
done twice in crop season i.e before sowing and when the crop is at its verge of flowering and
obtained its maximum height. Majorly the process comprises of 2 steps.
I. Photogrammetric data collection
II. Photogrammetric data analysis
Autonomous drones such as quadcopter or hexa-copter is used for this data collection with payload
consisting of GPS/IMU system, magnetometer. As well as RGB and NIR sensors are also installed
to obtain vegetation indices and NIR/Green ratio. Various flight plans are organized in both the
survey to capture the aerial images with the process of placing distinctive Ground control point
(usually black and white) for geo referencing. Finally, a survey with electro-magnetic profile
system with multiple frequency is done to measure soil EC data, which was converted into
electrical resistivity data to obtain electrical resistivity maps.
Secondly, in the data analysis process orthophotos are obtained with the images of the GCP
location on bare soil and flowered crop are processed with various photogrammetric imaging
software. After that the GCP accuracy are again confirmed in the orthophotos and compared to the
data available from the GPS survey to make sure the site-specific evaluation. Moreover, NDVI
evaluation are also analysed on the same software to evaluate the status of the soil on the software
platform and calculation is done according to the theory available for soil status evaluation.

Soil water-logging analysis

One of the most serious environmental issues for agriculture is ponding causing significant
biological harm to crop due to a lack of oxygen availability. In addition, soils that have been
ponded over long periods of time may lose fertility. As a result, agricultural yields may suffer a
severe reduction. The reason for ponding can be soil’s inability to drain water , Non-optimal
agricultural methods, reduces the flowability of the soil, shallow water table rising due to
subsurface water and The lack of drainage channels .UAV in combination with the
photogrammetry Structure-from-motion (SfM) technology are a robust, low cost, quick and
adaptable geomorphological investigation option. High-resolution topography techniques (HRT)
could be strategically significant to better comprehend this situation, thereby providing suitable
remedies to minimize the associated risk because it provides correct description of surface
morphology. LiDAR, for example, can be used to rebuild the topography of an agricultural area at
a broad spatial scale using an aerial laser scanner. UAV-SfM for larger-scale surveys permits the
creation of high-resolution DEMs to map erosion and deposition, detect highly risky areas due to
surface runoff, and beneficial in figuring out how surface water storage happens and map the
terrain's concave areas.

3.5 CROP HEALTH MONITORING

CWSI Monitoring
Crop water stress is one of the most important abiotic stress elements because it restricts crop
development. Thermal imaging can be utilize emitted radiation in the infrared region to detect a
plant's water stress since stomata closure limits transpiration and evaporative cooling at the foliar
level, resulting in a rise in the leaf's temperature. There is 2 categories in infrared band 0.7-100
µm namely reflected infrared band i.e 0.7-0.3µm and thermal infrared band i.e. 3.0-100 µm.
commonly all the agriculture elements like soil, plant, vegetation give energy in thermal infrared
band. The CWSI was created with this goal in mind, to help resolve environmental factors that
may influence the link between plant temperature and water stress and ranges between 0-1. The
CWSI is calculated using the vapour pressure deficit (VPD) of the air to normalise the canopy–air
temperature gradient with evaporation rates using the formula below.
 (𝑇 − 𝑇 ) − (𝑇 − 𝑇 ).
𝐶𝑊𝑆𝐼 =
(𝑇 −𝑇 ) − (𝑇 − 𝑇 ).

Where (𝑇 − 𝑇 ) represents the leaf and air temperature gradient , (𝑇 −𝑇 ).

represents lower limit of leaf and air temperature gradient and (𝑇 − 𝑇 ) represents
upper limit of leaf and air temperature gradient (constant)
The CWSI has been hindered by environmental conditions as its calculation, the signal-to-noise
ratio drops as the humidity (and temperature) deficit reduces. Lastly, it's important to remember
that canopy temperature is influenced by changes in canopy roughness, wind velocity, and
aggregate radiation, all of which are more fluctuating in humid regions.

Figure 14Crop water stress mapping of a corn field using thermal imagery, including 3 irrigation region marked by pink,
green and blue solid lines

Plant pathogen identification

UAVs are also employed to monitor the health of the plants. Crop health is a critical factor that
must be monitored, as some pests and pathogens have the potential to spread uncontrollably,
causing significant losses in agriculture. As a result, accurate and early detection of emerging pests
and pathogens helps in benefiting farmers' finances, biological preservation, and ecosystem health
and function. Disease detection is possible because infections induce alterations in the crops
biophysical and biochemical features prior to the appearance of visible indicators can be monitored
using thermal and fluorescence imaging. In this context, UAVs has been used in two parts of
disease control: (a) at the preliminary stage of infection by accumulating crop health data, (b) when
the farmer is treating the infection by targeted pesticide spraying. RGB sensors are particularly
helpful for mapping infection severity, which may be done using either reflectance data, extracted
vegetation growth. Moreover, Numerous UAV studies have shown that hyperspectral scanning
can be used to differentiate between different infections. However, thermal indices were just as
effective in detecting diseases early on. Along with that effect on leaf structure and changes in
tissue chemical composition is pathogen specific during pathogenesis, and fungi develop distinct
fungal structures on the leaf surfaces that impact reflectivity. Infected regions can also be
distinguished from healthy areas and regions with reduced leaf area if the normalised difference
vegetation index (NDVI) was paired with canopy temperature measurements.

3.6 ADDITIONAL TECHNIQUES USED AGRICULTURE AUTONOMOUS DRONES FOR

APPLICATION

Variable rate technology

Variable rate technology (VRT) refers to agricultural field equipment that can accurately manage
the pace at which crop inputs and tillage activities are applied. For granular, liquid, and gaseous
fertiliser ingredients, variable rate controllers are provided. Spraying rate is a product of the nozzle
width, the sprayer travel speed, and the flow rate of spray liquid through the nozzles. The vast
majority of nozzles come in fixed sizes. As a consequence, the only way to change their flow is
with spray pressure. The driver can manually adjust variable rates or have an onboard spray
controller with an electronic prescription map regulating them automatically. VRT technology
package enables the producer to apply the precise quantity of crop inputs required at a specific
spot in the field depending on the site's unique features. VRT systems include elements like spray
controller, GPS receiver, and GIS map database. The spray controller utilises the GPS unit's
position coordinates to locate the equipment on the map given by the GIS unit. As the equipment
passes across the field, the spray controller receives the instructions from the GIS system and
adjusts the pace at which the crop input is administered. Thus, VRT technology have 2 mains
application which are as follows-
Pressure flow technology - When pressure adjustment technique is used, the cross-section of the
nozzle's exit is fixed, and the flow is controlled by modifying the liquid chemical pressure. As the
pressure increases, the cross-sectional flow through the nozzle rises per unit time; when the
pressure falls, the cross-sectional discharge through the nozzle drops per unit time.
PWM control flow - PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) is a technology for controlling electronic
actuators that involves rapidly turning on and off (pulse) switching devices. The frequency of spray
is the rate at which a switching device pulses. Each nozzle body has an electronic solenoid when
using PWM (shut-off valve). The valve cycles on and off 10 or more times per second, resulting
in a pulsed, intermittent spray. As well as the frequency, measured in Hertz (Hz), cycles per
second, is the number of times the valve cycles on and off every second.

Vegetation indices
vegetation indices (VIs) have been frequently employed. In qualitative and quantitative vegetation
analysis, they are thought to be particularly helpful for monitoring crop health and growth (e.g.,
biomass, nitrogen level, and so on). They are mathematical translations of scattering and
absorption in various bands of the electromagnetic spectrum in order to reduce the “noise” caused
by external causes (e.g., lighting, atmosphere, soil properties, etc.). In order to recognise
vegetation, each VI has its own unique combination of reflectance in distinct bands. Chlorophyll,
for example, absorbs visible radiation in the red, whereas NIR radiation is highly reflected. in this
way, vegetation can be differentiated by the soil in a photo and unhealthy vegetation may be
spotted. Simple VIs integrates RGB data with some spectral bands like NIR and RE, have greatly
increased the capacity to recognise green and healthy vegetation. The VI can be divided into two
main categories, Vegetation Indices based on multispectral or hyperspectral data and Vegetation
Indices based on information from the visible spectrum. Various spectrums used in the formulation
of VI’s are Red (620–670 nm), Green (500–560 nm), Blue (430–500 nm), Near Infrared (720–
1500 nm) and Red Edge (670–720 nm).
In terms of multispectral vegetation indices, the Ratio Vegetation Index was one of the earliest
well-known indices (RVI). The contrast between plants and soil is enhanced by this indicator. It
is, however, susceptible to the ground's optical features. The Normalized Difference Vegetation
Index (NDVI) is the evolution of RVI and is computed by the visible and near infrared light
reflected from the vegetation. On the basis of NDVI, a number of new VIs have been
created. NDRE employs the NDVI approach to equalise the ratio of NIR to Red Edge (RE)
radiation. GNDVI with NIR and Green bands behaves similarly. Excess Greenness Index (ExG)
is also computed by subtracting the radiation in the red and blue channels from doubled radiation
in the Green channel.
NDVI
The NDVI is the most commonly detected parameter using drone sensors, and it indicates crop
biomass accumulation, greenness (chlorophyll content), and irrigation levels. For agronomists that
use remote sensing to control crop growth and productivity in their fields, the NDVI is possibly
the single most essential parameter. The NDVI runs from - 1.0 to +1.0 as a unit of measurement.
Positive value implies Greenness in an agricultural field or natural vegetation zone is rising. A
negative NDVI number implies that elements other than green vegetation, such water, soil, barren
landscapes, or clouds, are present. For a well-vegetated crop field, the most frequent NDVI value
is 0.2–0.9. NDVI values of 0.2–0.3 may indicate less densely vegetated shrub or grass. As well as
values in highly cultivated crop fields range from 0.4 to 0.9. the below table indicates the formula
for some of the most common VI’s used .
 Image mosaicking
Digital aerial photographs that haven't been processed contain data in the form of numeric data
linked with pixel positions. It is impossible to access this data without creating this information
into known format. Photogrammetric technique are usually applied in this for getting Orth
mosaics and digital elevation models to get the 3D model regarding vegetation. This can be
acquired by converting several overlapping images into a single, smooth, geometrically accurate
picture. It may be used for evaluations of properties generally acquired from maps, such as
distances among objects, geographic positions of items, and area measurement, after
reregistration. Orth mosaicking is usually done with one of numerous desktop software
programmes created specifically for this purpose. There are also a number of cloud-based ortho
mosaic processing software choices. These software packages use SFM photogrammetry, a
machine vision approach that aligns aerial photos, combines them together into a bigger,
continuous image, and generates a point cloud, or three-dimensional representation of the
imaged region. The picture is also orthorectified using this model, which removes distortions like
lens distortion, inclination, and altitude effects from the output dataset. Aspects that may hinder
the effectiveness of SFM photogrammetry include Surface motion, uneven and excessive camera
angle and elevation above ground surface, highly reflective surfaces etc. There are 2 types of
DEMS used - Digital terrain mode which defines the altitude of surface of terrain and digital
surface model encounters elevation of bare earth. Photogrammetric technique usually involving
majority of application work including vegetative indices map construction.
 Figure 15(a) Digital terrain model (b) digital surface model

3.7 CONDITION CRITERIA OR FLIGHT PARAMETERS

Boundaries
One of the main boundaries in drone usage is the restriction range areas of flying drones near the
residential areas. Person cannot fly the drone within 150 meters of a blocked area. Similar rules
apply with an individual also. One cannot fly within 50 meters of an individual. Person also needs
a license from the Civil Aviation Authority, for usage of drones for commercial reasons.

Altitude
Nowadays, as per area and conditions, many countries make criteria depending on altitude. it
cannot be flown over 120 meters and as speed must be below 160 Km/H. You must be incredibly
aware of the boundaries where you can fly, depending on where you live. UAVs flying within 8
km of any airport in the United States and across domestic parks and military reservations is
currently prohibited.

Legal or not?

There are frequent changes to the rules governing drones. A very important thing to do before you
take your drone is to investigate the fundamental rules on drone travel in your nation and to know
them. There are restrictions to flying, especially in the neighbourhood of people, airports and
military locations, so verify before leaving.

Many regulations restrict drones from being used in many towns, the larger with more than one
airport. This has become an important regulation, as 15 examples of captured drones near other
types of aircraft were reported in the Washington Post study between 2012 and 2014. CAA states
that Any damage or failing of the drone leads to any criminal prosecution, The owner of the drone
will be responsible.
In the United Kingdom, the Civil Aviation Authority specifies that drones, such as quadcopters,
can only be flown if the Drone’s operator has direct, unassisted visual contact. This implies it is
unlawful to fly so high or so far that you can't see it from the ground.

Environmental criteria

Selecting your spot, the drone must always remain within our eye. Drone should be visible even
with binoculars. Also, there are some environmental conditions such as fog, Drone should not be
flown.

The Drone is a highly conductive electronic device therefore it should not be flown in the rain and
through clouds. Prediction of wind speed is a bit harder than sunshine and rain. In terms of
monitoring the field using drones in very high wind, it is not very efficient. Also, an autonomous
drone would change its path which is decided due to high wind.

3.8 DRONES AVAILABLE IN MARKET

Agricultural Spraying Drone

Crop spraying is an agricultural application for drone technology. Typical contemporary drones
can carry more than ten litres of fluid pesticide at a spraying rate of more than one litre per minute,
allowing them to cover one hectare in ten minutes. To effectively employ drone technology as a
spraying platform, the spraying must be linked and coordinated with the previously outlined
imaging, processing, and automated analytics capabilities in order to accurately treat the damaged
area or plants. Such a strategy would not only improve dose in the regions impacted but might also
reduce the total usage of pesticides in the area.

Because of its speed and precision, UAVs are increasingly being used in spraying operations.
Certain factors diminish crop quality, such as some sections in the crop field not being fully
covered during spraying, crop regions overlapping, and the outside margins of the crop field being
sprayed. To tackle these challenges, a swarm of UAVs was deployed in a control loop algorithm
for agricultural operations, were unmanned aerial aircraft spray pesticides. The response from the
WSNs deployed in the field organises the process of spraying herbicides and pesticides on the
crop. A control loop communicates with each one to modify the trajectory of the unmanned aerial
vehicle to variations in wind speed and the quantity of messages sent in between. A small delay in
the control loop allows the unmanned aerial vehicle to assess data from the WSN to determine the
best path. It may also help to reduce pesticide waste. The discharge and pressure rate of the liquid,
spray uniformity and liquid loss, droplet density and sizes of a designed hex copter mounted
sprayer are all investigated in the lab and in the field.

The combination of an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) with a sprayer system has the potential to
provide a platform for pest management and vector control. This is a precise location-specific
application for a vast crop field. The PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) controller enhances the
performance of the spraying equipment mounted to the UAV in pesticide applications. For this
purpose, big lift UAVs are necessary for spraying a broad region.

GENERAL SPECS OF

DJI AGRAS T20

 AGARS T20 is mainly used for comprehensive spraying purposes after doing field
planning and mapping in Agricultural areas autonomously as well as manually.
 AGARS T20 also provides some special features like AI field planning, Real-time NDVI
mapping, long distance Task and Device management, centimetre level positioning
accuracy, Real-time mapping. These features can be very useful for planning and mapping
for spraying purposes.
 This aircraft contains 18000 mAh, Li-ion battery. The total charging time is around 15-20
minutes. It can work up to 15 minutes with 27.5kg take-off weight and 10 minutes with
42.6kg take-off weight, once it is fully charged.

Maximum operating speed 7m/s

Maximum flying speed 10m/s
Maximum Motor RPM 4410
Maximum Current 40A
Maximum Thrust 13.5 kg/rotor
Maximum Power 2400 W/rotor
Liquid volume 20 L
Flight Range (altitude) 2000m
Automatic flight available or not yes
Gimbal No
Number of rotors 6

 The operating frequency of the Radar used in this UAV is CE (Europe)/(United States):
24.00 GHz-24.25 GHz MIC (Japan)/KCC (Korea): 24.05 GHz-24.25 GHz. The power
consumed by this radar is 18W. The radar can detect up to 30 meters and covers 360°
horizontally in obstacle sensing operations.
  The camera in this aircraft has Face of View of 98° horizontally and 78° vertical and
resolution of 1280×960 with 30 fps.
 The operating frequency of the controller compatible with this drone is 2.4000-2.4835 GHz
and 5.725-5.850 GHz. Controller can be connected via both Wi-Fi and Bluetooth. The
battery of this controller is Li-ion 5000 mAh which takes 2.5 Hours to fully charge via
using USB 12V/2A.
 Cost: 15000 USD

DJI MG-1P

 This Octocopter is advanced and more convenient for daily operations. Very high
efficiency using this drone can be achieved because of multi aircraft control mode. Up to
5 of MG-1P can be controlled simultaneously using the MG-1P intelligent remote
controller.
 MG-1P ensures Flight safety with advanced propulsion and control algorithms even with
a damaged arm. Precise positioning can be achieved with satellite-based positioning
systems.
 The battery in this UAV is 12000 mAh Li-ion battery. Which takes around 15 to 20 minutes
to fully charge. This drone can be used for around 20 minutes with 13.7kg take-off weight
and 9 minutes with 23.7kg take-off weight, once fully charged.
Foldable Yes
Maximum operating speed 7m/s
Maximum flying speed 12m/s (With GPS), 15m/s (A mode)
Maximum Motor RPM 3780
Maximum Current 40A
Maximum Thrust 5.1 kg/rotor
Maximum Power 770 W
Liquid volume 10 L
Flight Range (altitude) 2000m
Automatic flight available or not yes
Gimbal No
Number of rotors 8

 The working frequency of radar used in this drone is 24.05 GHz - 24.25 GHz and 24.00
GHz - 24.25 GHz. The relative altitude of the drone should be greater than 1.5m and speed
should be less than 7m/s for efficient work. Radar can sense objects within 1.5 to 30 meters
with a safety distance of 2.5m.
 The Positioning system used in this drone is GPS + Badious for Asia-pacific region or
GPS+GLONASS. The positioning accuracy can be achieved using this system is 1 cm +
1ppm horizontally and 2 cm + 1ppm vertically. Velocity measurement accuracy is 0.03
m/s.
  This UAV has an FPV Camera for front facing live view, which has a 123° wide-angle
Face of view with resolution of 3840×2160 at 60fps and 1920×1080 at 60fps.
 Frame, Propeller material used: High-performance engineered Plastic.
 The controller of this drone can operate with a frequency of 2.4000-2.4835 GHz or 5.725-
5.850 GHz. Maximum transmission range: up to 5km, Connectivity protocols : 4G
wireless connectivity, Output power : 16W, The controller has a Built-in 2s LiPo 320mAh
battery and an external 2s LiPo 4920mAh battery. Because of 4G wireless connectivity, a
maximum of 5 km transmission range can be used.
 Approximate cost: 15000 USD

THEA 160

 This hexa-copter is comparatively economical for stable and reliable spraying purposes.
THEA 160 can be used even under bad weather because of its waterproof, dustproof and
anti-corrosion properties. Both autonomous as well as manual flight available.
 GPS and satellite navigation system is also available in this drone for reliability
improvement during the flight. Many important operations like Route planning, Automatic
flight operation, spray rate adjustment one key take off & landing, terrain following, and
fixed height flight are also available in THEA 160.
 The UAV has a massive 22000 mAh LiPo battery, which can be used for around 10-15
minutes with 26kg take-off weight and can cover up to 3.3 acre, once it is fully charged.
Foldable Yes
Maximum flying speed 10m/s
Maximum Motor RPM 3330
Maximum flying speed 10m/s
Liquid volume 16
Gimbal No
Number of rotors 6

 Microwave Radar is used in this drone, which adjusts the altitude with respect to the ground
surface up to 3 millimetres. This wave radar can detect obstacles within 13 meters and keep
a safe distance of 5 meters for avoiding the damage of the drone.
 This UAV can be controlled with a 16 channel Radio controller, which can control drone
up to 5 km and also transmit the video feed up to 2 km. This highly integrated radio system
is also compatible with various features like multi aircraft control mode, one key
configuration and ESC calibration.
 Approximate cost: 4900 USD
 Mapping and analytics solution

The agricultural business has significant potential for drone technology and advanced picture data
analysis technologies. Drone solutions are possible to carry out accurate mapping for plan purposes
and check the state of crops and plants. However, like with any other tool, the correct approach
and configuration are necessary to properly use the available technologies. With the rising business
of drone technology and sensors, as well as the availability of image data processing and analytics
tools, the technological mix for the essential solutions must be carefully designed to optimise
advantages while minimising costs.
The capabilities of mapping and imaging of drone platforms with various sensors may be employed
through the complete manufacturing process to plan production and therefore enhance
productivity. Drone technology could be employed to evaluate the state of soil and hence potential
yields before the vegetation cycle begins. A true 3D mapping of the soil with a precise colour
coverage is the essential application in soil condition. The quality of the soil and moisture as well
as water flow are measured accurately. Cyclic flights can be used throughout the vegetative period
to monitor crops and the agriculture process to plan and respond quickly when problems are
noticed. Drone-enabled analytical products for NDVI index values assist in determining the exact
time to harvest. The combination of advanced air data obtained by drones with data from other
sources, such as weather predictions and soil maps, can contribute to finalising the information
and enable the farmer to make maximum use of the field and optimise returns to its natural
limitations. More importantly, drones are difficult to access for certain farms in the Asia-Pacific
and inaccessible locations, such as terraced rice fields or mountaineering fruit plantations.
A significant amount of data is formed as a result of the operation of drone systems. As a result,
the accuracy, resolution, and data layers utilized must properly represent the needs of every
individual purpose and should thus be designed on a project basis. The information gathered must
be properly applied and incorporated into the business process once the appropriate solution has
been devised and the data obtained does not exceed processing capabilities. Once the needed
technological mix has been installed, the analytical capabilities have been tuned, and the solution
has been properly integrated into business processes, the technology's full potential may be
realised, and productivity has increased significantly.
Maximizing yields and minimising workload, and hence product prices, will be critical in the
decades ahead as the world faces unprecedented rise in agricultural product demand, particularly
in the Asia-Pacific area.

DRONES FOR MAPPING AND ANALYSIS

DJI PHANTOM 4 RTK

 PHANTOM 4 RTK is mainly used for low-altitude architectural purposes like precise
imaging, mapping and inspection purposes. Very high positional accuracy can be achieved
with its 1 inch, 20-Megapixel CMOS sensor, GNSS system and vision positioning system.
  Operators can easily collect centimetre level accurate data with minimum control points
from the ground and precise imaging system. PHANTOM 4 RTK is compatible with D-
RTK 2 mobile stations, which provides real time accurate data to the drone and ultimately
gives accurate surveying solutions.
 This aircraft consists of LiPo 4S 5780 mAh battery, which can give up to 30 minutes of
Operating time, once it is fully charged with maximum of 160W charging power.
Foldable NO
Maximum flying speed 50 to 58 km/h
Maximum ascent speed 6m/s
Maximum descent speed 3m/s
Maximum Motor RPM 1140
Maximum Flight Range (altitude) 6000m
Obstacles sensing range 0.7-30m
Number of rotors 4
Automatic flight yes

 Up to 50km/h of flying speed can be achieved at 2m above ground with adequate lighting
using this UAV.
 In PHANTOM 4 RTK, Gimbal is also available for 3 axis stabilization(tilt, roll, yaw). For
independent movement of the camera, this Gimbal has a Pitch of -90° to +30° for rotation.
Up to 90°/s of controllable angular speed can be achieved by this Gimbal.
 GNSS system is used for positioning purposes in this drone, which has both Single
frequency high-sensitivity GNSS module and multi-frequency multi system high precision
RTK GNSS.
 Vision system in this drone can work up to 50km/h, 10m above ground with adequate
lighting, and can detect obstacles up to 30m.
 Infrared sensor is available in this aircraft for sensing obstacles (whose reflexivity is greater
than 8%), which works effectively between 0.2 to 7 meters. the sensor has a face of view
of 70° horizontally and ±10° vertically.
 Camera with a face of view of 84° and 1 inch, 20-megapixel CMOS sensor is used in
PHANTOM 4 RTK. Maximum resolution of 4864×3648 (4:3) and 5472×3648 (3:4) for
images and for video recording 3840×2160 can be obtained.
 Propeller guard: no
 The controller of this UAV can operate with 2.4000-2.4835 GHz or 5.725-5.850 GHz. The
controller can control a drone within 7km. 6000 mAh LiPo 2S battery is used in this
controller which takes approximately 2.5 hours to be fully charged using USB 12V/2A.
 Cost: 6200 USD

P4 MULTISPECTRAL
 P4 Multispectral is used to collect insights into crop health, vegetarian management and
Environmental monitoring using a multispectral imaging system, vision positioning and
GNSS positioning system.
 This Drone can transmit both NDVI and RGB feed to detect the area where immediate
attention is needed. The drone is also compatible with D-RTK 2 GNSS mobile station, with
which higher positioning accuracy can be achieved even without Internet.
 This UAV contains a 5780 mAh LiPo 4S battery, with which approximately 27 minutes of
flight time can be achieved, after it is fully charged.
Foldable NO
Maximum flying speed 50 to 58 km/h
Maximum ascent speed 6m/s
Maximum descent speed 3m/s
Maximum Motor RPM 1140
Maximum Flight Range (altitude) 6000m
Obstacles sensing range 0.7-30m
Number of rotors 4
Automatic flight yes

 This drone has a 3-axis stabilized Gimbal. For movement of the camera, the pitch of the
Gimbal is -90° to +30° along with the tilt axis.
 GNSS system is used for positioning purposes in this drone, which has both Single
frequency high-sensitivity GNSS module and multi-frequency multi system high precision
RTK GNSS.
 Vision system in this drone can work up to 50km/h, 10m above ground with adequate
lighting, and can detect obstacles up to 30m.
 Total six 1/29-inch CMOS sensors among which, one RGB sensor and five Monochrome
sensors with a total of 2.21 Megapixel are used in this UAV. The Field of view of this
camera is 62.7. Maximum resolution of 1600×1300 (4:3.25) can be obtained.
 Operating frequency of the controller of this drone is 2.4000-2.4835 GHz or 5.725-5.850
GHz, with maximum transmission range up to 5km. Built-in 6000 mAh LiPo 2S battery is
used in this controller.
 Cost: 6500 US
4 MODERN TECHNICAL APPROACHES

4.1 MECHATRONIC SYSTEM

Sensors
Sensors are working on the energy transducer principle for detecting physical parameters and
converting it into desired signal form mostly as an analog voltage. Autonomous drone system
consists of so many sensors which are essential elements for its basic operations. Some sensors are
too common in all types of autonomous drones whether others are featured or only for special
application.

Common Sensors
Some of the basic operational sensors which are commonly seen in every autonomous drone. If
these sensors are not available or failed in autonomous drones it may face operational difficulties
of its basic functionalities.
Accelerometer
Providing Linear Acceleration for vertical and horizontal directions.
This helps in determination of velocity, direction of motion, rate of
change in altitude, and vibrations experienced by the drone. This
sensor is very useful in any kind of drone for determining whether a
drone is in motion or stationery. Most Accelerometers used in drones
are MEMS (Micro Electromechanical System) type sensors.
Figure 16Accelerometer
IMU
Inertial Management Unit is a combined unit of accelerometer &
Gyroscopic sensor for measuring angular & linear - velocities &
acceleration to manage Roll, Yaw and Pitch moment of Drone. Most
popular types of IMU used in the market are mainly 4 types: 1.
MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems) 2. Quartz MEMS 3.
FOG (Fiber Optic Gyro) 4. RLG (Ring Laser Gyro)
Figure 17 IMU
Current & Voltage Sensors
Current & Voltage Sensors are useful to maintain the health of
the battery and monitor performance of the motors. Most
common current sensors are working on hall effects based
principle weather voltage sensors are working on capacitive
resistance principles. These sensors are also essential parts of
micro controllers.

Figure 18 Current & volatge Sensor

Magnetic Sensor (Compass)
Magnetic sensors are used for geodetic direction like NS angle & EW
angle for guiding drone to desired location according to geodetic
positions. These sensors are mostly based on Anisotropic Magneto-
Resistive (AMR) permalloy technology. Also, this sensor is the most
common part of geological mapping systems.
Figure 19 Magnetic
Sensor

Featured sensors.
Apart from Common sensors, Autonomous drones are made with many modern sensors as well.
Flow Measurement
Flow measurement sensors are mostly useful for irrigation and
pesticide spraying systems. It helps to monitor flow rate of
spraying systems for planning effective pesticide spraying. It
works on ultrasonic eco system principles.

Figure 20 Flow measurement

LiDAR sensors
Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) sensors utilize light
emission from a laser and receive it at receiver, it also filters the
ground and degree variable separations. The conclusion may
create high-resolution maps and 3D models of natural and
human-made objects. It helps in safe-landing of drones.

Figure 21 LIDAR sensor

Ultrasonic sensors
Ultrasonic sensors are used to calculate distance between
object and drone. It simply works by throwing sound waves
through Air to objects and reflected waves received by the
receiver. Through total traveling time it can calculate
distance to object. Main use of this sensor to prevent
accidents with any object.
Figure 22 Ultrasonic Sensor

Thermal /Infrared sensors

Collection of temperature and radiometric data across large and
difficult areas can be possible by this sensor. Also, by using this
sensor, integrated visual imaginary, heat analysis and
infrastructure intelligence can be achieved which enables thermal
analysis to be scalable and economical for a variety of
applications. Figure 23 Thermal/ Infrared
sensor

GPS sensors
Drone with GPS sensors locate the position which can be
implemented to calculate pre-specified flight and safe landing
locations and also come back to home function. Also, this
sensor is useful for mapping and planning of pesticide spraying
and crop seeding which also needs help from a magnetic
sensor.
Figure 24 GPS Sensor

Humidity sensors & temperature sensors

Humidity sensors are measuring humidity by the resistivity of
non-metallic conductive materials weather temperature
measurement is taken place by thermocouple principle. Normal
sensor value range for temperature in between -30C to 120C and
humidity from 0 to 100 % relatively.

Figure 25 Humidity &

Temperature Sensor
Barometric sensor
The information of Air pressure from Barometric sensors are used to
calculate the altitude of the drone. Barometric sensor checks
continuous Air pressure at local sea/ground level to get its highest
accuracy. This sensor is working on a piezoresistive principle.

Figure 26 Barometric
Sensor
Rain sensors
Instantaneous Rain/Precipitation can be sensed by rain sensors which
triggers immediate flight orders to safe/home position according to
weather conditions. This sensor is working on a principle of total
reflection of light emitted from the sensor trigger.

Figure 27 Rain Sensor

pH sensor
This sensor is very much useful for sampling soils for salinity test. It's
working on electrolyte principles.

Figure 28 PH
Actuator Sensor
In very simple terms, to make something move or operate by device which is
called actuator. It converts the source of energy into physical motion. Autonomous drones have
many actuators which are used for landing, taking a flight, moving 360. In this case study, 3 types
of actuators will be discussed.

Mechanical Elements open

Frames
Frames are base structures of any type of drones and its design is based on mechanical structural
analysis. Popular material for frames is carbon fibre but it's too expensive so for the cost,
alternative material is polymer plastics and for higher strengths aluminium alloys are acceptable.
Common shapes for making drones are as follow:

A. True X frame gives equal stability at every axis. Wide X is commonly likeable due to Wide
area available for component spacing. Hybrid X is most suitable for high speed due to more
stability at the pitch axis. Hybrid x
B. Dead Cat is only useful for creating a wide range of visibility at front space for HD cameras.
dead cad
C. H shape is not favourable due to bulky size but good for carrying more components.
D. HX shapes gives same structure stability as True X and also increase capacity as wide space
availability from H shape.
E. Z shapes decrease turbulence in forward motion.
F. Plus, shape gives Good at breakage and faster controlling actions.
G. Vertical arms shape Construction is complex but decreases drag without sacrificing
durability.
True X frame gives equal stability at every
axis. Wide X is commonly likeable due to
Wide area available for component spacing.
Hybrid X is most suitable for high speed
due to more stability at the pitch axis

Dead Cat is only useful for creating a wide

range of visibility at front space for HD
cameras

H shape is not favourable due to bulky size

but good for carrying more components.
HX shapes gives same structure stability as
True X and also increase capacity as wide
space availability from H shape.

Z shapes decrease turbulence in forward

motion.
 Plus, shape gives Good at breakage and
faster controlling actions.

Vertical arms shape Construction is

complex but decreases drag without
sacrificing durability.

Optimum Designs will Optimize above aspects in generative design methods for optimum design
using CAD applications as per applications. This will reduce unnecessary aspects for drones and
give desired parameters. Folding Designs: These mechanism types of structures of frames are very
popular due to its compact size and rate of higher flexibility.

Figure 29 Frame of drone

4.1.2.1.1 Propeller blades
Propeller blades are motion occurring elements of drones that's why it's design and performance
is most important for every drone and the main parameters for it are drag, lift and thrust forces.
The common materials for propeller blades are Reinforcement plastics, carbon fibers and metal
alloys mostly aluminium. It gains actuating torque from motors and utilizes it to create uplifting
force for drones. Its design is the complex ways and approach where practical examination is the
main key factor to reduce drag and other friction forces coefficients. These designs include
designing of the main four areas of propeller as Blade tip, Trailing edge, Leading edge and blade
hub. The optimum design concept can also be implied here due to variation in properties and
functional behaviours of leading and trailing edge of blade. Drones use opposite directed propeller
blades as per their tip and blade profile design. Nowadays propellers are becoming safer due to
extra attachment of propeller guard for keeping them protected during accidental collapses.
Propeller guards are basically made of the same design and material approaches as frames.

4.1.2.1.2 Gimbal System

Modern Gimbal systems consist of such a system that can provide smooth operation with less than
+/- 0.005° controlling error and speed about 100°/s to 180°/s rotational speed. 2-axis and 3-axis
are mainly two types of gimbal systems according to the number of stabilization axes. Pans (Yaw
movement), Roll (Rolling movement) and Tilt (Pitch Movement) are the three-axis nomenclature
used in gimbal system design. Gimbal has a movement range of 0° to 360° in the pan axis due to
the retractable arm, -220° to 145° in the tilt axis and -90° to 200° in the roll axis. With the modern
systems gimbal’s may be engaged with its own controlling, IMU sensor and power supply module
for creating a much more efficient and fast responsive system in specific applications. Gimbal has
only a rolling pair and spherical pair of joints but for lens adjustment spiral or gear type joints are
used for enhancing the mechanism.
Folding Joints: These are a bunch of joint systems to create folding elements of drones for reducing
occupancy space in storage. This segment is developing very fast due to increasing demand for
compact technology.
Landing gears: It gives more stability in landing sequence and its additional features give charging
of batteries. Landing gears are an optional part of drones which adds efficient features to the drone.

Fluid actuators

4.1.2.2.1 Nozzles and Sprayers assemblies

Nozzle spray utilizes the kinetic energy of the liquid to break it up into droplets. It also maintains
liquid at a certain flow rate and provides hydraulic momentum to the fluid. Spraying characteristics
can be utilized via many parameters such as effective spray width & size, uniformity, droplet
adhesion rate and scattering formations. Main factors for correcting this formation of spray can be
utilized via designing optimized nozzles and spray behaviour. This optimization can be calculated
by feedback channel development and actual time behaviour from its graphs of different
characteristics. The nozzle must optimize the area of spraying and minimize waste of fluid through
drift. Nozzle tips are generally available in brass, stainless steel, and plastics. Plastic material is
commonly used in drones because of its less weight and highly resistant to corrosion. Nowadays,
nozzles manufactured by 3D printers are more efficient as compared to conventional nozzles.
Adjustable type of nozzle provides a wide-angle hollow cone to straight solid stream that gives a
cone type of spray pattern. Adjustable nozzle provides a very wide range of droplets with nozzle
angle. On the other side, the Double swirl spray type of nozzle is used for spraying in two separate
directions. It is very suitable for high volume applications. The spray angle, discharge rate and
spray pattern are controlled by the shape and size of the nozzle tip. Some advance modifications
can guide nozzle and spray systems to reduce loss due to airflows.

4.1.2.2.2 Pumps
Pump is essential components in agricultural pesticide spraying for that plastic pumps are most
popular. This type of pump uses a brushless dc motor for spraying application so that inverter is
not required in this system. The size and weight of the pump should be lower. That's why this type
of DC pump is the best option to use in a drone. The speed is adjustable, corrosion resistance and
run dry capacity are benefits of this type of pump. It can easily manage the speed with a controller
with a very little or negligible amount of noise. The main advantage of this pump is its low voltage
power supply; however, quick discharge is not sacrificed.

Electrical Actuators

4.1.2.3.1 BLDC motors

BLDC motors are vastly used in autonomous systems due to their non-wear, high accuracy and
high efficiency. Every propeller has its own Motor drive system, and these are directly controlled
by ESC drive controllers for individual speed controlling purposes. This motor has a specific
advantage over normal DC motors is that it can change speed according to applied voltage with a
higher responsive manner due to low inertia of the rotating shaft. Normally, these BLDC motors
are costly due to rotary magnets and high amount of copper material used for stationary windings.
The KV rating (Velocity constant) of the motor represents the speed value from every applied
voltage. For the same Higher the KV means lower the resistance, Higher current draw and Lower
efficiency weather opposite occurs for lower KV. The speed handling is directly dependent on the
stator design if taller stator used then higher speed can be achieved but for wider stator provides
lower speeds but at the same time it can give good control in lower speed weather in taller stator
low speed controlling actions are bad. The motor should have standard charts for perfect parameter
selection required type according to speed, size and respective frame size.

4.1.2.3.2 Solenoids Valves

Solenoids are commonly used as a fluid control valve in agricultural drones for controlling fluid
flow from tank to nozzles. It is a very common device used as an electronically controlled electro-
mechanical component. This device only conducts switching action which allows fluid to enter
into the spraying system from a storage device.

4.1.2.3.3 Switches
For On-Off system mechanical action switches are provide in drones but as a developing trend
electrical systems are becoming more responsive in actions so electronically controlled switching
systems are used as a fast alternative of switching off system are used in autonomous drone’s
weather switching on actions can also occur via remote action, but it depends on application and
user preferences.

4.1.2.3.4 Relays
Relays are the essential part in drones because major automatic switch on-off action in electrical
power supply systems in drones rely on highly responsive relays. Also, Distribution of power and
multi-pumping in the spraying system is also dependent on relays.

Microcontroller’s systems

Figure 30 Microcontroller's system

Above schematics shows how a micro-control system is important in every autonomous drone
system. As shown in schematics microcontroller has basic functions like battery management,
power management, speed controlling system, flight control and gimbal controlling. As discussed
earlier in sensor sections, different sensors give output in the form of analogy signals which are
later converted in the form of digital and then it will be processed according to its purpose. Here,
Controllers play a major role to standardize the value and transfer this value to computing
parameters then use it as an input of actuators. All decision actions can only be calculated by
controllers and the communication of all other parts are also integrated with it. Sometimes, it has
been seen that some controller chips have inbuilt wireless communication systems like Wi-Fi or
Bluetooth. As shown from ESC’s schematics it receives input signal from the flight controller and
after processing the signal it gives output which will input voltage of the BLDC motor. Flight
control unit takes input from the remote controller and processes it with output of sensor data as
an environmental parameter. Gimbal control unit is sometimes optional due to static camara
requirements like spraying actions, but its controlling is required when analysing and mapping
applications are introduced. As per schematics every controller consists of some basic elements
like EEPROM, MCU, Protection circuits, Controlling and amplifying circuits. Other than this relay
and MOSFETS as electrical actuators and a bunch of required sensor inputs are available in
controllers of drones. Common protocols for microcontroller boards are SPI & I2C. Interrupts for
Microcontroller boards are ICP, Timer and UART.

Popular microcontrollers

4.1.3.1.1 Flight Controller Systems

Flight controller system takes output signals from gyroscopic, e-compass, Accelerometer,
proximity and pressure sensors. Then it processes through a Logic unit/processor chip and then it
gives desired output as an input signal for ESC’s. It is also integrated with the battery management
system and power management system. Flight controllers like DJI’s N3 have some smart and
special features that help in fault detection with intelligent installation inspection and precise
tolerant control. In the market other controller boards have other features too like high range
connection, advanced software development kits and advanced ground station support. For AI and
ML implications storing previous flight data and using it as a correction, SD card slots are available
in many drones.

Figure 31 Flight controller board

4.1.3.1.2 Camera Trigger Controller Systems

Camera trigger controller is the essential component for capturing essential pictures at a time of
instances. The EPROM of the controller board saves a bunch of pictures and renders them
according to a programming algorithm. Communication between controller and camera can be
done via UART interrupt. This connection helps in starting and ending camara clicks. This helps
in situations when errors are seen in applications like crop monitoring. The controlling action is
signalled via pulses to relays. This camera trigger control is also included with some guidance
systems that helps controllers to take actions on gimbal mechanisms.
 Programming systems
Mathematical model of parameter for programming
In the mathematical language roll, yaw and pitch angles are known as Euler angles. Euler angles
are directly related to quaternions. Euler angles and quaternions are helping to understand spatial
rotation of the drone in three dimensions. We can measure quaternions by rotational angle with
different axis.
𝑞 = 𝑞 = cos (rotational angle / 2)
𝑞 = 𝑞 = sin (rotational angle/2) * cos (angle between axis of rotation and x axis)
𝑞 = 𝑞 = sin (rotational angle/2) * cos (angle between axis of rotation and y axis)

𝑞 = 𝑞 = sin (rotational angle/2 * cos (angle between axis of rotation and z axis)
From the quaternions, we can calculate raw, pitch, and yaw angles.
( )
Roll ∅ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛

Pitch 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2( 𝑞 𝑞 + 𝑞 𝑞 )
( )
Yaw 𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
 Flow chart of different Controlling actions

4.1.4.2.1 Camera trigger

4.1.4.2.2 Camera trigger Unit Interrupt
4.1.4.2.3 Direction Finder Unit
4.1.4.2.4 Direction finder unit interrupt
4.1.4.2.5 Altitude meter
4.1.4.2.6 Object Detection
4.1.4.2.7 Survay

Programming Languages Used

Programming languages have an important role in creating software, web development and mobile
applications for drones.
Low level programming: This programming is basically used for controlling the drone’s internal
part. For example, the drone programming deals with variables such as how much current is to be
provided to the propellers, through an analysis of the data from the IMU drone (Inertial
Measurement Unit). In this, c/c++ programming languages are used which can
program Arduino/Raspberry Pi.
High level programming: High level programming, Python and Java is used mostly for Drone’s
API. it works together with drone’s internal part to make a response. Like it will communicate
with GPS and make sure that drone will move to desired location, but it will not give any command
to motor or ESC which is done in Low level programming (c/c++)
User Interface: In user face, HTML, JavaScript, CSS, Kotlin, GUI with C++ etc are used to make
web applications where operators can monitor Data coming from drones and also can give
commands to drones.
Database: SQL, Big DATA, MongoDB, SQLite, PHP are used in Database.

Application Development Platforms

Applications are an essential component for digitalization of any autonomous system. Drones are
dependent on embedded systems which have monitoring and controlling purposes which can be
done via computer or mobile applications. This helps users to interact with devices remotely. These
Applications are developed on different platforms like Android studio, LabVIEW GUI’s, Python
frameworks etc. The graphical renders are critical to represent in applications so it has its own
developed libraries and framework which are likely to be introduced directly in program flows.
Web apps are nowadays too popular due to its mobile and less processing required for drone
controllers.

Data Processing System

Data is important in every autonomous system due to AI and ML systems. Managing data is
important for decision making and error corrections. Data acquisition is achieved from sensors and
cameras then it is transferred to storage like SD card, Cloud and EPROM. Then this data is called
for accessing and analysing it for different operations. Buffering is a programming option which
is useful for storing data for local time of instance. Every controller consists of EPROM which is
used to store and process the data. GUI platforms are useful for representing data in multiple
devices as in user friendly format. CSV, Excel, Photo, video, graphs and programming instructions
are different formats for data processing. As a cloud storage one must have to use appropriate
database platforms like SQL, MongoDB and Big DATA.

4.2 DIGITAL ENHANCEMENT FOR DRONES

mobile & web development
Drones have a wide range of applications in agriculture, but the main challenge is to make it more
user friendly. Mobile and Web integration makes it easy to use drones in agricultural fields. In
surveying, monitoring, and planning via graphical and block type user interfaces provide easy
understanding and operating. This application will vary from constructing agricultural options that
can assist farmers measure their plants and screen-cast vegetation, developing simple-to-use
interfaces so operators can centre their attention on the mission at hand, to creating an application
that can assist rescue efforts in emergency situations, and even assist firefighters manage wildfires.
Some applications like surveying require storage and processing of graphical data which may need
to be accessed soon which can be possible via digital medium. Mobile and web applications are
designed based on different programming languages like C++, JAVA, HTML, Python etc.
 use of cloud system.
Most small or medium scale drones have limited range of wireless communication between the
drone and the user. Also, connection is accessed to a single or minimum number of controllers or
users because of limited communication channels on the drone. drones are controlled using cloud
systems is a new and very useful technique.
nowadays, in drone technology, cloud-based drone control platform is being developed, where is
used for many purposes such as in, data processing, data analysis & storing also autonomous
drone’s actions and its response. There are many cloud-based platform provider, “sky-drone”,
“drone deploy” and “fly base”.
Main functionalities of cloud system:
 Streaming data process.
 Data analytic and machine learning.
 Drone control module.
 interfaces to communicate with drone.

Use of AI & ML systems

With the use of AI, drone technology has come a long way in a short period of time. A lot of
computer vision technology is being deployed for safety and autonomous navigation.in recent
time, VPU- virtual processing unit is dedicated to silicon pieces which is able to make visual and
artificial intelligence processing in microcontroller. Using AI, many features are implemented in
drones such as collision avoidance, being able to recognize users, being able to recognise where
people are, gestures, safe landing on hands and many more.
In reinforcement learning, using algorithms such as neural networks where drones are flying
autonomously and coming where they started to fly, balancing itself with any lifted objects.
It is mostly used in object recognizing tasks which can be connected to rescue, recovery missions.
Still drones must be trained with a high amount of data set which prevents collisions while having
high speed. Applying the AI & ML system to drones, would make it fly safe and to perform tasks
autonomously.

4.3 REMOTE CONTROLLING DEVICE.

remote controller
Remote controller means a drone is being controlled by remote control through any
communication channel. Remote controlled drones will fly using wireless signals which are sent
from remote control. These signals are received by the receiver in the drone and sent to the flight
controller. flight controller adjust the motor to keep the drone moving ahead according to
command.
Pilot operates the drone through a remote control using 2 joysticks: one joystick control drone’s
pitch and roll and the 2nd to control the throttle and yaw of the drone. Usually drones come with
their own remote control also there are many separate remote controllers available such as DJI’s
separate smart control, marq drone remote.

Figure 32 Flowchart - Remote control

Above figure is a block diagram of the remote controller component. As shown, a non-isolated
DC/DC power supply is connected. Input from Joystick or command will pass through an amplifier
the MCU/MPU. MCU/MPU sends this command to RF transceivers which sends RF signals to the
drone wirelessly. Also, it has a screen interface and local Display interface which can connect to
smartphone and LCD display respectively.

Communication System
drones are often utilized for crucial tasks such as rescue monitoring and delivery in various types
of application also in agriculture. In this type of task, drones perform multiple operations together
where drone communication plays an important role. Therefore, it is important to understand
different drone communication systems.
In this case study three communication will be discussed:
1)radio signal 2) satellite 3) internet

Radio signal communication

An RF sensor operates with the radio signal frequency band by passively listening to drones
communicating with their controllers. The 2.4 GHz and 5.8 GHz bands are the most prevalent
bands of communication. These are the bands that have many drones available on the market.
Other bands such as the 1.2 GHz, 1.3 GHz and a few more are utilized to communicate between
the drone and its controller. In these bandwidths, an RF sensor monitors passively for signals.
When a communication protocol is detected, it refers to a communication protocol database to
identify the signals emitted by a drone and its controller.

4.3.2.1.1 RF communication Protocol

A RF Communication Protocol is a series of data packets which are sent out to the operator of a
drone. The protocol sends information regarding where an operator wants the drone to fly (move
right, move left), etc. There are also several sets of information encoded and transmitted using
the protocol. Videos from the camera, GPS aircraft location, altitude information, speed data and
generally all the flight datasets are broadcast over the RF band. The data is transmitted back and
forth.

satellite communication
Satellite communication (SATCOM) is a data transmission network which uses satellites in orbits
various locations from earth. Some of SATCOM's core features are extreme mobility, reliability
and high-speed data jam-resistant communication. These qualities might help drones for mission-
critical activities using video communication or image sensors in agricultural fields. The two most
prominent SATCOM technologies utilized for Drones to this day are low earth (LEO) satellites
with 2,000 km in height, while the satellites with geosynchronous earth orbital (GEO) with 35,000
km in height. Having an overview of Drones applications enhances their functionality and supports
the implementation of these systems across various drone applications.
K-band and Ku-band are typically used via satellite connections. The current tendency is to use
the Ku Band for satellites with high capacity (HTS). SATCOM systems in the ku band employ a
downlink of 11.7 to 12.7 GHz and an uplink of 14 to 14.5 GHz. These satellites can deliver over
100 Gbps of transmission in the coming years.

Figure 33 Satellite Communication

 internet communication.
Remote accessing drones from home is a challenging part for mobile operating. This includes
planning of drone flight that can be done via increasing communication range. The data transfer
rate and instant communication with different mobile and web applications can be accessed via
the internet medium. The Internet is the ultimate option for exchanging different forms of data
from any location and this can be done via access to GPRS, or LTE enabled controller boards.
Apart from other options this communication medium helps for creating multimedia and analytical
solutions with single GUI options. All the necessary activities from integration of other devices to
graphical and analytical data acquisition.

Figure 34 Internet communication

Gesture controlled system.

In the traditional system the drone is controlled using joysticks or remote controllers, but the drone
is controlled by movement of hand in a gesture-controlled system. The specially designed gloves
are used to control the drone. A glove includes one controller on it which analyses real time the
yaw, pitch and row of hand and translates to drone according to its movement. The control of
drones is very limited as compared to conventional controlled systems because of the range of
electromagnetic radiation. There are different input methods used to determine movement of a
person's hand in this system. The computer vision via on board camera is commonly used input
methods in gesture-controlled systems for drones. The real time hand movements are detected by
an on-board camera. After that advanced software analyses meaningful gestures from the gesture
library and every gesture act as input command. When the computer identifies a gesture, it executes
the command which is related to the gesture. After recognition of the gesture, the command is
converted by command mapper, and it transfers that command to action planner which is
responsible for movement of drone.
 Figure 35 Flowchart - Gesture control

Automatic flight control

The drone is controlled by an auto pilot system without the operator handling the controls directly.
Such a technology has been created for some autonomous tasks, such as automated flight operation
in certain essential modes (hovering, maximum speed flying, etc), automated manoeuvres (take-
off, landing etc), etc., may be completed effectively. All these tasks are possible via pre-
programmed path planning and Flight controller. In order to create desired control output, the
automatic flight controller computes errors. The sensor in the drone reads the current drone speed,
position, altitude and then gives a signal to the drone controller which is a lower-level actuator
control to adjust the drone flight control to ensure horizontal, perpendicular and linear stability,
while maintaining an aircraft attitude, height and speed. Error correction is a vital feature of the
autopilot system. If the aircraft does not follow the intended conditions, there is an error. The
autopilot system must be in a position to remedy the problem and to automatically restore the
aircraft in the required flying tasks.

4.4 SAFETY SYSTEMS

Automatic safe landing/Emergency landing
There are many factors, drones can do big damage to someone or itself as well. Using AI/ML,
Drones are enabled to land automatically in safe areas. Algorithm helps to detect any object and
surroundings avoided to land the drone itself. This feature is useful to prevent accidents in urban
areas, aircraft traffic if any failure occurs.

Damage in flight propulsion

Sometimes the propulsion mechanism of a drone fails because of some errors but autonomous
drones are able to sustain in this type of situation as compared to traditional drones. For example,
an autonomous quadcopter can become a tri-copter or a duo-copter after introducing a failsafe
algorithm in the flight control system. Rotors can incr ease or decrease their speed by means of a
failsafe algorithm. A failsafe algorithm system is the best option in failure of a propulsion system
as compared to traditional methods like parachute.

Communication Failure
As described above in 4.3, Drone communicates with remote control through signal. Drone can
lose this signal during a flight with any reason such as flown beyond its range or remote
malfunction. At this moment the drone will return to home automatically using GPS sensors.
Memory in the drone will store GPS where it took off and through that memory it will come at
that location or near to it to regain the signal.

Whether protection
During flight, a Rain sensor can sense rain and also in an automatic flight drone will detect the
high wind, because of losing a predefined path. while in this situation the drone will land
automatically in a safe area avoiding people, and hard objects and also it sends signal to remote
control.

Onboard Malfunction
Onboard malfunction is one kind of abnormal situation where there is no possibility to continue
flight at certain errors occurring in the drone. Shortage of fuel or battery, fire on drones and loss
of altitude are examples of onboard malfunction. This onboard malfunctioning can be reduced via
protection equipment and predefined error solution in on board system. This will protect the drone
from accident due to its own system failure.
5 IMPACT OF AGRICULTURAL AUTONOMOUS DRONES

5.1 BUSINESS OPPORTUNITIES & ECONOMIC IMPACT

Statistics of Current Businesses

Figure 36 Global agriculture & drone market revenue

Furthermore, due to increased population and a growing imbalance between supply and demand
for food, demand for agricultural robots and drones is predicted to skyrocket. Scientists have
responded by developing new technologies and methods for automating agricultural tasks such as
harvesting, ploughing, fruit picking, sowing seeds, monitoring, and milking.Established
agricultural machinery manufacturers are purchasing technology-based start-ups in order to
develop more advanced robots that can do the work of humans and fill the manpower shortage on
farms.
The agriculture industry is attracting investment firms because of its strong growth and excellent
return on investment. The agriculture industry is attracting venture capital firms because of its
robust growth and excellent return on investment. Many start-ups are creating agriculture robots,
such as weeding for removing trash plants and fruit picking harvesters, according to them.
EcoRobotix, for example, a weeding robot manufacturer that was launched in 2011, raised USD
11.0 million in series B funding. Ecorobotix had closed an agreement with BASF, Capagro
Venture Capital, and a private funding partner.

Market scope

The market scope in Asia pacific can be attributed to the rapidly increasing growth population,
availability of arable farms, and government support through subsides.
 The growth this market can be attributed to increase in venture funding for the development
of agriculture drones and availability of software solutions to aid field survey and data
analysis.
 The agriculture drones’ market is projected to register shipment of 439,728 units by 2025.it
is expected to grow at CAGR 36% during the forecast period.
 Exemptions in operations by the US FAA for use of agriculture drones and high adoption
of aerial data collection tools in agriculture would create huge growth opportunities for the
agriculture drones’ market.
 The market growth in North America is driven by the rising investment for the development
of agriculture drones in the region, as well as exemption in operations from the FAA under
the part 107 rule for operating agriculture drones.

Entrepreneurship and Start-Ups

Aerobics specializes in providing farm monitoring and pest management

solutions. Its offerings include AI-enabled pest detection, disease
detection, drone imagery services, orchard and yield management.
Funding: $27 Million
Gamaya uses HSI (Hyperspectral Imaging) technology to collect remote
sensing and high-resolution imagery using small, unmanned aircraft
systems. Crop illnesses, invasive species proliferation, and
environmental pressures can all be diagnosed using this imaging.
IMD Start-up Competition Winner.
Funding: $16 Million
Tartensense UAV-based technology company that specialises in image analytics
based on ultra-high-resolution aerial and Near Infrared (NIR) images
captured by UAVs. In the agriculture industry, NIR sensors allow
drones to differentiate between stressed and healthy plants by
analysing airborne photos. The company intends to create
prescriptive reports for irrigation, fertiliser, and pesticide
 recommendations, as well as recommendations for optimal road and
bridge construction and land clearing for new plantations.
Funding: $2 Million
GreenSight Agronomic created a drone-assisted water and chemical management system to
save money on water, pesticides, and fertiliser. GreenSight's self-
driving drone, custom imaging sensor, and cloud-based analytical
tools provide actionable plant health alerts. Golf courses and
agribusiness customers will benefit from this product.
Funding: $ 3 Million

5.2 SOCIAL & HEALTH IMPACT

Social

Safety
Drones are typically thought to be safer for users than manned aircraft because there is no risk of
injury to the pilot in the event of a collision. They may also be safer for people on the ground in
the event of a crash because they are often smaller and so inflict less damage when they crash than
bigger piloted aircraft. Many drones have safety features that allow them to quit a pre-planned
mission and return to a predetermined landing place if they encounter problems. Drones, on the
other hand, are more sensitive to crashes than piloted aircraft because they are unmanned, and
accidents could result in injuries to persons on the ground. In the event of an engine failure, multi
- rotor devices are potentially more harmful than fixed wing devices because they tend to fall
vertically, whereas fixed wing devices can glide to the ground. Drones may have an indirect effect
on local people's safety if their use lessens the possibility of criminals or military assets operating
in the region in order to escape notice.

Privacy
The data must also be protected from cyberattacks and privacy must be maintained throughout the
operation or addressing issues of privacy issues, well-laid regulations appear viable alternatives
but, other It's also necessary to look into alternatives. While the UAV is performing its necessary
duty, a variety of cyberattacks are available. Eavesdropping, denial of service and information
theft are examples of Wireless attacks. Injections, for example, might have a significant impact on
the entire operation. There are a few things to consider when it comes to privacy. problems, such
as illegally photographing areas surrounding farmed property, spy-related worries, and so forth.
As a result, hard efforts are required to solve these issues. Blockchain-based solutions appear to
be a feasible alternative in order to resolve the security issue.

Psychological wellbeing.
It has been suggested that using new technology can enable local groups by allowing them to
collect their own data, specific rules, and counter claims made by those who may seek to deceive
them (Lewis and Ninotchka 2012). If drones were used for community-based forest monitoring to
deliver carbon measurements and other important data, they could give these benefits to local
people (Penque-Galvez et al. 2014). Drones in the hands of locals could be socially liberating in
this way.
Drones, on the other hand, have the potential to cause significant fear, misunderstanding, and anger
among the general public. In some circumstances, this may occur as an unexpected result of the
introduction of drones. Drones may inspire conspiracy theories, suspicions, and fantasies if people
on the ground do not understand or refuse to believe why they are being introduced, especially
when they are employed in rural areas of developing countries where people have had little direct
exposure to technological gadgets. In Tanzania, conservation drones were tested in an area where
locals believe in a supernatural creature known as Popo Biwa (Bat Wing in English), which hovers
at night, paralyses its victim, then swoops down and rapes them. There were significant fears
regarding this creature as late as 2007. (K. Steiner, pers. comm.).It's simple to see how the
deployment of drones in this situation could set off a new round of anxiety. Similar issues have
plagued the polio vaccination effort, which some suspect is part of a plan to sterilise Nigerian
Muslims (Otieno 2013). People may recognise a drone for what it is, but they may have
misconceptions about its intent, assuming it was dispatched by a private corporation, the military,
a terrorist group, or anybody else. Such perceptions have the potential to exacerbate or create new
conflicts.

Wider understanding of conservation problems

By providing access to up-to-date high-resolution photographs and other data, drones could help
connect the general public to concerns affecting conservation hotspots. However, there appears to
be a risk that using drones will reinforce simplistic and unproductive conservation narratives that
are widespread among the general public in cities and countries where they are not used. For
example, a recent Guardian column headed ‘In Praise of Drones' elicited the following response:
“Drones should be dispatched to Africa to survey and preserve the Rhinos.” They should also have
hellfire missiles to deal with poachers quickly.” (Photo courtesy of Arnaud Amalric).This response
demonstrates the strong relationship that many people have between drones and military
applications—an association that some conservation drone users deliberately foster (e.g. IAPF
2014).It is well known that conservation issues such as illegal wildlife trade are extremely
complicated, and the use of drones to combat illegal hunting may serve to promote simplified
narratives of "good" conservationists and "evil" poachers, thereby undermining public
understanding of this complex issue (Hulme et al. 2014).

Health impact

Checking crop health and spotting bacterial or fungal problems on trees is critical. UAV equipment
can detect which plants reflect various quantities of green light and near-infrared light by scanning
a crop with both visible and near-infrared light. This data can be used to create multispectral images
that track plant changes and indicate their health. A quick response may be able to save a whole
crop. Furthermore, once a disease has been identified, farmers can more accurately apply and
monitor treatments. These two options improve a plant's ability to resist disease. In the case of crop
failure, the farmer will be able to document losses more easily for insurance claims.

5.3 LIMITATION & DRAWBACKS OF AUTONOMOUS DRONES IN AGRICULTURAL

Limitations

There are various limitations identified in this study are:

In respect to the commercial usage of drones in the agriculture industry, the majority of the
published research is mostly hypothetical. There are very few cases of drones being used in
farming in various parts of the world. COST: - Because of the technological nature of UAVs, the
technology is regarded as costly. The costs of deployment, integration, and training can add up
quickly. Similarly, used a project management approach to the deployment of UAV-related
initiatives, emphasizing cost as a critical factor to consider. It was also mentioned that adequate
estimations must be made using a variety of techniques prior to beginning any work of this nature.
Licensing and regulation issues: When it comes to UAVs, there is still a lot of Gray area.
Regulations are either non-existent or a random adaptation of aviation laws that don't quite suit
UAVs. As a result, legislation to control the new capabilities and application areas of UAVs is
required. Countries like the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, and Spain are paving
the way in this direction by creating standards for the use of unmanned aerial vehicles and the
territories over which they can fly. Other countries around the world, on the other hand, are still
lagging behind. Commercial Adoption: It may be difficult to justify the use of unmanned aerial
vehicles in agriculture from a business standpoint. Though there may be cost benefits in the long
term, there are counter arguments surrounding the actual acquisition cost of the UAVs, insurance
/ replacement of crashed UAVs, procurement of high-resolution cameras for imaging, as well as
the associated software solutions and other running costs. When all of these factors are considered,
it becomes difficult to persuade farmers and agricultural business owners to invest.

Technical challenges
System integration, such as integrating middleware services with the UAV, high-performance
systems for data analytics, Net-centric infrastructure, which allows any member of a team to
control the UAV and retrieve imagery and sensor data in real time, and machine learning
intelligence to identify and retrieve important ideas from a large pool of data are all examples.
Ethics and privacy: Some people believe that using UAVs for surveillance and monitoring would
be a violation of their privacy. A major difficulty is the lack of defined operational and
technological processes required for the safe operation of UAVs. Because of the vulnerabilities in
the command and control of UAV operations, there could be GPS jamming and hacking. Limited
payload size: Most UAVs are unable to carry a large load at once due to their small size. As a
result, their uses are limited to simple aerial photography and observation. Significantly though
there are large-scale UAVs such as, their flight time is restricted, and it is even shorter when they
are fully loaded. This constraint is particularly evident in the use of UAVs for crop dusting (the
delivery of pest/weed control chemicals or fertilizers to crops). This problem may have a solution
in the form of large gas-powered monocolpates. UAV autonomy: UAVs have a wide range of
applications in agriculture. However, the majority of them are still operated by people. This
restricts their use to particular periods of the day when visibility is clear. Advances in
computational intelligence, particularly in the areas of navigation, obstacle avoidance, autonomous
sensing, and actuation (doing pre-programmed tasks), could help UAVs gain traction in animal
agriculture.

Drawbacks

 Flights over regions where flights are restricted or improper.

 Drone collisions with people. Risk of injury, buildings, structures, monuments
 The majority of drones have a shorter flying time and cover a smaller region.
 Drones with a long flying time and range are more expensive. More functionality drones
are also pricier.
 To operate agriculture drones, you'll need some fundamental knowledge and skills.
 It uses the same airspace as commercial planes, which could cause problems for manned
planes if it crosses their flight route.
 Extreme weather makes flying them difficult.
6 CONCLUSION & FUTURE SCOPE
This study has aimed to describe how one can choose the exact modern way to design an
autonomous drone system and use it in the agricultural field. The aim is fulfilled in this study, and
it shows how modern approaches applied to enhance the system. This study has shown that sensors
like IMU and LiDAR had made tremendous scope in various applications. In the agriculture field,
drones are very useful for spraying and planning applications. The kinematic and dynamic
approach showed that it must have to fulfil the criteria based on programming application.
Designing the error less system one must have to apply the concepts like quaternions and program
modelling and flow chart. It also showed that one must have to use techniques like optimum design
for creating balanced applications. The fundamental approaches have simplified the transformation
of modern approach from its based form of concept. Applications in the agricultural field also
show that extra features like monitoring and deep analysing also helps in growth of agricultural
products. The situation handling and safety system also helps for making sustainable development
as a product. Also, some features like multispectral visualisation and error finding have a specific
era that finds solutions to unreliable problems that can’t be solved by naked eye or manual drones.
Solution to a high range of processes and storing large amounts of cloud computing has approached
drastically favour in development. Various situations and components discussed in the study
showed that there must be possible solutions in all kinds of agricultural related processes.
Limitations are not possibly barrier for becoming a solution path to every problem which can show
some future scope that are discussed below.

As discussed in the drawbacks further technical development needed for improving drone
performance and some of the limitations could be broken by exploring such amazing options for
other technical approaches. Nuclear propulsion and ion propulsion systems will be futuristic
options for extreme power sources for drones for better flight time and higher thrust powers. The
obstacle detection technology can be more enhanced by neural networks and more revolutionized
sensors which can capture faster and higher rates of responses. More systematic algorithms can
reduce unnecessary power consumptions and save time to revolutionize more drastic ways to
compute decisions for drone flight. In near time it's possible to see purely cloud based processed
drones for ultimate operations with 5G speed via satellite chain of communication which can
enlarge the range of internet connectivity on any location for any geodetic locations. Agricultural
systems has more potential to reduce man work and automate processes like safe keeping of crops
from pesticides and wild animals via different new approaches like virtual sound or image
generator, trimming unnecessary grass and branches via blade mobile blade cutters, automatic
irrigation operation via crop selection databases from seasonal perspective, large greenhouse
management systems, under layer soil seeding, natural farming with automations etc. are great
outcomes which can come with autonomous drones but this concepts needs to be polish more.
ABBRIVATION

KCL Kirchhoff's Current Law

KVL Kirchhoff's Voltage Law
RPM Revolution Per Minutes
EMF Electromotive force
DC Direct Current
AI Artificial Intelligence
IMU Inertial Measurement Unit
UAVs Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
CAA Citizenship Amendment Act
WSNs Wireless Sensor Networks
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
NDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
GPS Global Positioning System
GLONAS Global Navigation Satellite System
ESC Electronic Speed Controller
NDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
CMOS Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor
GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System
AMR Anisotropic Magneto-Resistive
LIDAR Light Detection and Ranging
CAD Computer-aided design
EEPROM Electronically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)

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