BULL INFERTILITY 0749-0720/97 $0.00 + .

20

COMMON CAUSES OF
INFERTILITY IN THE BULL
Steven D. Van Camp, DVM

A bull's fertility can be altered by conditions that affect his desire

or ability to copulate (impotentia coeundi) and those conditions that
affect his ability to fertilize ova (impotentia generandi). In some cases
these factors may actually cause both impotentia coeundi and generandi.
I find this categorization, as outlined by S. J. Roberts,2° convenient
when considering the nature of a bull's reproductive failure. This article
concentrates on the major causes of infertility in bulls. Detailed discus-
sions of the less frequent causes of infertility as listed (see box) can be
obtained from Dr. K. McEntee's text. IS I have relied heavily on informa-
tion in those works in the preparation of this article.

NONREPRODUCTIVE CONDITIONS AFFECTING

FERTILITY

General body condition can affect fertility. Obese animals may show
decreased libido, greater intolerance to heat, and increased incidence of
musculoskeletal disease. Additionally, overconditioned bulls may have
accumulations of scrotal fat which interfere with testicular thermoregula-
tion and lead to defective spermatogenesis. Young bulls on high-energy
rations at performance test stations often have poor semen quality at the
end of the test. These bulls often lose 1 or more centimeters of scrotal
circumference after completion of the test and reinstitution of a more
normal diet. Normal semen production usually resumes after the scrotal
fat is lost.

From the Department of Food Animal and Equine Medicine, College of Veterinary Medi-
cine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina

VETERINARY CLINICS OF NORTH AMERICA: FOOD ANIMAL PRACTICE

VOLUME 13 • NUMBER 2 • JULY 1997 203

204 VANCAMP

Supplemental Problems of the Bull's Reproductive Organs as

Reviewed by McEntee 15
Epididymal Problems
Segmental aplasia
Melanosis
Ectopic adrenocortical tissue
Appendix epididymis
Cysts
Sperm granulomas
Nonfusion with efferent ductules
Chlorinated naphthalene-induced squamous metaplasia
Osseous and cartilaginous metaplasia
Epithelial hyperplasia
Estrogen-induced adenomyosis
Testicular Problems
Efferent ductule aplasia
Testicular ectopia
Horizontal testes
Cryptorchidism
Seminomas
Sertoli cell tumors
Teratomas
Interstitial cell tumors
Malignant secondary lymphoma
Scrotal Problems
Inguinal hernia
Scrotal dermatitis
Frostbite
Varicose veins
Spermatic cord varicocele
Spermatic Cord Problems
Mesothelioma, primary or secondary
Bulbourethral Gland Problems
Unilateral aplasia
Hypoplasia
Melanosis
Cysts
Duct dilations
Adenitis
Vesicular Gland Problems
Segmental aplasia
Hypoplasia
Accessory glands
Acini cysts
Concretions
 COMMON CAUSES OF INFERTILITY IN THE BULL 205

Supplemental Problems of the Bull's Reproductive Organs as

Reviewed by McEntee15 Continued
Penile Problems
Hypospadia
Diphallus
Supernumerary ectopic penis
Detached urethral process
Short penis
Retractor penis muscle aplasia
Short retractor penis muscle
Retractor penis muscle degeneration
Corpus cavernosum-venous shunts
Strangulation infarction
Corpus cavernosum canal occlusion
Paralysis
Prolapse
Ulceration
Calculi
Sigmoid flexure adhesions
Preputial Problems
Retractor prepuce muscle aplasia
Epidermoid cysts
Miscellaneous Problems
Cystic uterus masculinus

Severe weight loss associated with a low plane of nutrition can lead
to testicular atrophy and a reduction in libido in adult bulls. Addition-
ally, delayed puberty and reduced sperm cell production can occur in
bulls that are undernourished during the growth period.
The condition of the bull's mouth and eyes can affect fertility.
Alignment of the maxilla and mandible and the condition of the teeth
directly affect the bull's ability to maintain his body condition. Lesions
of the eyes can lead to the bull being prone to injury, reduce his ability
to detect estral females on range, and add to his overall stress, which
may cause deterioration of semen quality.
Poor conformation of the musculoskeletal system and abnormalities
of the feet, legs, and back can detract from a bull's ability or desire to
copulate (Figs. 1 through 3). Sickle hocked, post-legged, cow-hocked, or
bow-legged conformations lead to pain and degenerative joint disease.
Foot-rot, interdigital fibroma, laminitis, or overgrown or abnormal claw
shape may limit a bull's interest in following cows or limit his mounting
efforts, especially when the abnormalities affect the rear feet. 17 Double
muscling (myofiber hyperplasia) can cause post-leggedness and joint
disease (Fig. 4). Coxitis, gonitis, tarsitis, arthritis of the joints of the claw,
anterior cruciate ligament tears, and dislocated hips limit bulls' ability
to mount. Back problems usually affect older bulls. Vertebral body
Text continued on page 210
206 VAN CAMP

Figure 1. Cork-screw (scissor) toe in all four feet of a Charolais bull.

 COMMON CAUSES OF INFERTILITY IN THE BULL 207

Figure 2. Post-Ieggedness in the same bull as Figure 1.

208 VAN CAMP

Figure 3. Interdigital fibroma in the right rear foot.

 COMMON CAUSES OF INFERTILITY IN THE BULL 209

Figure 4. Myofiber hyperplasia (double muscling).

210 VANCAMP

osteophytes are common in bulls over 6 years of age. They probably

have little effect on libido until they result in ankylosis and spondylosis
of the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae. Spondylarthrosis of the lumbosa-
cral joint causes abnormal mounting and short extension and ventral
direction of the penis. Spondylosis of the intervertebral spaces and discs
results in back stiffness, goose stepping, and reduced mobility.2o

PROBLEMS OF THE EXTERNAL GENITALIA

Scrotal Problems
In temperate weather, the normal bull scrotum should hang freely
with the testicles resting ventrally. It should be bilaterally symmetrical
with a convex contour in the bottom two thirds of its length. The
attachment of the scrotum to the abdomen should form a definite neck
over the spermatic cords. The bottom of each scrotal sack should be
round and smooth without evidence of either cleavage between the
testes or protrusion of the tails of the epididimides. Elongated testes as
occur with some Bos indicus bulls may cause the scrotum to be elongated
and to have a partial cleavage between the epididymal tails.
Alteration in normal scrotal conformation may indicate a pathologic
condition. A unilaterally enlarged scrotal sac with an expanded neck on
that side and the testicle forced to the bottom is indicative of an inguinal
hernia (Fig. 5). Similar enlargement in which the testis is freely moveable
is seen with fluid within the scrotum as occurs with hydrocele (Fig. 6).
Severe swelling, heat, and pain of the scrotum over one or both of
the testes may indicate orchitis, periorchitis, or epididymitis. Distinct
distortion of the scrotal silhouette over the head or tail of the epididymis
may indicate epididymitis (Fig. 7). Swelling of the neck of the scrotum
may be caused by scrotal fat or varicosities of the pampiniform plexis.
Upward movement of the tip of the scrotum as the testicle is moved
dorsally may indicate adhesions between the epididymis and the tunica
vaginalis. Thermography, radiography, and ultrasonography may help
differentiate the causes of scrotal enlargement. lo, 11, 18, 19
A short scrotum usually is indicative of bilateral testicular hypopla-
sia (Fig. 8). A flat or slab-sided scrotum may indicate unilateral testicular
hypoplasia or atrophy (Fig. 9) or, if severe, may indicate incomplete
testicular descent17 (Fig. 10).
The scrotum is responsible for maintaining testicular temperature
2°e to 7°e below body temperature. Interference with scrotal thermoreg-
ulation may result in testicular hyperthermia and testicular degenera-
tion. Inflammation of the scrotum can elevate testicular temperature.
Scrotal inflammation can be associated with poor sanitation within the
bull housing facilities. McEntee 15 reports specific causes of bovine scro-
tal dermatitis including Dermatophilus congolensis, Besnoitia besnoiti,
Chorioptes bovis, Haematopinus eurysternus, and Linognathus pedalis. Not
all scrotal inflammation is severe enough to alter spermatogenesis. The
inflammation caused by Dermatophilus may not be severe enough to
cause testicular degeneration. 14
Text continued on page 216
 COMMON CAUSES OF INFERTILITY IN THE BULL 211

Figure 5. Inguinal hernia.

212 VANCAMP

Figure 6. Unilateral hydrocele associated with orchitis.

 COMMON CAUSES OF INFERTILITY IN THE BULL 213

Figure 7. Cauda epididymitis.

214 VANCAMP

Figure 8. Bilateral testicular hypoplasia.

 COMMON CAUSES OF INFERTILITY IN THE BULL 215

Figure 9. Unilateral testicular degeneration.

216 VAN CAMP

Figure 10. Incomplete testicular descent.

The scrotum's ability to control testicular temperature can be over-

come by environmental factors. Heat stress associated with a warm,
humid climate as occurs in the southeastern United States may affect
semen quality. Fescue endophyte toxicity-induced heat stress may exac-
erbate the effect of high ambient temperatures. Scrotal frostbite can
affect testicular function transiently if mild or permanently if scrotal
scarring and adhesions occur.

Preputial Problems

The prepuce of the neonatal calf is only a potential space. Between

3 and 10 months of age, the ectodermal lamella that separates the penis
from the prepuce splits into two layers that keratinize and form the
preputial cavity between the layers. This process, which occurs under
the influence of testosterone, begins just caudal to the urethral orifice
and proceeds caudally.2 The lamellae do not cover the connective tissue
frenulum on the ventral aspect of the penis. The remnant of the frenulum
forms the raphe of the penis and the raphe of the sheath. 1 Persistence of
the frenulum occurs in some bulls as discussed previously. The persis-
tent frenulum contains a vein that forms an anastomosis between the
corpus cavernosum urethrae and the sheath. 2
Persistent frenulum can prevent full extension of the penis and
result in ventral deviation of the free portion of the penis. Persisten1
frenulum is seen most commonly in Angus, Beef Shorthorn, Hereford,
Polled Hereford, and Beefmaster bulls. 8, 9, 27 It is probably an inheritec
 COMMON CAUSES OF INFERTILITY IN THE BULL 217

condition, and even though cutting the frenulum under stimulation with
an electroejaculator is easily accomplished, the ramifications to the herd
and breed should be considered.
Occasionally, the last caudal inch or two of the lamellae of the
prepuce may not separate fully by 11 to 13 months of age. When the
bull begins to mount and thrust the penis, this persistent attachment
may predispose the young bull to avulsion of the prepuce from the
penis or preputial laceration at the site of its reflection onto the penis
(Fig. 11). Lacerations similar to those that occur in young bulls have
been seen in bulls serving an artificial vagina after a period of sexual
rest. Lacerations can also occur due to trauma to the prolapsed prepuce
from objects such as thistles or barbed wire. If detected early, these
lacerations should be sutured to speed healing and prevent preputial
prolapse, abscessation, and/or adhesion. More chronic lacerations
should be cleaned, debrided, and treated topically with antibiotic oint-
ments and pressure wraps until the prepuce can be returned to the
preputial cavity and retained with tape or a purse-string suture. The
cavity should be flushed daily with a nonirritating antiseptic solution
and systemic antibiotics given. A drain tube may be needed to prevent
urine scalding. The wrap should be changed daily until healing is
complete. 24
Preputial prolapse may be inherited, congenital, traumatic, or sec-
ondary to other conditions. Angus and Polled Herefords are two of the
Bos taurus breeds predisposed to prolapse. The affected animals of these
breeds may have an inherited lack of the retractor penis muscles. The
Bos taurus breeds, Santa Gertrudis, Brahman, and their crosses are also

Figure 11. Avulsion of the prepuce at its attachment to the penis.

218 VANCAMP

known for preputial prolapse. Bellenger6 suggested that these nontrau-

matic prolapses were due to excessively long prepuces in both the Bas
taurus and Bas indicus breeds6 (Fig. 12). Although not actually a cause of
bull infertility, these prolapses predispose the bull to traumatic chronic
prolapse that can lead to stenosis of the prepuce and phimosis of the
penis and a resultant inability to copulate. Chronic preputial prolapse
may require surgical correction (circumcision) as described by St. Jean23
(Fig. 13). Baxter et a15 found that the mean duration of breeding after
circumcision was 2 years, with 76% of circumcised bulls breeding for 1
or more years after surgery. Prolapsed prepuce may be secondary to
preputial lacerations, preputial abscesses, or hematoma of the penis.
Preputial lacerations often result in abscesses. These preputial
masses must be differentiated from other swellings of the prepuce as
occur with fibropapillomas, hematoma of the penis, and cellulitis associ-
ated with preputial laceration or urethral rupture (water belly). Preputial
abscesses (Fig. 14) usually occur near the reflection of the prepuce onto
the penis, and thus the swelling is seen mid length of the prepuce instead
of immediately cranial to the scrotum, as in the case of hematoma of the
penis (Fig. 15). Fibropapillomas usually occur on the free portion of the
penis or at the junction of the prepuce and penis and are usually
movable within the prepuce as the bull is extended with an
electroejaculator. Cellulitis (Fig. 16) is usually warm, has pitting edema,
and extends caudally from the site of the laceration toward the scrotum.
It may be difficult to differentiate from acute hematoma until the lacera-
tion is detected. Abscesses are often associated with some degree of
adhesions and thus are not freely movable. They may restrict movement

Figure 12. Mild, chronic preputial prolapse with fibrosis in a Brahman bull.
 COMMON CAUSES OF INFERTILITY IN THE BULL 219

Figure 13. Severe prolapsed prepuce with severe fibrosis, deep necrosis of the surface,
lacerations abscession, and the resultant phimosis.
220 VANCAMP

Figure 14. Preputial abscess.

Figure 15. Hematoma of the penis.

 COMMON CAUSES OF INFERTILITY IN THE BULL 221

Figure 16. Ruptured urethra and cellulitis.

of the penis. Abscesses are usually caused by Actinomyces pyogenes and

should be drained into the preputial cavity rather than through the skin
to prevent adhesions to the skin. 20
Balanoposthitis, or phalloposthitis (as McEntee prefers),1s can result
in sufficient pain to deter copulation. A virus similar to infectious bovine
rhinotracheitis (bovine herpes I) virus can cause hemorrhagic lesions
over the lymphoid follicles on the penis and prepuce that transform into
pustules that necrose and form small ulcers, making breeding painful.
The lesions heal quickly but the bull remains infected; when stressed he
can spread the disease to cows, reducing their fertility. IS, 20 Tuberculosis
can cause granulomatous lesions of the penis with secondary balanopos-
thitis. Balanoposthitis associated with granular venereal disease that is
caused by mycoplasmas, ureaplasmas, Hemophilus spp or other organ-
isms can require several months of sexual rest and treatment to resolve. 20
An ulcerative posthitis due to Corynebacterium rena Ie has been reported
in Uruguay.21
222 VANCAMP

Penile Problems

Common penile problems that can lead to infertility include rupture

of the tunica albuginea (hematoma, broken penis), penile deviations,
fibropapillomas, hair rings, denervation of the glans, urethral fistulas,
and impotence. Penile lacerations were discussed in conjunction with
preputial lacerations.
Hematoma of the penis (see Fig. 15) appears as an acute swelling
of the prepuce beginning just cranial to the scrotum. The location of the
swelling usually differentiates this swelling from a preputial abscess,
which is seen further down the sheath. It occurs due to a breeding
accident that causes a transverse tear of the dorsal tunica albuginea
opposite the attachment of the penile retractor muscles. The degree of
swelling varies with the severity of the rupture. Secondary prolapse of
the prepuce and phimosis often occur. The bull is usually reluctant or
unable to copulate. Urination is usually not affected. 20
Treatment options include medical management or surgery. Medical
management includes care of the preputial prolapse, hydrotherapy, sys-
temic antibiotics, and at least 2 months of sexual rest. The best time to
undertake aseptic surgery is immediately after occurrence, if practical,
or 4 to 7 days after occurrence, when the clot has formed but before
organization has started. 20, 23 Approximately 50% of bulls treated medi-
cally recover. Surgery usually results in a 60% to 70% recovery rate
depending on the duration of the lesion prior to surgery.16, 20, 23 The size
of the swelling also affects the prognosis. Swellings greater than 20 cm
in width responded twice as successfully to surgery than did those
treated medically. No difference was seen with treatment option with
small hematomas. 16 Recurrence rates were similar for surgical and medi-
cal treatment (25%). However, the occurrence of adverse sequelae is less
with surgical treatment.
Adverse sequelae include bacterial colonization of the hematoma
and abscessation, adhesions, phimosis, glans desensitization due to dam-
age to the dorsal nerves of the penis, impotence due to corpus cavernosal
occlusion, and cavernosal-venous shunts. Approximately 50% of un-
treated hematomas abscess within 2 weeks of the injury.2°
Impotence associated with a flaccid penis results from failure of the
erectile process. The longitudinal canals of the cavernosum penis may
become occluded, preventing filling with blood or, more commonly,
vascular shunts between the corpus cavernosum penis and other struc-
tures prevent attainment of an intracavernosal blood pressure sufficient
for erection. The occlusions and shunts can occur congenitally or are a
frequent sequelae to trauma, including hematoma of the penis. 3, 4,13,15,30
The flaccid penis prevents intromission, yet these bulls may ejaculate.
The erection failure persists under electroejaculation. Diagnosis can be
confirmed with contrast radiography of the corpus cavernosum
penis.12, 28
Desensitization of the glans penis (Fig. 17) occurs due to trauma to
the dorsal nerves of the penis. This can be due to pressure necrosis from
 COMMON CAUSES OF INFERTILITY IN THE BULL 223

Figure 17. Desensitization of the glans penis causing impotentia coeundi.

hair rings or rubber bands from artificial vaginas. It can be a complica-

tion of penile surgery or postoperative adhesions. Frequently the cause
of the nerve trauma is rupture of the tunica albuginea of the penis and
the resultant hematoma. Bulls with penile glans desensitization have
trouble locating the vulva and often fail to thrust and ejaculate if intro-
mission occurs. Libido often wanes in these bulls over time. 20 Pinching,
electrostimulation, or response to heat have been used to detect glans
desensitization. Glans desensitization can occur secondary to severe
balanoposthitis. Copulatory problems associated with desensitization of
the glans must be differentiated from penile deviations that prevent co-
itus.
Deviations of the penis that can affect intromission include spiral
(corkscrew) penis, ventral (rainbow) penis, and S-shaped deviation. Per-
sistent frenulum deviates the tip of the penis as discussed previously.
Trauma to the corpus cavernosum, the tunica albuginea, or the prepuce
may result in deviation of the penis. Some of these deviations can be
corrected surgically, others cannot.
Spiralling of the penis (Fig. 18) can occur about 50% of the time
during normal ejaculation. Spiralling occurs when the dorsal ligament
of the penis slips off to the left at the peak of erection. This may be
either a congenital or acquired defect, because some of the affected bulls
have served successfully in the past. An inherited tendency may exist
for this problem. Spiralling is occasionally observed in young, inexperi-
enced, overexcited bulls that ejaculate prematurely when they are first
introduced to cows. With time, some of these bulls learn to breed
normally. Electroejaculation can produce an artifactual spiralling of the
224 VANCAMP

Figure 18. Spiral deviation of the penis; note the apical ligament on the inside of the curve.

Figure 19. Hair ring on the glans penis.

 COMMON CAUSES OF INFERTILITY IN THE BULL 225

penis and observation of natural service should be used to confirm it. I5 , 20

Surgically suturing the apical ligament of the penis to the tunica albugi-
nea can correct this problem. 23, 25
Ventral deviation occurs due to inability of the apical ligament to
support the tip of the penis. S-shaped deviation is mainly a problem of
older bulls with excessively long penises that exceed the length of the
apical ligament. Surgical correction of the S-shaped penis is not usually
attempted. Implants of the fascia lata can be used to reinforce the apical
ligament and correct both ventral and spiral deviations. 20, 25
Desensitization of the glans can be confused with penile deviation
because the bull often mounts with the penis between the cow's back
legs or alongside her hips. Hair rings (Fig. 19) that develop on the penis
and cause circumferential pressure necrosis can cause desensitization,
infarction and amputation of the glans, or urethral fistulas. 15 Observation
of the penis for hair rings and other abnormalities should be standard
procedure when conducting a breeding soundness evaluation. Hair rings
are easily clipped and removed.
Urethral fistulas secondary to hair rings or penile trauma may
disrupt normal semen deposition and result in reduced fertility. Fistulas
near the tip may cause bleeding during copulation or may be painful
enough to restrict copulation. Fistulas that occur more proximal on the
penis are thought to be a more significant cause of infertility than are
those near the tip. Surgery may allow repair of these fistulas.
Fibropapillomas (Fig. 20) are the most common neoplasm affecting
the bull's penis. Predominantly a problem in young postpubertal bulls,
most viral fibropapillomas are self-limiting and are rarely seen in bulls
over 3 years of age. They can occur as single masses, cauliflower-like
masses, or multiple masses. They may be located on the free portion or
glans of the penis or on the prepuce. They are transmissible directly and
by fomites, and several bulls housed together may experience them
simultaneously. Similar lesions are seen on the vulvas and teats of
heifers. They are caused by strain 1 of the bovine papilloma virus and
may also be detected on the nose, but not usually on other cutaneous,
alimentary, or pedal sites. 22
Penile fibropapillomas may affect fertility in several ways; if large,
they may cause phimosis or paraphimosis. They may desensitize the
glans, they may cause pain and prevent copulation, they may bleed
during copulation, or they may erode the urethra and cause fistulas to
form. IS, 20 The use of commercial wart vaccines to speed regression of
these lesions is questionable. Small pedunculated masses can be easily
removed. Larger lesions may require surgical excision, electrocautery,
cryotherapy, or laser photofulgination.

Testicular Problems

Testicular problems that affect fertility may be genetic, congenital,

or acquired. Cryptorchidism and testicular hypoplasia of one or both
226 VANCAMP

Figure 20. Penile fibropapilloma.

testes are heritable conditions and are discussed in the article by Dr.
Steffen in this volume. Most congenital testicular abnormalities are rela-
tively uncommon. Testicular degeneration and/or atrophy must be dif-
ferentiated from hypoplasia. Hypoplastic testes (see Fig. 8) often un-
dergo degeneration. 20 Degeneration connotes that the testes were at least
normal at one time, but the examiner may not have historical informa-
tion about the bull at the time of the exam, making differentiation
difficult.
Testicular degeneration may be unilateral or bilateral, temporary or
permanent. Numerous causes of testicular degeneration exist; some are
listed (see box). Clinically, testicular degeneration initially presents as
palpably soft testes that may have undergone size reduction (see Fig. 9).
Chronic degeneration can progress to testicular atrophy in which the
testes continue to reduce in size, become fibrotic, and thus feel firmer
than normal. Radiopaque or hyperechoic calcium deposits may be de-
tected in the seminiferous tubules. Is Testicular degeneration presents as
oligospermia or azoospermia if severe. Increased numbers of sperm
abnormalities, especially abnormalities of the head and midpiece, are
 COMMON CAUSES OF INFERTILITY IN THE BULL 227

Causes of Testicular Degeneration 15, 20, 26

Hypothalamic-pituitary dysfunction
Orchitis, epididymitis, periorchitis
Brucella vaccination
Acute febrile conditions
Autoimmunity
Toxicants
Chlorinated naphthalene, cadmium-Cl, ethylene
dibromide, griseofulvin, heavy metals
Plant toxins
Cottonseed (gossypol), locoweed (Astragalus, Oxytropis)
Fescue endophyte-related heat stress
Hormones
Estrogens, testosterone
Aging
Freemartin co-twin
Chromosomal aberrations
Pampiniform phlebitis
Scrotal frostbite
Scrotal dermatitis
Hyperthermia
Inguinal hernias
Testicular trauma
Testicular biopsy
Stress
Transport, shows, sales
Scrotal fat
Cryptorchidism
Testicular neoplasia
Severe malnutrition
Vitamin A deficiency
Zinc deficiency
Irradiation
Sperm stasis due to duct obstruction
Prolonged recumbency
Varicocele
Ultrasonography

common. The percentage of progressively motile sperm may decrease

as the abnormalities increase. The presence of spheroids (round sper-
matogenic cells), giant or medusa cells, or multinucleate germ cells
indicates severe damage to the seminiferous epithelium. 7
Establishing a prognosis for reversing testicular degeneration de-
pends on the cause, the length of time that it has affected the testicles,
and the severity of the insult. Testicular injury, scrotal abnormality or
inflammation of a testis, epididymis, or scrotum may affect spermato-
genesis in both testes. Heat stress is a common cause of testicular
degeneration, as might be frostbite. Often, we never determine the actual
228 VANCAMP

cause. Bulls should not be culled on the basis of one examination that
detects testicular degeneration. Once a testicular insult is alleviated,
approximately 60 days are required for normal sperm to be produced
and ready for ejaculation. Therefore, these bulls should be reevaluated
2 months after the first examination. Testicular biopsy may help deter-
mine the severity of the insult to the testicle and help establish a
prognosis. However, the biopsy procedure may cause further degenera-
tion and therefore probably should be reserved for selected cases in
which the condition is thought to be permanent. Testicular degeneration
and hypoplasia may not be differentiated histologically unless the
changes are severe. 20
Treatment of testicular degeneration usually involves removing the
inciting cause, reducing the effects of inflammation, unilateral orchiec-
tomy (in the case of orchitis or epididymitis), sexual rest, and time.
Removal of the unilaterally atrophied testis may be helpful. The unaf-
fected testis hypertrophies, but not to the point of replacing all the
sperm available from two testes. Hormone therapy has not proven
helpful. 7
Testicular degeneration may follow orchitis. Orchitis (see Fig. 6)
may be unilateral or bilateral and may accompany periorchitis. Clini-
cally, orchitis presents as a swollen, hot, painful testicle, hydrocele, and
scrotal edema. A number of organisms have been recognized as causing
bovine orchitis, including Actinomyces pyogenes and A. bovis, Escherichia
coli, Hemophilus somnus, Salmonella spp, Nocardia jarcinica, Streptococcus
spp, and Staphylococcus spp. Additionally, several diseases are known
for producing orchitis: brucellosis and, rarely, tuberculosis. Is Bovine
herpes virus III (IBR-IPV) has reportedly caused orchitis. 22
Treatment of acute orchitis should include long-term, broad-spec-
trum antibiotics, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents, and sexual rest.
Cool water hydrotherapy may help acutely. Return to fertility may be
speeded by orchiectomy in the case of uncomplicated, unilateral orchi-
tiS. 29 Orchitis may be associated with periorchitis and/or epididymitis
and seminal vesiculitis.

PROBLEMS OF THE ACCESSORY SEX ORGANS

The accessory sex organs of the bull include the bulbourethral

glands, the ampullae of the vas deferens, the prostate, the seminal
vesicles, and the epididymis. Bulbourethral gland adenitis is rare and
accompanies infection of the seminal vesicles. IS Similarly, infection of
the ampullae is usually an extension of infection from other reproductive
organs. Segmental aplasia of the ductus deferens occurs in bulls. 20
Prostatitis, although it occurs in bulls, is rare and is usually related
to other infection. Seminal vesiculitis is the most common pathogenic
condition of the accessory sex glands of the bull. Because of its impor-
tance, it will be dealt with in a separate article by John Cavalieri.
 COMMON CAUSES OF INFERTILITY IN THE BULL 229

Inflammation of the epididymis may be primary or secondary to in-

flammation elsewhere.
Epididymitis (see Fig. 7) usually affects the tail of the epididymis,
but may also affect the rest of the organ. The tail is a common site for
Brucella abortus to establish infection. Other organisms incriminated in
cases of bovine epididymitis are E. coli, Proteus spp, Actinomyces pyogenes,
Actinomyces pseudotuberculosis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Mycoplasma bovi-
genitalium, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Streptococcus spp, Staphylococcus
spp, Hemophilus spp, Salmonella spp, and Chlamydia psittaci. These are
the same organisms that cause orchitis. Epididymitis and orchitis can
occur concurrently. Likewise, epididymitis may be related to seminal
vesiculitis. Epivag is a venereally spread exotic African disease that
causes epididymitis and vaginitis.15
Clinically, epididymitis can be detected by palpation of the swollen,
hot, painful, or hard and fibrotic epididymis. Epididymitis usually re-
sults in poor motility and a low percentage of normal sperm cells in the
ejaculate. Excessive white blood cells or evidence of pus in the semen
may help confirm the findings. Infertility may be a result of occlusion
of the epididymal lumen, disruption of epididymal function, extravasa-
tion of sperm and resultant granuloma, or epididymal adhesions. Addi-
tionally, a highly inflamed epididymis may cause hydrocele, periorchitis,
and thermal injury to the testis. Treatment of epididymitis is similar to
treatment of orchitis and includes unilateral orchiectomy / epididymec-
tomy when indicated.
Additional pathologic conditions affecting the reproductive system
as identified by McEntee I5 are listed at the beginning of this article. The
causes of infertility are so numerous that frequently we can not establish
the etiology. A thorough evaluation of the history and management of
the bull, careful physical examination, semen evaluation, microbiologic
culture, cytopathology, radiology, and ultrasonography can assist in
diagnosis. Testicular biopsy may help confirm a prognosis. In many
cases, we are left with reexamination to confirm the permanent nature
of the problem and postmortem identification of the cause.

SUMMARY

Fertility is a fragile parameter that may vary temporarily or be

permanently depressed. The bull's ability to maintain body condition
and the existence of conformational abnormalities may alter fertility.
Abnormalities of the external genitalia may directly affect the bull's
ability to copulate or may alter the quality of his semen. Testicular
disease alters semen quality, sometimes transiently and other timeE:
permanently. In many cases, the fertility prognosis for testicular prob-
lems cannot be judged on the basis of one examination. EpididymitiE
and seminal vesiculitis are the two most common diseases of the second-
ary sex organs of the bull. They are often associated with each other 0]
orchitis and are difficult to treat.
230 VANCAMP

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 COMMON CAUSES OF INFERTILITY IN THE BULL 231

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Address reprint requests to

Steven D. Van Camp, DVM
Department of Food Animal and Equine Medicine
College of Veterinary Medicine
North Carolina State University
4700 Hillsborough Street
Raleigh, NC 27606