Principles of Embedded Systems: ESE63201

Discrete Variables

Binary Inputs
Control and embedded systems frequently deal with individual bits in order to control specific
operations or to determine the condition of part of a system. For example, a bit might be turned on
to light a lamp or activate a relay, or a bit might be off to indicate a switch is on

An actuator is a mechanical device for moving or controlling a mechanism or system. It is operated

by a source of energy, usually in the form of an electric current, hydraulic fluid pressure or
pneumatic pressure, and converts that energy into some kind of motion. Alternative names for the
actuator are: effectors, excitators and output transducer. All do transform the electrical signal into
the desired non-electric form.

Examples of actuators include: stepper motors and solenoids.

Stepper Motors:
an electromagnetic actuator. It is an incremental drive (digital) actuator and is driven in fixed angular
steps. This means that a digital signal is used to drive the motor and every time it receives a digital
pulse it rotates a specific number of degrees in rotation.

Each step of rotation is the response of the motor to an input pulse (or digital command).

Step-wise rotation of the rotor can be synchronized with pulses in a command-pulse train, assuming
that no steps are missed, thereby making the motor respond faithfully to the pulse signal in an open-
loop manner.

Stepper motors have emerged as cost-effective alternatives for DC servomotors in high-speed,

motion-control applications (except the high torque-speed range) with the improvements in
permanent magnets and the incorporation of solid-state circuitry and logic devices in their drive
systems.

Today stepper motors can be found in computer peripherals, machine tools, medical equipment,
automotive devices, and small business machines, to name a few applications.

In Theory, a Stepper motor is a marvel in simplicity. It has no brushes, or contacts. Basically it's a
synchronous motor with the magnetic field electronically switched to rotate the armature magnet
around.

A Stepping Motor System consists of three basic elements, often combined with some type of user
interface (Host Computer, PLC or Dumb Terminal):
Stepper Motors are used in, Robotics, Motion Control and Industrial Equipment

Stepper Basics
Control of a stepper motor comes from applying a specific step sequence; rotational speed is
controlled by the timing of the applied steps. The simplified diagrams below illustrate the effect of
phase sequencing on rotational motion.

Full Step, Low Torque

Full Step, High Torque (standard application)

Half Step (best precision):

Circuit Connections
The ULN2803 may also be used and has enough driver circuits to control two stepper motors (be
sure to verify motor current requirement versus ULN2x03 sink capability for multiple outputs).
Solenoids:
Basically a solenoid consists of a coil with an associated iron circuit forming the fixed part. A moving
iron plunger is pulled into this coil when it is energized.

Pull and thrust

Most solenoids have a pull action. This pull action can be converted to a pushing action by fitting a
suitable thrust pin or plunger extension.

AC or DC operation. Often the choice is predetermined by the supply available. Where there is a
choice these factors should be considered. AC solenoids tend to be more powerful in the fully open
position than DC. This is due to ‘inrush current’ which at maximum stroke can be more than ten
times the closed current.
AC solenoids must close completely so that the inrush current falls to its normal value. If an AC
solenoid sticks in the open position a burn-out is likely. DC solenoids take the same current
throughout their stroke and cannot overheat through incomplete closing.

AC operated solenoids are usually faster than DC, but with a few milli-seconds variation in response
time depending on the point of cycle when the solenoid is energized. DC solenoids are slower but
they repeat their closing times accurately against a given load. A good AC solenoid correctly used
should be quiet when closed, but only because it’s fundamental tendency to hum has been
overcome by correct design and accurate assembly. Dirt on the mating faces or mechanical overload
may make it noisy. A DC solenoid is naturally quiet.

Duty cycle
‘Continuous Rating’ means that the solenoid can be left on continuously without overheating. The
force exerted and the power consumed are then the basic continuous rating values to which all
other ratings are referred. In the case of an AC solenoid the continuous rating refers to the solenoid
in the closed position only. If the solenoid plunger is withdrawn, the ‘inrush’ current will rise to a
high value; and if left energized, will burn out. A continuously rated DC solenoid can be left energized
continuously, irrespective of the plunger position.

In many applications a solenoid is energized for only a short period and then left switched off for
some time, so that it can cool down. Under these circumstances the solenoid coil can be wound for a
much higher power than the continuous rating value. As a result, higher forces can be obtained with
the proviso that the solenoid can no longer be continuously energized.