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Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapters present the related literature and studies considered

relevant to the study which the researcher carefully reviewed through

comprehensive research and organized ideas to provide necessary

background and sufficient information to fully understand this study.

Related Literature

Wardhaugh (2006) stated that code switching is a phenomenon of

languages as the result of language contact in a bilingual society. Most of

bilinguals used code switching when they make conversation among them.

Code switching can occur in conversation between speaker’s turns or within a

single speaker’s turn.

Some cases, code switching is situational and appears due to “the

status of the interlocutor, the setting of the conversation, or the topic of the

conversation”, as stated by Brown (2006).

When the students are getting distracted, or when a student should be

praised or told off in teaching second language may also switch to the first

language when the revising the lesson that has already been given in second

language. In the classroom, the teachers explained the materials and the

students do not give response, the teacher may switch the language to the

first language to make the students understand with what the teachers

explain.
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Furthermore, based on Ahmad and Jusoff (2009), code switching helps

to facilitate the flow of classroom instruction since the teachers do not have to

spend so much time trying to explain to the learner’s or searching for the

simplest words to clarify any confusion that might arise.

Code-switching involves the use of multiple languages, where

speakers of additional languages incorporate alternate linguistic elements into

their source language. As such, two or more languages may be spoken

alternately during a conversation. Chan et al (2009) usefully describe code-

switching as “the intra-sentential switching of two different languages in a

spoken utterance”

Code-switching can have a positive impact in an academic context. An

important teaching skill is the ability to transfer knowledge to students in a

clear and efficient manner, and so code-switching can be a useful tool in the

classroom for both teachers and students (Bista, 2010).

The above literature is related to the present study because those

statements stressed out that Bilingualism, with the use of Code Switching,

were essential for the students to understand the lesson in the second

language with comprehension enable the students to perform well in their

class.

According to Wikipedia an Encyclopedia (2012) “A literature review is a

body of text that aims to review the critical points of current knowledge

including substantive findings as well as theoretical and methodological

contributions to a particular topic.”

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Bruner as mentioned by Paet (2013), relating knowledge structure to

one another will enable the learners to transfer this knowledge to new

learning instructional. This is all learning with applying new information by

activating what had been already known either directly in related way.

Traditional forms of knowledge are inadequate because they are based on

“metal-filling cabinets”. New conception are based or enabling learners to

construct knowledge from a range of information enabling to obtain greater

depths of understanding which they can apply in new situation. (Carl

Bereither and MarlaneScardamalia)

Vega (2007) stressed that knowledge as they are retained. A driving

factor in test and discourse comprehension is prior knowledge.

The above stated literatures are related to the present study in the

sense that knowledge is the information is retained in the mind of the learners

no matter how long he knows it, it can be considered as remembering or

recalling. And it is learning with applying new information by activating what

had been already known either directly in related way.

Huggins (2009), states the literal comprehension is the foundation for

critical and inferential comprehension, to go beyond the text, the reader must

first understand the text. Critical comprehension is more than evaluating the

quality of the text or stating an opinion about it. Critical comprehension

requires readers to make judgments about what they are reading based on

the evaluation of several text grounded factors, such as the quality of writing,
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the determination that it is the fact not opinion, the objectivity of the author,

and whether the text is believable.

As stated in the Webster New International Dictionary (2013),

comprehension is the act of grasping the meaning of words or text. It is the

ability to understand the meaning or importance of something.

Duffy as cited by Miguel (2009), he stated that comprehension is the

goal of all communication. In the expressive language modes of speaking and

writing, comprehension more understanding well enough how to compare it

clearly. In the receptive language modes of listening and reading,

comprehension means interpreting the message accurately enough to

understand its meaning.

The above literatures are related to the present study in the sense that

comprehension means interpreting the message accurately enough to

understand its meaning. Teacher’s must sure that their students understand

what the topic being taught, they must use some strategies to make it more

understandable.

Lee and David (2011) application is a very important skill and one that

certainly should not be ignored. The more independently the learner can use

prior learning to a new situation, the better they are at applying their learning.

Children can also be encouraged to consider where their new learning could

be used.

Applying is the next higher level of cognitive domain after

understanding . According to Anderson and Krathwohl (2013) applying means

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carrying out or using a procedure in particular situation and it is related with

procedural knowledge. Problem is an assessment in which the procedure to

solve the problems. Anderson and Krathwohl separate this category into

some sub- categories 1, executing , procedure to be applied in familiar

assignment and usually associates with skills and algorithms which are

contain some plural steps and must be executed by constant sequences 2,

Implementing , Choosing a procedure to solve unfamiliar problem.

The above literature is related to the present study in the sense that

the students understood concept in a new situation. Solve problems to new

situations by using acquired knowledge, facts techniques and rules in a

different way.

Related Studies

General definition of code switching is “the use of two languages

varieties in the same conversation”. A related concept to code switching is

code mixing. Researches often differentiate between the two terms, as cited

by Myers-Scottons (2006).

In the substituting a word in another language, Baker (2006) found that

in Hong Kong schools both teachers and students major reason for code

switching was that there was no direct translation of words between English

and Cantonese, additionally the same study of Man and Lu found that

teachers in Hong Kong schools use code switching also to ease tension and

inject humor in to conversation.

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Brown (2006) draws on research by Blom and Gumperz when saying

that “code switching is a complex, skilled linguistic strategy used by bilinguals

to convey important social meanings above and beyond the referential

content of an utterance”.

In general, code-switching effects are widely perceived as negative.

Namely, there is a tendency to view code-switching as barrier to learning and

as being disruptive to the learning environment.  Accordingly, the practice has

been considered as a sign of linguistic deficiency. Li (2008) notes that despite

code-switching being commonplace in both the speech and writing of

multilingual societies (often with English as the second language), it is usually

frowned upon by multilingual speakers within these societies. (Li, 2008: 76).

In an academic context, studies by Arrifin and Husin (2011) have observed

that learners with a greater linguistic ability often see code-switching as an

obstacle to becoming fluent in a second language. Their findings indicated

that students with a degree of competence in English found it difficult to make

progress in an environment of code-switching (Arrifin et al, 2011: 221).

Other studies have reached similar conclusions. Bista (2010)

conducted a study in the US which found that code-switching not only had a

negative impact on the linguistic learning ability of students, but also

highlighted lack of ability in the second language as a primary cause of code-

switching (Bista, 2010: 1).

Others have a different view however, in particular that code-switching

may be perceived as ‘linguistic resourcefulness’. Baker (2007) argues that

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users of code-switching show impressive cognitive, linguistic, and social

skills. In his view code-switchers may be preserving the meaning of their

original statement by overcoming the lack of a suitable word in the second

language (Baker, 2007: 56-57).

The studies mentioned above were related to the present study

because

the statements stressed out that Code Switching is more on Bilingualism and

is widely used for communication and learning acquisition purposes;

explaining that Code Switching is used to substitute a word in the place of

unknown word in the target language; more often in classroom situation,

where students and teachers interact with each other.

Any organization possesses a great deal of knowledge – in memories

and sub conscience of its personnel, namely tacit knowledge which is usually

not documented, in documents, products, services, organizational structures

and processes. The content of such knowledge can be very different, as it

dispersion organization and value presents different characteristics. Some

parts can be described as topical and up-to-date, others as already

“redeemed”; some are till circulating while others are carefully “piled”; some

parts of knowledge can be found in abundance while there is a lack or

absence of other knowledge (Peršak, 2007, page 25).

John Abbott (2012), Our lives are drenched with information.  With so

much that we could think about it’s inevitable that we shut most of it out of our

consciousness for fear that our brains will crash through overload.  So
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selective can be our focus that we can easily miss the blindingly obvious. 

Give ourselves time to think and we have to question where the wisdom has

gone that is lost in so much knowledge, and where is the knowledge that we

have lost to a relentless flood of information. Profound truths are often so

unsettling that people lose themselves in lengthy explanations that ultimately

confuse, rather than clarify.   This is a very human trait which starts as the

youngest children begin to form straightforward explanations as to how they

see ideas fitting together. But unless they replace such earlier ‘naive’

explanations.

Knowledge, however precious, is only the opportunity. To transform it

into a developmental force, knowledge has to be applied with responsibility in

the processes of work and decision making, and generate added value.

Combining research and education with knowledge transfer for production

and environmental protection is the way towards higher levels of

development. However, this way, leading to added value and more

knowledge-intensive employment, involves many steps (Kornhauser, 2007,

page 17).

The above stated studies are related to the present study in the sense

that knowledge refers to the acquisition of knowledge or the recall of facts,

concepts, and generalization from an academic discipline. Kornhauser said

that knowledge is however precious, is only the opportunity because through

knowledge we applied to our responsibility to decide what is good for us.

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A theory of the way working memory capacity constrains

comprehension proposes that both processing and storage are mediated by

activation and that the total amount of activation available in working memory

varies among individuals. Individual differences in working memory capacity

for language can account for qualitative and quantitative differences among

college-age adults in several aspects of language comprehension. One

aspect is syntactic modularity: The larger capacity of some individuals permits

interaction among syntactic and pragmatic information, so that their syntactic

processes are not informationally encapsulated. Another aspect is syntactic

ambiguity: The larger capacity of some individuals permits them to maintain

multiple interpretations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights

reserved)

The above studies are related to the present study in the sense that

comprehension are refers to the working of our memory. And it is also the

action or capability of understanding something or a particular topic. Teachers

must have a clear and effective medium of instruction in order for the learners

to easily comprehend the topic.

Applying is carrying out or using a procedure through executing or

implementing. Basically this is the using of information in another familiar

situation. Applying is the next higher level of cognitive domain after

understanding. According to Anderson and Krathwohl (2013), applying means

carrying out or using a procedure in particular situation and it is related with

procedural knowledge.
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The above studies mentioned above is related to the present study in

the sense that the students understood concept in a new situation. Solve

problems to new situation with the use pf code switching.