13/12/2004 1 PJunC04

An investigation into deformation characteristics of

lapped connections between cold-formed steel Z sections

K. F. Chung, H. C. Ho and A. J. Wang

Department of Civil and Structural Engineering,

The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hum, Hong Kong SAR, China.

ABSTRACT

This paper presents an analytical method and a numerical model to predict the deformation
characteristics of lapped connections between cold-formed steel Z sections. Based on the load
extension curves of typical lap shear tests on bolted fastenings between cold-formed steel strips, a
normalized bearing deformation curve was established. This curve was then adopted to predict the
vertical deflections of simply supported lapped Z sections under one point loads where
deformations due to global bending and shear actions as well as bearing deformation due to large
bolt forces were incorporated. Good agreement between the measured and the predicted
deformation characteristics was obtained at both the initial and the final deformation stages.
Moreover, a finite element model was also established to study the load deflection curves of lapped
Z sections over the entire deformation ranges. Highly efficient four noded shell elements were
adopted to simulate the cold-formed steel Z sections while spring elements were adopted to
simulate the bolted fastenings. It was shown that the numerically predicted deformation
characteristics of the test specimens followed closely to those measured from tests over the entire
range of deformation.

Consequently, both the analytical method and the numerical model are shown to be effective in
assessing the structural behaviour, and hence, the effective flexural rigidities, of lapped Z sections
over the entire deformation ranges. The findings will generate new understandings on the overall
structural behaviour of modern purlin systems, and be useful in assessing the load carrying
capacities of modern purlin systems using lapped cold-formed steel Z sections which take
advantage of moment re-distribution over internal supports.

KEYWORDS

Cold-formed steel sections, Lapped Z sections, Deformation characteristics, Finite element

modelling, Effective flexural rigidities.
13/12/2004 2 PJunC04

1. Connections in cold-formed steel structures

In cold-formed steel construction, bolts are commonly used to assemble various members to form
integrated structural systems while welding is seldom used. It is important to understand the
structural behaviour of bolted connections and also their effects on both the local and the overall
performance of a structure. At present, a number of cold-formed steel codes of practice (AISI
1996, AS/NZ 4600 1996, Eurocode 3: Part 1.3 1996, BS 5950: Part 5 1998) provide detailed design
rules for section capacities and member resistances of typical cold-formed steel sections. However,
for connection design, only design rules for the load carrying capacities of individual fasteners are
provided, which are typically semi-empirical expressions developed from test data with limited
ranges of material properties and geometrical dimensions (Bryan 1993).

While it is important to assess the load carrying capacity of each fastener, it is also necessary to
examine the structural behaviour of connectors such as web cleats and gusset plates, and also of the
connected parts of sections under highly localized forces. In general, there is a lack of guidance on
the use of bolted connections between cold-formed steel sections, especially on the design of bolted
moment connections.

1.1 Investigations into connections between cold-formed steel sections

A number of experimental and numerical investigations on bolted fastenings and connections

among high strength steels with various bolt configurations were reported by Toma et al. (1993),
Rogers & Hancock (1998), and Chung & Ip (2000, 2001). Most of them focused on the strengths
of bolted connections, and little information was reported on the deformation characteristics of
these connections.

In order to understand the structural performance of simple fastenings between cold-formed steel
sections in details, a finite element model using three-dimensional solid elements with material,
geometrical and boundary non-linearity was established by Chung & Ip (2000, 2001). A total of 12
lap shear tests on single bolted fastenings with different connection configurations were carried out
for calibration of the finite element models. It was demonstrated that the predicted load-extension
curves of bolted fastenings in lap shear tests followed closely to the measured load-extension
curves provided that measured steel strengths and geometrical dimensions were used in the analysis.
Moreover, three distinctive failure modes as observed in lap shear tests were successfully modelled,
namely, (a) bearing failure, (b) shear-out failure, and (c) net-section failure. Furthermore, it was
shown that stress-strain curves, contact stiffnesses and frictional coefficients between element
interfaces, and clamping forces developed in bolt shanks were important parameters for accurate
prediction of the deformation characteristics of bolted fastenings.

More recently, Ho & Chung (2002a) reported an experimental investigation on two series of lapped
cold-formed steel Z sections. It was established that both the moment resistances and the flexural
rigidities of lapped connections varied significantly, depending on the lap lengths. In assessing the
structural performance of modern purlin systems with lapped cold-formed steel Z-sections (Ho &
Chung 2002b), the deformation characteristics of bolted moment connections, and hence, the
effective flexural rigidities of the lapped connections, were identified to be essential for efficient
design of indeterminate purlin systems.

1.2 Scope of work

This paper presents an analytical method and a numerical model to predict the deformation
characteristics of lapped connections between cold-formed steel Z sections. Based on the load
extension curves of typical lap shear tests on bolted fastenings between cold-formed steel strips, a
normalized bearing deformation curve was established. This curve was then adopted to predict the
13/12/2004 3 PJunC04

vertical deflections of simply supported lapped Z sections under one point load where deformations
due to global bending and shear actions as well as bearing deformation due to large bolt forces were
incorporated. Moreover, a finite element model was also established using highly efficient four
noded shell elements to simulate the cold-formed steel Z sections as well as spring elements to
simulate the bolted fastenings. The study provides important understanding on the structural
behavior of bolted moment connections in lapped Z sections, and hence, the effective flexural
rigidities of the lapped Z sections over the entire deformation ranges.

2 BOLTED FASTENINGS IN LAP SHEAR TESTS

In typical lap shear tests as shown in Figure 1, two identical cold formed steel strips were tested in
pair while both ends were bolted to a 25 mm thick hot rolled steel plate, and the bolts were installed
with a torque of 30 Nm. The test specimen was pinned at both ends and mounted onto a tensile test
machine. By applying gradually a tensile force under displacement control, typical load extension
curves were obtained (Chung & Ip, 2000), as shown in Figure 2.

Table 1 presents typical material grades and nominal thicknesses of cold-formed steel strips
together with the dimensions of washers used in the lap shear tests. For each fastening
configuration, three specimens were tested. Coupon tests of the steel strips were also carried out to
provide basic mechanical properties. Both the measured yield strengths and the Young’s modulus
are also presented in Table 1 for reference, and it is found that bearing failure in cold-formed steel
strips around bolt holes is always critical.

2.1 Bearing deformation curves

Based on the measured load extension curves of lap shear tests, a normalized bearing deformation
curve for bolted fastenings between cold-formed steel strips was proposed, as shown in Figure 2. It
should be noted that the bearing resistance of a bolted fastening, Fb,Rd , is given by:

Fb,Rd = αb d t fu (1)

where αb is the strength coefficient which is defined as follows:

= 30 δo when δo ≤ 0.02 mm
= 1.25 (δo – 0.02) + 0.6 when 0.02 < δo ≤ 0.4 mm
 δ − 0.05 
= 0.85 ln  o  + 1.075 when 0.4 < δo ≤ 3.0 mm
 0.35 
d is the diameter of bolt,
t is the thickness of steel strip, and
fu is the ultimate strength of steel strip.

Consequently, the load extension curves of bolted fastenings with steel strips of various steel grades,
thicknesses and bolt diameters may be derived accordingly for subsequent analysis.

3 BOLTED MOMENT CONNECTIONS IN LAPPED Z SECTIONS

A total of 12 joint bend tests on lapped cold-formed steel Z sections with both sections Z15016
G450 and Z25025 G450 were carried out by Ho & Chung (2002a, 2004), as shown in Figure 3,
where Z sections were lapped together with bolts to form moment connections. It should be noted
that only the webs of the sections are connected with 6 bolts: the two inner bolts resist primarily
13/12/2004 4 PJunC04

against lateral load while the four outer bolts resist primarily against moment. The test data and
results are summarized in Table 2.

3.1 Deformation components

In order to evaluate the deformation characteristics of lapped Z sections, the following assumptions
are adopted:

• The center of rotation of the bolted moment connection coincides the bolt group center.
• The connection should be symmetrical so that the bolt forces are equal.

The deformation analysis of the lapped Z sections is shown in Figure 3, and the total vertical
deflection at mid-span of the lapped Z sections, ∆ , is given by:

∆ = ∆m + ∆s + ∆b

where
∆m is the vertical deflection of the lapped section under applied moment, M ,
∆s is the vertical deflection of the lapped section under applied shear force, V , and
∆b is the vertical deflection of the lapped section due to bearing deformation in the
section web around bolt hole under applied bolt force, Pb .

Both ∆m and ∆s may be readily determined by virtual work method as follows:

MM
∆m = ∫ EI
dx (2a)

VV
∆v = ∫ G Av
dx (2b)

where
M is the applied moment,
V is the applied shear force,
E, G are the elastic modulus and the shear modulus of steel respectively, and
I, Av are the second moment of area and the shear area of the lapped section respectively.

It should be noted that during the evaluation of both ∆m and ∆v , integration should be performed
over the entire length of the test specimens, including the lapped portion of the Z section.

The following expression may be adopted to determine ∆b :

Lt
∆b = φ × (2c)
2
where
φ is the joint rotation of the lapped connection due to bearing deformation in the
section web around bolt holes
δo
= (2d)
r
δo is the deformation of a bolted fastening under bolt force Pb according to the
normalised bearing deformation curve described by Equation (1),
r is the distance between the bolt and the bolt group centre, and
Lt is the overall span of the test specimen.
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Based upon the above assumptions, the relationship between the applied load, P , and the total
vertical deflection at mid-span, ∆ , may be obtained accordingly as shown in Figure 4.

It should be noted that during the initial loading stage, the vertical deflections of the lapped Z
sections are mainly caused by the bending and the shear deformations of the entire Z sections. As
the applied loads increase, the bolt forces in the bolted fastenings also increase, causing significant
bearing deformations around bolt holes in the webs of the connected sections. Consequently, under
large applied loads, the vertical deflections of the lapped Z sections are mainly caused by the
bearing deformation of the bolted fastenings in the section webs.

3.2 Comparison with test results

Figures 5 and 6 present the measured mid-span moment end rotation curves of selected tests with
sections Z15016 G450 and Z25025 G450 respectively. Moreover, in each graph, the measured
mid-span moment end rotation curve of the corresponding control specimen, i.e. continuous Z
section with no lap, is also plotted for easy comparison. It should be noted that in general, the
lapped sections with short laps are quite flexible with non-linear moment rotation curves, having
strengths lower than those of the control specimens. On the contrary, for lapped sections with long
laps, they are quite stiff with linear moment rotation curves, and they have strengths in excess of
those of the control specimens. For lapped sections with intermediate lengths of lap, the moment
rotation curves are linear during most parts of the curves, but they become nonlinear when
approaching the maximum applied loads. Moreover, they have strengths comparable with those of
the control specimens.

Comparison between the measured and the predicted mid-span moment end rotation curves of
selected tests with sections Z15016 G450 and Z25025 G450 is also shown in Figures 5 and 6
respectively. It is demonstrated that good agreement is found between the measured and the
predicted curves at both the initial and the final deformation stages. Moreover, in order to illustrate
the extent of bearing deformation of the bolted fastenings in the section webs, four points are
marked onto the predicted curves in Figures 5 and 6, namely, Points a, b, c and d which correspond
to δo at 0.5, 1, 2 and 3 mm respectively. Furthermore, a dashed line is also drawn on the same
graph of the curve for each test which indicates the maximum mid-span moment, Mmv , of the test
specimen after considering combined bending and shear at the ends of lap (Ho & Chung 2002b)
which is always found to be critical. Table 3 summarizes the predicted moment resistances of the
lapped connections at various extensions together with the values of Mmv .

It should be noted that:

• For lapped Z sections with long laps, insignificant bearing deformations are found with the
value of δo smaller than 0.5 mm. When compared with the control specimens, there are
significant increases in both the flexural rigidities and the moment resistances of the
connections, forming very effective connections for moment transfer between the lapped Z
sections.

• For lapped Z sections with short laps, bearing deformations in the connections are significant
with the value of δo ranging from 1 to 2 mm. This leads to significant reduction in the flexural
rigidity of the test specimens when compared with the control specimens, i.e. continuous Z
sections with no lap.

While the deformation characteristics of the lapped Z sections at both the initial and the final
deformation stages are obtained satisfactorily, it should be noted that the unloading parts of the
load-deflection curves could not be obtained analytically.
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4. NUMERICAL MODELLING OF LAPPED Z SECTIONS

In order to examine the deformation characteristic of lapped Z sections over the entire deformation
ranges, a finite element model was established with a commercial finite element package ABAQUS.

4.1 Finite element model

Due to symmetry, only a lapped Z section with the full length of the test specimen was modelled,
and Figure 7 illustrates both the loading and the boundary conditions of the finite element model.
Both the measured geometrical dimensions and the measured material properties were adopted in
the model.

It should be noted that the highly efficient four noded shell elements S4R were employed to
simulate the cold-formed steel Z sections. Material non-linearity was incorporated in order to allow
yielding in the sections under combined bending and shear, and the measured stress-strain curves
obtained from coupon tests were adopted together with the Von-Mises yield criteria in the material
modelling of the cold-formed steel sections. Geometrical non-linearity was also adopted to allow
for large deformation under both local buckling and distortional buckling, and numerical
integration was carried out at the centre of the shell elements with five integration points through
the thickness. Initial geometric imperfection in the lapped Z sections was obtained as the first
eigenmode of the lapped Z sections modified by of a suitable scale factor; the eigenmode was
calculated with an elastic linear buckling analysis. The maximum magnitude of the initial
imperfection was set to be 0.25 times the section thickness.

In order to simplify the problem, each bolted fastening between the section webs within the lap was
modelled with a spring element, and its deformation characteristics was assigned to follow the
normalized bearing-deformation curve described by Equation (1). Moreover, no contact elements
were employed in the lapped sections, but spring elements with high compression stiffnesses but
low tensile stiffnesses were provided over the entire overlapping surfaces between the cold-formed
steel Z sections.

The finite element mesh was refined locally in the region near the end of lap of the lapped sections,
and a mesh sensitivity exercise was carried out to determine the best model for the analyses. The
final mesh adopted for subsequent analyses is shown in Figure 7 with over 10,000 nodes and 3,000
elements. It was found that the behaviour of the finite element model responded sensitively to a
number of factors such as the magnitude of initial imperfection, and the initial separation between
the lapped sections.

4.2 Numerical results

Figure 8 illustrates the predicted deformed shapes of various lapped Z sections at failure together
with the distributions of direct stress acting along the longitudinal direction of the sections. It is
shown that apparent local buckling and distortional buckling may be found at the critical cross-
sections near the ends of lap while extensive yielding is found in both the web and the flanges at the
critical cross-sections under combined bending and shear.

Figures 9 and 10 presents the predicted mid-span moment end rotation curves of various lapped Z
sections, and the corresponding moment rotation curves obtained from tests are also plotted onto
the same graph for easy comparison. It is shown that the slopes of the predicted curves at both the
initial and the final deformation stages follow closely to those of the test data. Moreover,
comparison on the unloading parts between the predicted curves and the test data is also found to be
satisfactory. Consequently, the finite element models are considered to be adequately accurate in
predicting the deformation characteristics of lapped Z sections over the entire deformation ranges.
13/12/2004 7 PJunC04

5 CONCLUSIONS

This paper presents an analytical method and a numerical model to predict the deformation
characteristics of lapped connections between cold-formed steel Z sections. Comparison between
the predicted and the measured moment rotation curves of lapped Z sections is shown to be highly
satisfactory. Consequently, both the analytical method and the numerical model are shown to be
effective in assessing the structural behaviour, and hence, the effective flexural rigidities, of lapped
Z sections over the entire deformation ranges. The findings will generate new understandings on
the overall structural behaviour of modern purlin systems, and be useful in assessing the load
carrying capacities of modern purlin systems using lapped cold-formed steel Z sections which take
advantage of moment re-distribution over internal supports.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The project leading to the publication of this paper is supported by the Research Grants Council of
the Government of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (Project No. PolyU5040/99E), and
the Research Committee of the Hong Kong Polytechnic University (Project No. G-W309).

REFERENCES

American Iron and Steel Institute (1996). AISI Specification for the design of cold formed steel
structural members.
British Standards Institution (1998). BS5950: Structural use of steelwork in buildings. Part 5:
Code of practice for the design of cold-formed sections.
Bryan, E.R. (1993). “Design of bolted joints in cold-formed steel sections.” Thin-Walled
Structures 16, p. 239-262.
Chung, K.F. and Ip, K.H. (2000). “Finite element modeling of bolted connections between cold-
formed steel strips and hot rolled steel plates under static shear loading.” Engineering
Structures 22(10), p. 1271-1284.
Chung, K.F. and Ip, K.H. (2001). “Finite element investigation on the structural behavior of cold-
formed steel bolted connections.” Engineering Structures 23, p. 1115-1125.
Chung, K.F. and Ho, H.C. (2003). “Deformation characteristics of lapped connections between
cold-formed steel purlins of Z sections.” Proceedings of Advances in Structures – Steel,
Concrete, Composite and Aluminum, 23-25 June 2003, Sydney, Australia, p. 281-288.
European Committee for Standardization (1993). Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures: Part 1.3:
General rules – Supplementary rules for cold-formed thin gauge members and sheeting, ENV
1993-1-3.
Ho, H.C. and Chung, K.F. (2002a). “An experimental investigation into lapped moment
connections between Z sections.” Proc. of the Third International Conference on Advances in
Steel Structures, December 2002, Hong Kong, p. 437-444.
Ho, H.C. and Chung, K.F. (2002b). “Structural analysis on lapped moment connections between
cold-formed steel Z sections.” Proc. of the 2nd International Conference on Structural Stability
and Dynamics, December 2002, Singapore, p. 675-680.
Ho, H.C. and Chung, K.F. (2004). “Experimental investigation into the structural behaviour of
lapped connections between cold-formed steel Z sections.” Thin-Walled Structures 42, p. 1013-
1033.
Roger, C. A. & Hancock, G.J. (1998). “Bolted connection tests of thin G550 and G300 sheet
steels.” Journal of Structural Engineering 124(7), p. 798-808.
Standards Australia / Standards New Zealand (1996). Cold-formed steel structure code AS/NZ
4600: 1996.
Toma, A., Sedlacek, G. and Weynard, K. (1993). “Connections in cold-formed steel.” Thin Walled
Structures 16, p. 291-237.
Table 1. Test data of lap shear tests and coupon tests.
Test Steel Nominal Yield Elastic
Grade thickness strength Modulus
py E
(mm) (N/mm ) (kN/mm2)
2

A11A-1 617 222

A11A-2 G550 1.6 622 220
A11A-3 623 213
A21A-4 320 203
A21A-5 G300 1.5 321 207
A21A-6 320 203

Note: Dimensions of washer:

External diameter = 25.7 mm
Internal diameter = 13.0 mm
Thickness = 2.3 mm

Table 2. Test data of joint bend tests. E

c
D
t

Test Span Lap D E F c t Pt

Length length
Lt 2Lp
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (kN)
ZA018R 2400 180 151.0 67.4 63.5 16.5 1.71 27.98
Z15016 G450

ZA024R 2400 240 150.8 67.5 63.4 16.5 1.71 30.12

ZA030R 2400 300 151.0 67.7 63.4 16.6 1.69 33.92
ZA060R 2400 600 150.9 67.6 63.5 16.4 1.70 45.20
ZA090R 2400 900 150.7 67.5 63.1 16.6 1.69 51.00
Average: 150.9 67.5 63.4 16.5 1.70
ZB030R 4000 300 250.8 79.4 73.3 21.5 2.52 51.90
Z25025 G450

ZB060R 4000 600 250.4 79.2 73.5 21.6 2.51 73.74

ZB090R 4000 900 250.7 78.9 73.5 21.6 2.50 86.96
ZB120R 4000 1200 250.9 79.1 73.9 21.5 2.50 99.02
ZB150R 4000 1500 250.4 78.9 73.3 21.6 2.51 95.10
Average: 250.6 79.1 73.5 21.6 2.51
Table 3. Mid-span moments at different extensions

Test Span Lap *Ma *Mb *Mc *Md *Mmv *Mmax

length length
Lt 2 Lp
(mm) (mm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm) (kNm)
ZA018R 2400 180 8.27 12.60 16.50 18.87 13.12 16.79
Z15016 G450

ZA024R 2400 240 10.80 16.50 21.75 24.80 15.65 18.07

ZA030R 2400 300 13.50 20.50 27.05 30.72 17.72 20.35
ZA060R 2400 600 26.70 40.60 53.47 60.70 24.22 27.12
ZA090R 2400 900 40.20 61.00 80.10 91.10 28.53 30.60
ZB030R 4000 300 28.50 44.40 57.90 64.90 48.95 51.90
Z25025 G450

ZB060R 4000 600 55.00 85.30 111.40 124.90 64.38 73.74

ZB090R 4000 900 82.00 127.00 166.00 185.90 74.83 86.96
ZB120R 4000 1200 109.00 169.00 220.50 247.30 82.29 99.02
ZB150R 4000 1500 135.50 211.00 275.50 308.60 91.39 95.10
 2P
Pinned
joint

Cold-formed
steel strip
Displacement
transducer

150mm
75mm

Washer
Hot-rolled
steel plate

2P

Figure 1: Typical set-up of lap shear tests

40 25
35
20
30
Load (kN)

Load (kN)

25 15
20 A11A-1 A21A-4
15 10
A11A-2 A21A-5
10
A11A-3 5 A21A-6
5
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Extension δo (mm) Extension δo (mm)

Figure 2a: Load extension curves of lap shear tests

4.0

3.0 d
c
2.0 b
αb

a
1.0

0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Extension δo (mm)

Figure 2b: Normalized bearing deformation curve for bolted fastenings

 P Lateral restraint provided at close intervals

Lp Lp

Lt = 2400 mm for Z15016 G450

4000 mm for Z25025 G450

Figure 3a. One point load tests of lapped Z sections

P

∆
θ =
Lt / 2
∆ PL t
M=
4

Lt /2 Lt /2

BMD MM
∆m = ∫ EI
dx

SFD VV
∆s = ∫ dx
G Av

φ
∆b = 2 φ × Lt
r
δ
where φφ = o

: Center of rotation

Figure 3b: Deformation characteristics of lapped Z sections

 30

25
Mid span moment, M (kNm)

θm θs θb
20

15
Deformation of the whole member
10
Bending and shear deformation
5 Bending deformation

0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
End Rotation, θ (rad)

θm = Rotation due to bending deformation, 2∆m / Lt

θs = Rotation due to shear deformation, 2∆s / Lt
θb = Rotation due to bearing deformation, 2∆b / Lt

Figure 4: Typical mid-span moment end rotation curve of lapped Z sections

 40 125
Mpb= 18.9 kNm Test Mpb= 64.9 kNm Test
Predicted
Mid-span moment, M (kNm)
Predicted

Mid-span moment, M (kNm)

100
30 Control Control

75 d
20 d c
c
b
b 50

10 a a
25

0 0
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
End Rotation, θ (rad) End Rotation, θ (rad)
a) Test ZA018R a) Test ZB030R
40 125
Mpb= 30.7 kNm Test Mpb= 185.9 kNm Test
Predicted Predicted
Mid-span moment, M (kNm)

Mid-span moment, M (kNm) 100

30 Control Control
a
c
b 75
20
a 50

10
25

0 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
End Rotation, θ (rad) End Rotation, θ (rad)
b) Test ZA030R b) Test ZB090R

40 125
Mpb= 91.2 kNm Test Mpb= 308.6 kNm Test
Predicted
Mid-span moment, M (kNm)

Mid-span moment, M (kNm)

100 Predicted
30 Control Control
75
20
50

10
25

0 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
End Rotation, θ (rad) End Rotation, θ (rad)
c) Test ZA090R c) Test ZB150R
* a: δo = 0.5 mm * b: δo = 1.0 mm * c: δo = 2.0 mm * d: δo = 3.0 mm
where δo is the bearing deformation of bolts derived from the normalized bearing deformation curve
of bolted fastensings
Figure 5: Moment rotation curves of lapped Z sections: Figure 6: Moment rotation curves of lapped Z se
Section Z15016 G450 series Section Z25025 G450 series
 P

Lp Lp

Lt / 2 Lt / 2

Lt
Lp

Lp

Stress

Lt
py

Strain

Z15016 G450 Z25025 G450

79.1
67.5
21.6
16.5

150.9 250.5
1.70 - 0.04 2.51 - 0.04
= 1.66 = 2.47

63.4
73.5
2
py = 541 N/mm py = 538 N/mm2
E = 199 kN/mm2 E = 206 kN/mm2

Notes:
1) By symmetry, only half of the test specimen is modelled.
2) All dimensions are in mm.
3) A galvanized coating of 0.04 mm thick is assumed in the steel thickness.

Figure 7: Finite element model of lapped Z sections

 Test ZA018R Test ZB030R

Test ZA030R Test ZB090R

Test ZA090R Test ZB150R

Figure 8: Deformed shapes of lapped Z sections at failure

 40 125
FEA FEA
Test Test

Mid-span moment, M (kNm)

Mid-span moment, M (kNm)
100
30

75
20
50

10
25

0 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
End Rotation, θ (Rad) End Rotation, θ (Rad)

a) Test ZA018R a) Test ZB030R

40 125
FEA FEA
Mid-span moment, M (kNm)

Test Mid-span moment, M (kNm) Test

100
30

75
20
50

10
25

0 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
End Rotation,θ (Rad) End Rotation, θ (Rad)

b) Test ZA030R b) Test ZB090R

40 125
FEA FEA
Test Test
Mid-span moment, M (kNm)
Mid-span moment, M (kNm)

100
30

75
20
50

10
25

0 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
End Rotation, θ (Rad) End Rotation, θ (Rad)

c) Test ZA090R c) Test ZB150R

Figure 9: Moment rotation curves of lapped Z sections: Figure 10: Moment rotation curves of lapped Z sections:
Section Z15016 G450 series Section Z25025 G450 series