S72 Glycemic Targets
but did not affect the definition of hy-
poglycemia.
HYPOGLYCEMIA
Recommendations
6.10 Individuals at risk for hypogly-
cemia should be asked about
symptomatic and asymptom-
atic hypoglycemia at each en-
counter. C
6.11 In patients taking medication
that can lead to hypoglycemia,
investigate, screen, and assess
risk for or occurrence of un-
recognized hypoglycemia, con-
sidering that patients may
have hypoglycemia unaware-
ness. C
6.12 Glucose (15–20 g) is the preferred
treatment for the conscious in-
dividual with blood glucose ,70
mg/dL [3.9 mmol/L]), although
any form of carbohydrate that
contains glucose may be used.
Fifteen minutes after treatment,
if SMBG shows continued hypo-
glycemia,thetreatmentshouldbe
repeated. Once SMBG returns to
normal, the individual should con-
sume a meal or snack to prevent
recurrence of hypoglycemia. B
6.13 Glucagon should be prescribed
for all individuals at increased risk
of level 2 hypoglycemia, defined
ic
as blood glucose ,54 mg/dL
(3.0 mmol/L), so it is available
er
should it be needed. Caregivers,
school personnel, or family mem-
Am
bers of these individuals should
know where it is and when and
how to administer it. Glucagon
administration is not limited to
health care professionals, partic-
19
ularly with the availability of intra-
nasal and stable soluble glucagon
20
available in autoinjector pens. E
6.14 Hypoglycemia unawareness or
one or more episodes of level
©
3 hypoglycemia should trigger
hypoglycemia avoidance edu-
cation and reevaluation of the
treatment regimen. E
6.15 Insulin-treated patients with hy-
poglycemia unawareness, one
level 3 hypoglycemic event, or
a pattern of unexplained level 2
hypoglycemia should be advised
to raise their glycemic targets to
strictly avoid hypoglycemia for
Diabetes Care Volume 43, Supplement 1, January 2020
Table 6.3—Summary of glycemic recommendations for many nonpregnant adults
with diabetes
A1C ,7.0% (53 mmol/mol)*
Preprandial capillary plasma glucose 80–130 mg/dL* (4.4–7.2 mmol/L)
Peak postprandial capillary plasma glucose† ,180 mg/dL* (10.0 mmol/L)
*More or less stringent glycemic goals may be appropriate for individual patients. Goals should be
individualized based on duration of diabetes, age/life expectancy, comorbid conditions, known
CVD or advanced microvascular complications, hypoglycemia unawareness, and individual patient
n
considerations. †Postprandial glucose may be targeted if A1C goals are not met despite reaching
preprandial glucose goals. Postprandial glucose measurements should be made 1–2 h after the
io
beginning of the meal, generally peak levels in patients with diabetes.
at
If a patient has level 2 hypoglycemia
at least several weeks in order to
ci
without adrenergic or neuroglycopenic
partially reverse hypoglycemia
symptoms, they likely have hypoglycemia
unawareness and reduce risk of
so
unawareness (discussed further below).
future episodes. A
This clinical scenario warrants investiga-
6.16 Ongoing assessment of cogni-
tion and review of the medical regimen.
As
tive function is suggested with
Lastly, level 3 hypoglycemia is defined as a
increased vigilance for hypogly-
severe event characterized by altered
cemia by the clinician, patient,
mental and/or physical functioning
and caregivers if low cognition
s
that requires assistance from another
or declining cognition is found. B
te
person for recovery.
Symptoms of hypoglycemia include,
be
Hypoglycemia is the major limiting but are not limited to, shakiness, irrita-
factor in the glycemic management of bility, confusion, tachycardia, and hun-
type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Recommen- ger. Hypoglycemia may be inconvenient
ia
dations regarding the classification of or frightening to patients with diabetes.
hypoglycemia are outlined in Table 6.4 Level 3 hypoglycemia may be recognized
D
(51–56). Level 1 hypoglycemia is defined or unrecognized and can progress to
as a measurable glucose concentration loss of consciousness, seizure, coma,
,70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L) but $54 mg/dL or death. It is reversed by administration
an
(3.0 mmol/L). A blood glucose concen- of rapid-acting glucose or glucagon. Hy-
tration of 70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L) has poglycemia can cause acute harm to the
been recognized as a threshold for neu- person with diabetes or others, espe-
roendocrine responses to falling glucose cially if it causes falls, motor vehicle
in people without diabetes. Because accidents, or other injury. Recurrent
many people with diabetes demonstrate level 2 hypoglycemia and/or level 3 hy-
impaired counterregulatory responses poglycemia is an urgent medical issue
to hypoglycemia and/or experience hy- and requires intervention with medical
poglycemia unawareness, a measured regimen adjustment, behavioral inter-
glucose level ,70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L) is vention, and, in some cases, use of
considered clinically important, inde- technology to assist with hypoglycemia
pendent of the severity of acute hypo- prevention and identification (52,57–60).
glycemic symptoms. Level 2 hypoglycemia A large cohort study suggested that
(defined as a blood glucose concentration among older adults with type 2 diabetes,
,54 mg/dL [3.0 mmol/L]) is the thresh- a history of level 3 hypoglycemia was
old at which neuroglycopenic symp- associated with greater risk of dementia
toms begin to occur and requires immediate (61). Conversely, in a substudy of the
action to resolve the hypoglycemic event. ACCORD trial, cognitive impairment at
Table 6.4—Classification of hypoglycemia
Glycemic criteria/description
Level 1 Glucose ,70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L) and $54 mg/dL (3.0 mmol/L)
Level 2 Glucose ,54 mg/dL (3.0 mmol/L)
Level 3 A severe event characterized by altered mental and/or physical status requiring
assistance for treatment of hypoglycemia
Reprinted from Agiostratidou et al. (51).
care.diabetesjournals.org
baseline or decline in cognitive function
during the trial was significantly associ-
ated with subsequent episodes of level
3 hypoglycemia (62). Evidence from
DCCT/EDIC, which involved adolescents
and younger adults with type 1 diabetes,
found no association between fre-
quency of level 3 hypoglycemia and
cognitive decline (63), as discussed in
Section 13 “Children and Adolescents”
(https://doi.org/10.2337/dc20-S013).
Studies of rates of level 3 hypoglycemia
that rely on claims data for hospitaliza-
tion, emergency department visits, and
ambulance use substantially underesti-
mate rates of level 3 hypoglycemia (64)
yet find high burden of hypoglycemia in
adults over 60 years of age in the com-
munity (65). African Americans are at
substantially increased risk of level 3 hy-
poglycemia (65,66). In addition to age
and race, other important risk factors
found in a community-based epidemi-
ologic cohort of older black and white
adults with type 2 diabetes include insulin
use, poor or moderate versus good gly-
cemic control, albuminuria, and poor
cognitive function (65). Level 3 hypo-
glycemia was associated with mortal-
ity in participants in both the standard
and the intensive glycemia arms of the
ACCORD trial, but the relationships be-
tween hypoglycemia, achieved A1C, and
treatment intensity were not straightfor-
ward. An association of level 3 hypo-
ic
glycemia with mortality was also found
in the ADVANCE trial (67). An association
er
between self-reported level 3 hypoglyce-
mia and 5-year mortality has also been
Am
reported in clinical practice (68)
Young children with type 1 diabetes
and the elderly, including those with
type 1 and type 2 diabetes (61,69),
19
are noted as particularly vulnerable to
hypoglycemia because of their reduced
ability to recognize hypoglycemic symp-
20
toms and effectively communicate their
needs. Individualized glucose targets,
patient education, dietary intervention
©
(e.g., bedtime snack to prevent overnight
hypoglycemia when specifically needed
to treat low blood glucose), exercise
management, medication adjustment,
glucose monitoring, and routine clinical
surveillance may improve patient out-
comes (70). CGM with automated low
glucose suspend has been shown to be
effective in reducing hypoglycemia in
type 1 diabetes (71). For patients with
type 1 diabetes with level 3 hypoglycemia
and hypoglycemia unawareness that per-
sists despite medical treatment, human
islet transplantation may be an option,
but the approach remains experimental
(72,73).
In 2015, the ADA changed its prepran-
dial glycemic target from 70–130 mg/dL
(3.9–7.2 mmol/L) to 80–130 mg/dL (4.4–
7.2 mmol/L). This change reflects the
results of the ADAG study, which dem-
onstrated that higher glycemic targets
corresponded to A1C goals (7). An addi-
tional goal of raising the lower range of
the glycemic target was to limit over-
treatment and provide a safety margin
in patients titrating glucose-lowering
drugs such as insulin to glycemic targets.
Hypoglycemia Treatment
Providers should continue to counsel
patients to treat hypoglycemia with
fast-acting carbohydrates at the hypo-
s
glycemia alert value of 70 mg/dL
te
(3.9 mmol/L) or less. This should be
reviewed at each patient visit. Hypogly-
be
cemia treatment requires ingestion of
glucose- or carbohydrate-containing foods
(74–76). The acute glycemic response
ia
correlates better with the glucose con-
tent of food than with the carbohy-
D
drate content of food. Pure glucose is the
preferred treatment, but any form of
an
carbohydrate that contains glucose will
raise blood glucose. Added fat may retard
and then prolong the acute glycemic
response. In type 2 diabetes, ingested
protein may increase insulin response
without increasing plasma glucose con-
centrations (77). Therefore, carbohy-
drate sources high in protein should not
be used to treat or prevent hypogly-
cemia. Ongoing insulin activity or
insulin secretagogues may lead to
recurrent hypoglycemia unless more
food is ingested after recovery. Once
the glucose returns to normal, the in-
dividual should be counseled to eat a
meal or snack to prevent recurrent
hypoglycemia.
Glucagon
The use of glucagon is indicated for
the treatment of hypoglycemia in peo-
ple unable or unwilling to consume
carbohydrates by mouth. Those in close
contact with, or having custodial care
of, people with hypoglycemia-prone di-
abetes (family members, roommates,
school personnel, childcare providers,
correctional institution staff, or cow-
orkers) should be instructed on the
Glycemic Targets S73
use of glucagon, including where
the glucagon product is kept and
when and how to administer. An in-
dividual does not need to be a health
care professional to safely administer
glucagon. In addition to traditional glu-
cagon injection powder that requires
reconstitution prior to injection, intra-
n
nasal glucagon and glucagon solution
for subcutaneous injection recently re-
io
ceived U.S. Food and Drug Administra-
tion approval. Care should be taken to
at
ensure that glucagon products are not
expired.
ci
so
Hypoglycemia Prevention
Hypoglycemia prevention is a critical
component of diabetes management.
As
SMBG and, for some patients, CGM
are essential tools to assess therapy
and detect incipient hypoglycemia. Pa-
tients should understand situations that
increase their risk of hypoglycemia, such
as when fasting for tests or procedures,
when meals are delayed, during and after
the consumption of alcohol, during and
after intense exercise, and during sleep.
Hypoglycemia may increase the risk of
harm to self or others, such as with
driving. Teaching people with diabetes
to balance insulin use and carbohydrate
intake and exercise are necessary, but
these strategies are not always sufficient
for prevention.
In type 1 diabetes and severely insulin
deficient type 2 diabetes, hypoglycemia
unawareness (or hypoglycemia-associated
autonomic failure) can severely com-
promise stringent diabetes control and
quality of life. This syndrome is char-
acterized by deficient counterregu-
latory hormone release, especially in
older adults, and a diminished auto-
nomic response, which are both risk
factors for, and caused by, hypoglyce-
mia. A corollary to this “vicious cycle” is
that several weeks of avoidance of
hypoglycemia has been demonstrated
to improve counterregulation and hy-
poglycemia awareness in many patients
(78). Hence, patients with one or more
episodes of clinically significant hypo-
glycemia may benefit from at least
short-term relaxation of glycemic tar-
gets and availability of glucagon (79).
Use of CGM Technology in
Hypoglycemia Prevention
With the advent of CGM and CGM-
assisted pump therapy, there has been a
S74 Glycemic Targets
promise of alarm-based prevention of
hypoglycemia (80,81). To date, there
have been six randomized controlled
trials in adults with type 1 diabetes
and seven in adults and children with
type 1 diabetes using real-time CGM.
These studies had differing A1C at entry
and differing primary end points and thus
must be interpreted carefully. Real-time
CGM studies can be divided into studies
with elevated A1C with the primary end
point of A1C reduction and studies with
A1C near target with the primary end
point of reduction in hypoglycemia
(81–97). In people with type 1 and
type 2 diabetes with A1C above target,
CGM improved A1C between 0.3% and
0.6%. For studies targeting hypoglyce-
mia, most studies demonstrated a sig-
nificant reduction in time spent between
54 and 70 mg/dL. No study to date has
reported a decrease in level 3 hypogly-
cemia. In a single study using intermit-
tently scanned CGM, adults with type 1
diabetes with A1C near goal and im-
paired awareness of hypoglycemia demon-
strated no change in A1C and decreased
level 2 hypoglycemia (88). For people
with type 2 diabetes, studies examining
the impact of CGM on hypoglycemic
events are limited; a recent meta-
analysis does not reflect a significant
an
impact on hypoglycemic events in type 2
diabetes (98), whereas improvements in
A1C were observed in most studies
ic
(98–104). Overall, real-time CGM ap-
pears to be a useful tool for decreasing
er
time spent in hypoglycemia range in
people with impaired awareness.
Am
INTERCURRENT ILLNESS
For further information on management
of patients with hyperglycemia in the
19
hospital, please refer to Section 15
“Diabetes Care in the Hospital” (https://
doi.org/10.2337/dc20-S015).
20
Stressful events (e.g., illness, trauma,
surgery, etc.) may worsen glycemic con-
trol and precipitate diabetic ketoacidosis
©
or nonketotic hyperglycemic hyperos-
molar state, life-threatening conditions
that require immediate medical care to
prevent complications and death. Any
condition leading to deterioration in
glycemic control necessitates more fre-
quent monitoring of blood glucose;
ketosis-prone patients also require urine
or blood ketone monitoring. If accom-
panied by ketosis, vomiting, or alteration
in the level of consciousness, marked
Diabetes Care Volume 43, Supplement 1, January 2020
hyperglycemia requires temporary ad-
justment of the treatment regimen
and immediate interaction with the di-
abetes care team. The patient treated
with noninsulin therapies or medical
nutrition therapy alone may require in-
sulin. Adequate fluid and caloric intake
must be ensured. Infection or dehydra-
tion is more likely to necessitate hospi-
talization of the person with diabetes
than the person without diabetes.
A physician with expertise in diabe-
tes management should treat the hos-
pitalized patient. For further information
on the management of diabetic keto-
acidosis and the nonketotic hyperglyce-
mic hyperosmolar state, please refer to
the ADA consensus report “Hyperglyce-
As
mic Crises in Adult Patients With Diabe-
tes” (105).
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