FLUID MECHANICS

CHAPTER I
FLUID PROPERTIES
*Fluid Mechanics: Is defined as that branch of engineering science
which deals with the behavior of fluid under the conditions of rest and
motion.

*Hydraulics: Is that branch of engineering science which deals with

water (at rest or in motion).

*Fluid: A fluid (liquids and gases) is a substance which is capable of

flowing, or a fluid is a substance which deforms continuously when
subjected to external shearing force, regardless of the magnitude of the
force.
*Types of fluids
The fluids may be of the following types:
i) Newtonian fluids: In such type of fluid, there is a linear
relationship between the magnitude of applied shear stress and
(shear strain) the rate of deformation (See Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Variation of shearing stress with rate of shearing strain for.

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 ii) Non-Newtonian fluid: In such type of fluid, fluids which do not
obey the linear relationship between shear stress and rate of
deformation, (See Fig. 1).

Fluids are either ideal fluids or real fluids. An ideal fluid is one which
has no viscosity (µ= 0) and surface tension and incompressible (density, ρ
= constant). Fluids which have low viscosity such as water and air can be
treated as ideal fluids.
A real fluid is one which has viscosity, surface tension, density and
compressibility.
The fluid mechanics may be divided into three parts: Statics, kinematics
and dynamics.
*Statics: The study of incompressible fluids under static conditions is
called hydrostatics. This study deals with fluid elements at rest.
*Dynamics: Fluid dynamics is one of the rapidly growing basics sciences
whose principles find application even in daily life, for example the
motion of fish in water is based on the principles of fluid dynamics.
Natural phenomena like hurricanes can also be explained by the science
of fluid dynamics. Fluid dynamics deals with the determination of the
effects of the fluid and its surroundings on the motion of the fluid.
*Kinematics: This study deals with the translation, the rotation and the
rate of deformation of a fluid elements and with the analysis of flow
patterns.
The matter can be classified on the basis of the spacing between the
molecules of the matter as:
i) Solid state
ii) Fluid state

In solids, the molecules are very closely spaced, whereas in liquids the
spacing between the different molecules is relatively large, i.e. inter-
molecular cohesive forces are large in solids and smaller in liquids.

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PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
The properties of water are of much importance because the subject of
hydraulics is mainly concerned with it. Some important properties of
water are:
*DENSITY
a) Mass density, density, or specific density is defined as mass per unit
volume and is denoted by ρ.
Mass of fluid
Density ¿ Volume of fluid

M
ρ= V ………………………………………………………..…… (1)

Unit of density (Kg/m3) SI units

Unit of density (Slug/ft3) British units
Density of water ρ= 1000 kg/m3 at temperature 4oC
Density of mercury ρ= 13600 kg/m3
Density of air ρ= 1.29 kg/m3
b) Weight density or specific weight is defined as weight per unit volume
and is denoted by γ .
Weight
Weight density = Volume

W
γ= ……………………………………………………..…….…. (2)
V
m.g
γ= ……………………………………………………..….….…. (3)
V

γ = ρ.g ……………………………………………………..…….…. (4)

γ w = ρw . g …………………………………………………..…….…. (5)

kg m N
γ w =1000 3
∗9.81 2 = 9810 or 9.81 KN/m3 in SI units
m sec m3
Slug ft
γ w =1.94 3
∗32.2 = 62.4 Ib/ft3 in British units
ft sec 2

1 Slug = 14.5939 kg and 1Ib = 1 slug.ft/sec2

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*SPECIFIC VOLUME, v
Is defined as the volume occupied per unit mass of fluid and is denoted
by v.
V 1 1
v ¿ M = M /V = ρ ………………………………………….…….… (6)

And unit of specific volume is:

1 1 m3
v ρ
¿ = =
kg/m 3 kg

* SPECIFIC GRAVITY OR RELATIVE DENSITY, S

Is the ratio of the specific weight of the liquid to the specific weight of a
standard fluid and is denoted by S. For fluids the standard fluid is pure
water at 4oC.
γ liquid ρliquid . g ρliquid
Specific gravity = γ = =
ρ water . g ρ water
water

γl ρl
S = γ = ρ ……………………………………………………...…….. (7)
w w

Example 1: A certain mass of a liquid has a volume of 5 m 3 and a weight

of 39240 N. Find the specific weight, specific mass and specific gravity
of the liquid.
Solution:
Weight of liquid
i) Specific weight, γ = Volume of liquid

39240 N
=
5 m3

=7848 N/m3
Mass of liquid , m
ii) Specific mass, ρ = Volume of liquid ,V

W/g
= V (W = mg ….. equ.2)

W
= Vg

39240
= 5∗9.81

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 =800 kg/m3
iii) Specific gravity of the liquid, S

ρl 800
S = ρ = 1000 = 0.8
w

Example 2: One litre of liquid at 4oC temperature has mass 900 gram.
Calculate the mass density, specific weight, specific volume and specific
gravity of the liquid. (Note: 1 Litre = 1x10-3 m3).

Example 3: A certain Gasoline weighs 46.5 Ib/ft3. What are its mass
density, specific volume and specific gravity?

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*VISCOSITY
Is defined as the property of a fluid which determines its resistance to
shearing stress, or may be defined as the shear stress (τ) required to
produce unit velocity gradient. It is a measure of the internal fluid friction
which causes resistance to flow. It is primarily due to cohesion and
molecular momentum exchange between fluid layers. Fluids with
viscosity such as mercury deforms relatively more slowly than low
viscosity fluid such as water.
Let us consider two layers of fluid at a distance, dy, move one over the
other at different velocities, u and (u+du) as shown in Fig.2. The viscosity
together with relative velocity causes a shear stress, τ, acting between the
fluid layers. This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of
velocity with respect to y.
Newton's viscosity law's states that, the shear stress between adjacent fluid layers is
proportional to the velocity gradients between the two layers.

Causes of Viscosity         

 The causes of viscosity in a fluid are possibly attributed to two

factors, i) intermolecular force of cohesion ii) molecular
momentum exchange.

Due to strong cohesive forces between the molecules, any layer in a

moving fluid tries to drag the adjacent layer to move with an equal speed
and thus produces the effect of viscosity, therefore, shear stresses can be
identified between the fluid elements with different velocities. Since
cohesion decreases with temperature, the liquid viscosity does likewise.

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 a) Parallel flow of a fluid

b) Two adjacent layers of a moving fluid.

Fig.2 a) Velocity profile over a solid boundary, b) Behaviour of a fluid
placed between two parallel plates.

du
Mathematically, τ ∝ dy and is called Newton's viscosity law.

Inserting the coefficient of proportionality into Newton's viscosity law

leads to:
du
τ =µ …………………………………………………..………….. (8)
dy
du
where, µ is dynamic viscosity in Pa.s., dy
is the rate of shear
deformation or velocity gradient (s-1). The slope of the resulting line in
Figure (3) is the viscosity of the fluid because it is a measure of the

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fluid’s resistance to shear. In other words, viscosity indicates how a fluid
will react (du/dy) under the action of an external shear stress (τ ).

Fig.3 A plot of τ versus du/dy for Newtonian fluids.

N . sec
In SI units, the dynamic viscosity units are Pascal. Second, i.e.
m2
N
1 Pascal, Pa =
m2
1
1 Poise = 10 Pa. s

VARIATION OF VISCOSITY WITH TEMPERATURE

The viscosity of a liquid decreases with an increase in temperature, that
causes of decreasing cohesion (the property of a liquid which molecules
of the same liquid attract each other) between molecules. Dynamic
viscosity of some common fluids as a function of temperature is shown in
Fig.4.

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Fig.4 Dynamic viscosity of some common fluids as a function of
temperature.
Kinematic Viscosity, ν
Is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density of fluid
and is denoted by ν.
Dynamic viscosity (μ)
Kinematic viscosity, ν = Density of fluid ( ρ)

μ
ν = ρ …………………………………………………………………. (9)

In SI units, the kinematic viscosity units are as follows:

μ N . s/m 2 kg . m/s 2 s
ν= ρ = = x 2 = m2 / s
kg/m 3 kg /m3 m

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(Note: each one Newton=1kg.m/s2)
1stoke = 10-4 m2/s
1 stoke = 1 cm2/s
Popularly used unit is stoke (cm2/s) = 10–4 m2/s named in honor of Stokes.
Centi stoke is also popular = 10–6 m2/s.
Example 4: A liquid has a viscosity of 0.005 Pa.s and a density of 850
kg/m3. Calculate the kinematic viscosity of the liquid.
Solution:
μ 0.005
ν = ρ = 850 =5.882x10-5 m2/s

Example 5: Two horizontal plates are placed 11.5 mm apart, the space
between them being filled with oil of viscosity 14 poise. Calculate the
shear stress in the oil if the upper plate moved with a velocity of 3.5 m/s.
Solution:
Referring to Fig.2b
Distance between plates is dy = 11.5 mm= 0.0115 m
Viscosity of the oil, µ = 14 poise= 14/10=1.4 N.s/m2
Relative velocity between plates, du= velocity of moving plate-velocity
of fixed plate, i.e.
du = 3.5 - 0 = 3.5 m/s
and,
du
τ =µ
dy
3.5
τ = 1.4 x 0.005 = 426.07 N/m2

*SHEAR STRESS, τ
Is the tangent force, Ft acting tangentially on fluid surface area, A (See
Fig.5). The shear stress is defined as:
Ft
τ= ………………………………………………………………… (10)
A

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 Fig.5 Well-ordered parallel flow.

Example 6: Calculate the dynamic viscosity of an oil, which is used for

lubrication between square plate of size 700 mm x 700 mm and inclined
plane with an angle of inclination 25o as shown in Fig. below. The weight
of the square plate is 250 N and it slides down the inclined plane with a
uniform velocity of 0.35 m/s. The thickness of oil film is 1.4 mm.
Solution:
700 700
Area of plate = 1000 x 1000 =0.49 m2

Shear force , F W sinθ 250 sin25

Shear stress, τ = Area , A
= Area = 0.49 =215.61N/m2

du = change of velocity
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 = u-0
= 0.35-0 = 0.35 m/s
du 0.35
τ =µ 215.61 = µ x
dy dy

µ =0.8624 N.s/m2

= 0.8624 Pa.s

Example 7: A square metal plate 1.8 m side and 1.8 mm thick weighing
60 N is to be lifted through a vertical gap of 30 mm of infinite extent (See
Fig. below). The oil in the gap has a specific gravity of 0.95 and viscosity
of 3 N.s/m2. If the metal plate is to be lifted at a constant speed of 0.12
m/s, find the force required.
Solution:
Area of the metal plate, A = 1.8m X1.8m = 3.24 m2
30−1.8
Thickness of the oil film, t = dy = 2
=0.0141m

Speed of the metal plate, u = 0.12 m/s

Change of speed, du = 0.12-0 = 0.12 m/s
Dynamic viscosity, µ = 3 N.s/m2
du
τ =µ
dy
0.12
= 3 x 0.0141 = 25.53 N/m2

∑ Fy=0
F
Force required, F =W+2 τ A (where, τ¿ A )

F = 60 +2 X 25.53 X 3.24 = 225.4 N

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Example 8: A plate 0.05 mm distance from a fixed plate moves at 1.2 m/s
and requires a force of 2.2 N/m2 to maintain this speed. Find the viscosity
of the fluid between the plates.
Solution:
τ = 2.2 N/m2

du = u-0 = 1.2 m/s

dy = 0.05 x 10-3
dy
µ=τ
du
µ = (2.2 x 0.05 x10-5)/ 1.2 = 9.16 x 10-5 Pa.s

Example 9: A flat plate of 0.1 m2 area is pulled at 30 cm/s relative to

another plate located at a distance of 0.01 cm from it, the fluid separating
them being water with dynamic viscosity of 0.001 Pa.s. Find the force
required to maintain the velocity. (Try to solve
it)

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Example 10: A 40-lb, 0.8-ft-diameter, 1-ft-tall cylindrical tank slides
slowly down a ramp with a constant speed of 0.1 ft/s as shown in Figure
below. The uniform-thickness oil layer on the ramp has a viscosity of 0.2
lb s./ft2. Determine the angle, θ, of the ramp.

Example 11: The velocity distribution for flow over a plate is given by
u= 2y - y2 where u is the velocity in m/s at a distance y meters above the
plate surface. Determine the velocity gradient and shear stresses at the
boundary and 1.5m from it. Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 0.9
N.s/m2.

Solution:
Given u= 2y - y2
∴ 𝑑𝑢 /𝑑𝑦 = 2 − 2𝑦
1) Velocity gradient, 𝑑𝑢 /𝑑𝑦
At boundary:
at y=0 𝑑𝑢 /𝑑𝑦 = 2 𝑠−1
At y=0.15m 𝑑𝑢/ 𝑑𝑦 = 2 − 2 × 0.15 = 1.7𝑠−1

2) Shear stresses, τ:

𝜏) 𝑦=0 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑦 = 0.9 × 2 = 1.8 𝑁/𝑚2

𝜏) 𝑦=0.15 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑦 = 0.9 × 1.7 = 1.53 𝑁/𝑚2

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Example 12: A large movable plate is located between two large fixed
plates as shown in Figure below. Two Newtonian fluids having
viscosities as indicated are contained between the plates. Determine the
magnitude and direction of shearing stress that act on fixed walls when
the moving plate has a velocity of 4 m/s.

Solution:
du u
τ =µ =µ , So that
dy y
u
τ 1 =μ 1 =¿= 0.02 x (4/0.006) = 13.3 N/m2
y1

u
τ 2=μ2 =¿0.01 x (4/0.003) = 13.3 N/m2
y2

Stresses act on fixed walls in direction of moving plate.

Example 13: A cylinder of weight 20Ib slides in a lubricated pipe as
shown in Figure below. The clearance between cylinder and pipe is
0.001in. The speed is 20 ft/s. What is the viscosity of the oil.

Solution:
u
F= τ A = µ y A

u = 20 ft/s
y = 0.001 in
D cylinder = 6- (0.001/2)= 5.998 in
L= 5 in

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 20
µ πDL
20 = (0.001)
12
000∗3.14∗5.998
∗5
20 = µ∗2 4 0 12
12
2
µ=1.2743∗10−4 Ib.s/ft

Example 14: A 25 mm diameter shaft is pulled through a cylindrical

bearing as shown in Figure below. The lubrication that fills the 0.3 mm
gap between the shaft and bearing is an oil having kinematic viscosity
0.8x10-4 m2/s and specific gravity 0.91. Determine the force F required to
pull the shaft at a velocity of 3 m/s.

Solution:
F= τA
A= πDl
velocity of shaft u
τ =µ =µ
gap width b

So that,
u u
F= µ b A=µ b (πDl)

S
and µ=νρ=ν ρ
H2o

0.8 X 10−4 X 0.91 X 103 X 3 XπX 0.025 X 0.5

F= =286 N
0.0003

*THE AVERAGE PRESSURE, P

Is the normal force acting perpendicular on the fluid surface area and
denoted by P.
Force
Pressure = Area

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 F
P = A ………………………………………………………………….
(11)
N
In SI units pressure, P, has the units of force per unit area ( =¿ Pascal),
m2
or KN/m2 and is called kilopascal and denoted by (kpa).
Pressure may also be expressed in terms of an equivalent height, h, of a
fluid column, and can be expressed as a hydrostatic pressure and is given
by:
mgh Wh
P = ρgh= V = V =γh …………………………………….…… (12)

*THE GRAVITATIONAL FORCE, FG

Is the force exerted on a body by gravitational and can be expressed as:
FG= mg ………………………………………………………………. (13)
where, m is the mass of the body and g is the gravitational acceleration,
9.81 m/sec2.
*SURFACE TENSION, σ AND CAPILLARY RISE, h
Liquids possess the properties of cohesion (the property of a liquid by
which the molecules of the same liquid attract each other) and adhesion
(the property of a liquid which enables the molecules of a liquid to adhere
the molecules of a solid boundary surface with which it comes in contact)
due to molecular attraction. Due to cohesion liquid can resist small tensile
forces at the interface between the liquid and air, known as surface
tension and is denoted by σ.
Surface tension is caused by the force of cohesion at the free surface.
A fluid particle at A is drawn uniformly in all directions to its neighboring particles. A
particle at B is drawn more strongly to liquid particles in its vicinity than to those in
the vapor above the surface. Consequently, a surface tension exists; in water, this
surface tension is strong enough to support the weight of a needle. See Fig. 6.

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 Fig. 6 An illustration of differences in molecular attraction between two particles at
separate locations

Consider now the situation where a liquid in contact with a solid such as
liquid in a glass tube. If the adhesion of the liquid to the solid exceeds the
cohesion in the liquid, then the liquid will rise in the tube and form a
meniscus curving upward towards the solid. If the adhesion to the glass is
less than the cohesion in the liquid, then we get a meniscus curving
downward as measured by θtoward the solid (See Fig.7). The capillary
rise or depression, h, of a liquid in a tube of diameter D can be written as:
4 σcosθ
h= γD ………………………………………..……………………
(14)
where, h = height of water in pipe, in metre or feet, σ =¿surface tension in
N/m.

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 Fig.7 Phenomenon of Capillarity

Example 15: A clean tube of diameter 2.5 mm is immersed in a liquid

with a coefficient of surface tension equal 0.40 N/m. The angle of contact
of the liquid with the glass can be assumed to be 135 o. The density of the
liquid equal 13600 kg/m3. What would be the level of the liquid in the
tube relative to the free surface of the liquid inside the tube?
Solution:
4 σcosθ
h= γD

4 X 0.40 cos 135 -3

h= −3 = -3.39 x 10 m = -3.39 mm
9.81 X 13600 X 2.5 X 10

h is negative indicating capillary depression.

Example 16: Find the height to which ethyl alcohol will rise in a glass
capillary tube 0.127 mm in diameter. Density is 790 kg/m3, σ= 0.0227
N/m, and θ = 0°.

*BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY, K

The bulk modulus of elasticity is a property of the fluid and for liquids is
a function of temperature and pressure.
Pressure change
The bulk modulus of elasticity, K= Volumetric strain

∆P dP
K= ∆ V /V = - V d V ……………………………………………………
(15)
Negative sign shows decrease in volume with increase of pressure.
KN
Units of bulk modulus of elasticity are
m2

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The compressibility of a liquid is expressed by its bulk modulus of
elasticity. If the pressure of a unit volume of liquid is increased by dp, it
will cause a volume decrease – dv.
At any temperature it can be noted that the value of K increases
continuously with pressure. But at any one temperature the bulk modulus
of water does not vary a great deal for a moderate range in pressure.
Example 17: A liquid compressed in a cylinder has a volume of 1 litre
(1000 cm3) at 1MN/m2 and a volume of 995 cm3 at 2 MN/m2. What is
the bulk of modulus of elasticity?
Solution:
∆P
K= - ∆ V /V

2−1
K = (995−1000)/1000 =200MPa

Example 18: When a pressure of 20.7 MN/m 2 is applied to 100 litre of a

liquid its volume decreases by 1 litre. Find the bulk modulus of elasticity,
K of the fluid.
Solution:
Net pressure applied = 20.7 MN/m2
Decrease in volume, dv = 1 litre
Initial volume = 100 litre
∆P
K= - ∆ V /V

dP 20.7∗10 6
K=-V dV
= 100 x = 20.7 x 108 N/m2
1

*VELOCITY, U

Flow velocity is the vector field that is used to describe fluid motion in a
mathematical manner. The entire length of the flow velocity is referred to
as the flow speed and is denoted by u.

Flow velocity in fluids is the vector field that provides the velocity of
fluids at a certain time and position.

Flow average velocity, U, can be expressed as:

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U = Q / A …………………………………………………………... (16)

Where, Q = flow rate in m3/s and A= cross sectional area in m2.

In SI units flow velocity has the units of m/s.

*FLOW RATE OR DISCHARGE, Q

Stream flow, or discharge, is the volume of water moving past a cross-
section of a stream over a set period of time; usually represented by the
symbol Q.
Flow rate can be expressed from the given relationship:
Q = U A ...……………………………….…………………………….
(17)
*GRAVITATIONAL FORCE, FG
Is the force exerted on a body by gravitational and can be expressed as
Newton's law of motion:
FG = m.g. …………………………………………………………… (18)
where, m = the mass of the body, g = the gravitational acceleration, 9.81
m/s2 or 32.2 ft/s2.
In the British Gravitational (BG) system the unit of length is the foot (ft),
the time unit is the second (s), the force unit is the pound (lb). The mass
unit, called the slug, is defined from Newton’s second law as (force =
mass x acceleration):
1 lb = (1 slug) x (1 ft /s2)
This relationship indicates that a 1-lb force acting on a mass of 1 slug will
give the mass an acceleration of 1 ft/s2.
The weight, w , which is the force due to gravity, g, of a mass, m, is given
by the equation;
w=mg
and in BG units
w ( Ib )=m ( slug ) . g ¿ )
Since the earth’s standard gravity is taken as g= 32.174 ft/s2 (commonly
approximated as 32.2 ft/s2), it follows that a mass of 1 slug weighs 32.2 lb
under standard gravity.

Example 19: An individual weighs 150 lbf.

a. What is the person’s mass at a location where the acceleration due to
gravity is 32.2 ft=s2?

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b. On the moon, the acceleration due to gravity is one-sixth of that on
earth. What is the weight of this person on the moon?
Solution:
a. Applying Newton’s law, we write
F = ma
Substituting gives
150 lbf = m X (32.2 ft/s2)
Solving for mass, we obtain
m = 150 lbf/ 32.2 ft/s2 =4.66 lbf .s2/ft
or
m = 4.66 slug
b. The mass is the same on the moon as on the earth. Again we apply
Newton’s law,
F = ma
where m = 4.66 slug and the acceleration due to gravity is
(1/6) X 32.2 ft/s2 = 5.37 ft/s2
Substituting, the weight on the moon becomes
F = 4.66 slug X (5.37 ft/s2)
or
F = 25.0 lbf

Example 20:
a. What is the weight of 1 m3 of water on earth’s surface if the water has
a mass of 1 000 kg?
b. What is its weight on Mars, where the acceleration due to gravity is
about two-fifths that on Earth?
Solution:
a. We use Newton’s law,
F = ma
Where, m=1 000 kg
A= 9.81 m/s2
We then have
F = 1000 kg X 9.81 m/s2 = 9 810 kg m/s2
or
F = 9 810 N
b. On Mars, a = (2/5) X(9:81) = 3.92 m/s2 and m =1 000 kg. Hence, we
obtain
F =1 000 kg X (3.92) m/s2 = 3 920 kg.m/s2
or
F = 3 920 N

*DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

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The concept of a fluid dimensions and units are, force, mass, length and
time units.
There is two systems of dimensions for each property:
- FLT [Force, Length, Time]
- MLT [Mass, Length, Time]
SI units British Units

Force, F Newton, N Pound-force, Ib

Mass, M Kilogram, Kg Slug (Ib.sec2/ft)
Length, L Meter, m Foot
Time, T Second Second
Notes: The relation between two systems of units can be expressed as:
1 Ib = 4.448 N 1ft = 0.3048 m 1 Slug = 14.5939 kg
1 Ib = 0.4536 kg 1ft = 12 in 1 Slug = 32.2 Ib
1 Ib/in2 = 6894.4 N/m2 1 N = kg.m/s2 1 m3 = 1000 Liter
Ib . s 2
1 slug=
ft

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