FLUID

MECHANICS
COURSE DESCRIPTION
This course focuses on the study of fluids either in motion (fluid dynamics) or at rest (fluid statics). Both
gases and liquids are classified as fluids, and the number of fluid engineering applications is enormous:
breathing, blood flow, swimming, pumps, fans, turbines, airplanes, ships, rivers, windmills, pipes,
missiles, icebergs, engines, filters, jets, and sprinklers, to name a few. When you think about it, almost
everything on this planet either is a fluid or moves within or near a fluid.

1. Properties of Fluids
2. Fluid statics
3. Kinematics of fluid flow

Reference:
Daugherty, Robert L, et. al. Fluid Mechanics with Engineering Applications. SI Metric Edition.
Singapore: McGraw-Hill Book Company Incorporated 2
Chapter 1.
PROPERTIES OF
FLUIDS
3
“
Be as fluid as water, do not give your
enemies anything solid to attack.
- Robert Greene

4
Chapter Content

1. Development of Fluid Mechanics

2. Density, Specific Weight, specific Volume,
and Specific Gravity
3. Compressible and Incompressible Fluids
4. Specific Weights of Liquids
5. Equation of State for Gases
5
Chapter Content

6. Compressibility of Gases
7. Ideal Fluid
8. Viscosity
9. Surface Tension
10. Vapor Pressure of Fluids
6
FLUID
MECHANICS
Fluid mechanics is the science of the mechanics of liquids and
gases and is based on the same fundamental principles that are
employed in the mechanics of solids.

7
Development
Fluid mechanics may be divided into three branches:

FLUID STATICS KINEMATICS FLUID DYNAMICS

Fluid statics is the study Kinematics deals with Fluid dynamics is

of the mechanics of velocities and concerned with the
fluids at rest. streamlines without relations between
considering forces or velocities and acceleration
energy. and the forces exerted by
or upon fluid in motion.

8
Solids vs. Fluids
SOLIDS FLUIDS
More compact structure Less compact structure
Attractive forces between the molecules are Attractive forces between the molecules are
larger therefore more closely packed smaller therefore more loosely packed
Solids can resist tangential stresses in static Fluids cannot resist tangential stresses in static
condition condition
Whenever a solid is subject to shear stress Whenever a fluid is subject to shear stress
- it undergoes a definite deformation - no fixed deformation
- a is proportional to shear stress up to some - continuous deformation takes place until
the shear stress is applied
limiting condition A fluid can never regain its original shape,
9
Solid may regain partly or fully its original once it has been distorted by the shear stress.
shape when the tangential stress is removed.
Solids vs. Liquids
SOLIDS LIQUIDS
Highly strong intermolecular forces between The intermolecular forces are stronger than
the molecules, leads to a definite volume gases but weaker than solids
Have a definite shape Liquids do not have a definitive shape
The intermolecular space between solids is The force of attraction between molecules is
absent pretty moderate
Solids are incompressible Liquids cannot be compressed
Solid may regain partly or fully its original A fluid can never regain its original shape,
shape when the tangential stress is removed. once it has been distorted by the shear stress.

10
Density, Specific
Weight
The density r of a fluid is its mass per unit volume, while the
specific weight g is its weight per unit volume. In SI units will be in
kg/m3, which may also be expressed as units of Ns2/m4.

r = m/v, g = w/v
11
Relation between r and
g
Specific weight g represents the force exerted by gravity on a unit
volume of fluid and therefore must have units of force per unit
volume, such as N/m3.

Density and specific weight of a fluid are related as follows:

g = rg
12
Specific Volume
Specific volume n of a fluid is the volume occupied by a unit mass
of fluid. It is commonly applied to gases and is usually expressed in
m3/kg. Specific volume is the reciprocal of density. Thus

n = 1/r
13
Specific Gravity
Specific gravity of a liquid is the ratio of its density to that of pure
water at a standard temperature. The density of water at 4C is 1.00
g/cm3 (or 1.00 g/mL) equivalent to 1000 kg/m 3, and hence the
specific gravity is dimensionless.

The specific gravity of a gas is the ratio of its density to that of

either hydrogen or air at some specified temperature and pressure,
but there is no general agreement on these standard.

14
SOLVED
PROBLEMS ON
GENERAL
PROPERTIES
15
Problem 1:
The specific gravity of glycerin is 1.26. Compute its density and
specific weight.

rglycerin = sglycerin rwater = (1.26) (1000 kg/m3) = 1 260 kg/m3

gglycerin = rglycerin g = (1 260 kg/m3) (9.8066 m/s2) = 12.356 kN/m3

16
Problem 2:
(a) If the specific weight of liquid is 8.0 kN/m 3, what is its density?
(b) If the specific volume of a gas is 0.72 m 3/kg, what is its specific
weight in N/m3?

g= rg; rliquid = gliquid / g

= (8.0 kN/m3) / (9.8066 m/s2)
= 815.777 kg/m3
gliquid = (1/nliquid) g
= (9.8066 m/s2) / (0.72 m3/kg)
= 7.061 kg/m3 17
Problem 3:
It is estimated that the mass of the earth is 5.98 x 10 24 kg; its mean
radius is 6.38 x 106 m. Find its density in kg/m3 and lb/ft3. Compare
this value to the density of water (62.4 lb/ft 3).

Vearth = (4/3) p r3 = (4/3)(6.38 x 106 m)3 p = 1.088 x 1021 m3

r = m/v = (5.9 x 1024 kg)/(1.088 x 1021 m3) = 5.496 x 103 kg/m3

=(5.496 x 103 kg/m3)(2.205 lb/kg)/(3.281ft/m)3 =343.113 lb/ft3

= rearth / rwater = (343.113 lb/ft3 )/(62.4 lb/ft3) = 5.499

18
The density of the earth is 5.5 times the density of water.
Problem 4:
Two liquids of different densities (r1 = 1500 kg/m3, r2 = 500 kg/m3)
are poured together into a 100-L tank, filling it. If the resulting
density of the mixture is 800kg/m3, find the respective amounts of
liquids used.
v = (100 L) / (1000 L/m3) = 0.1 m3
Apply law of conservation of mass,
r1 v1 + r2 v2 = rmixture vmixture
1500 v1 + 500 v2 = 800 (0.1) = 80; but v1 + v2 = 0.1
Solve simultaneously these equations, m 1 = 45 kg and m2 = 35 kg
19
Compressibility
Fluid mechanics deals with both incompressible and compressible
fluids, that is with fluids of either constant or variable density.
Although there is no such thing as an incompressible fluid, this term
is applied where the change in density with pressure is so small as
to be negligible. This is usually the case with liquids. Gases, too,
may be considered incompressible when the pressure variation is
small compared with the absolute pressure.

20
Compressibility of
Liquids
The compressibility (change in volume due to change in pressure)
of a liquid is inversely proportional to its modulus of elasticity, also
known as bulk modulus.

Ev = - v dp/dv
21
Bulk modulus of water*
Pressure, Temperature, C
MN/m2, abs
0 20 50 100 150

0.1 1950 2130 2210 2050

10.0 2000 2200 2280 2130 1650
30.0 2110 2320 2410 2250 1800
100.0 2530 2730 2840 2700 2320
*R. L. Daugherty, Some Physical Properties of Water and Other Fluids, Trans, ASME, 57, no. 5,
July 1935
22
Specific Weight of
Liquids
The specific weight of a liquid varies only slightly with pressure,
depending on the bulk modulus of the liquid; it also depends on
temperature, and the variation may be considerable. Since the g is
equal to rg, the specific weight of a fluid depends on the local value
of the acceleration due to gravity in addition to the variation with
temperature and pressure.

23
Specific weights (kN/m3)
of common liquids at
20C
Carbon tetrachloride 15.60
Ethyl alcohol 7.76
Gasoline 6.60
Glycerin 12.30
Kerosene 7.90
Motor oil 8.50
24
Equations of State for
Gases
There is no such thing as a perfect gas, but air and other real gases
that are far removed from the liquid phase may be considered. For a
perfect gas the equation of state is

p/r = pn = RT
25
 p/r = pn = RT
where p = absolute pressure
r = density (mass per unit volume)
n = specific volume (1/r)
R = gas constant, the value of which depends upon the
particular gas
T = absolute temperature in degrees Rankine or Kelvin
26
For air the value of r is 287 Nm/(kgK). Since g = rg, the equation
for state of gases may also be written

g = (gP)/(RT)
From which the specific weight of any gas at any temperature and
pressure can be computed if R and g are known.

27
Avogadro’s Law
Avogadro’s law states that all gases at the same temperature and
pressure under the action of a given value of g have the same
number of molecules per unit of volume, from which it follows that
the specific weight of a gas is proportional to its weight.

m1R1 = m2R2 = k
28
mR of Perfect Gas
The exact equation for any real gas is more complicated and hence
mR is not strictly constant. For the perfect gas mR = 8312
Nm/(kgK) while for actual gases the values of mR range between
8140 and 8380 Nm/(kgK) which is a variation of less than 3%.

The value of R may always be estimated by dividing the assumed

value of mR by molecular weight. Thus the water vapor in the
atmosphere, because of its low partial pressure, may be treated as a
perfect gas with R = 8312/18 = 462 Nm/(kgK).
29
Another fundamental equation for a perfect gas is

pv = p v = k
n
1 1
n
where p is the absolute pressure, n (= 1/r) is the specific volume,
and may have any nonnegative value from zero to infinity,
depending upon the process to which the gas is subjected.

30
If the process is at constant temperature (isothermal), n = 1. If
there is no heat transfer to or from the gas, the process is known as
adiabatic. A frictionless adiabatic process is called an isentropic
process and n is denoted by k, where k = cp/cv, the ratio of specific
heat at constant pressure to that at constant volume.
For expansion with friction is less than and for compression with
friction it is greater than k.
For air and diatomic gases at usual temperatures, may be taken as
1.4.

31
By combining the equations for perfect gases, t is possible to obtain

T2/T1 = (v1/v2) n–1

= (p2/p1) (n–1)/n

32
Properties of Some
Gases
Gas Gas constant, R cp cv cp/cv
Air 287 1003 716 1.40
Carbon dioxide 188 858 670 1.28
Carbon monoxide 297 1040 743 1.40
Helium 2077 5220 3143 1.66
Methane 520 2250 1730 1.30
Water vapor 462 1862 1400 1.33
33
Compressibility of Gases
Differentiating the equation for state for gases gives npv n–1 dv + vn
dp = 0 and inserting the value of dp from the E v = – (v/dv) dp
yields

Ev = np
So that for an isothermal process of gas E v = p and for an
isentropic process Ev = kp. 34
SOLVED
PROBLEMS ON
COMPRESSIBILIT
Y
35
Problem 5:
(a) Calculate the density, specific weight, and specific volume of
oxygen at 40 C and 100 kPa, abs. (b) What would the temperature
and pressure be if it were compressed isentropically to 40% of its
original volume? (c) if the process described in (b) has been
isothermal, what would the temperature and pressure have been?

(a) Molecular weight of oxygen (O2) = 32,

R = 8312/32 = 0.26 kNm/(kgK)
r = p/(RT) = 100 / (0.26)(273 + 40) = 1.23 kg/m 3

36
 With g = 9.81 m/s2, g = rg = 12.066 kg/m3
n = 1/r = 1/1.23 = 0.813 m3/kg

(b) nk = (100)(0.813)1.4 = 2 [(0.4)(0.813)]1.4

2 = 360.7 kN/m2, abs
also, 2 = 360.7 = rRT = (1.23/0.40)(0.26)(273 + T2)
T2 = 178 C
(c) If isothermal, T2 = T1 = 40 C and n = constant
(100)(0.813) = (2)[(0.4)(0.813)]; 2 = 250 kN/m2, abs.
37
Problem 6:
Water in a hydraulic press is subjected to a pressure of 100 MN/m 2,
abs at 20 C. If the initial pressure is 100 kN/m 2, abs, what will be
the percentage decrease in specific volume? Use the table of bulk
modulus of water.

From the table, Ev = 2730 MN/m2 and 1 = 0.1 MN/m2

(dn/n) = – (dp / Ev) = – (99.9/2730) = – 0.0366 = – 3.66%

38
IDEAL FLUID
An ideal fluid may be defined as one in which there is no friction;
that is , its viscosity is zero. Thus the internal forces at any internal
section are always normal to the section, even during motion.
Hence the forces are purely pressure forces. Such a fluid does not
exist in reality.

In a real fluid, either liquid or gas, tangential r shearing forces

always come into being whenever motion takes place, thus giving
rise to fluid friction, because these forces oppose the movement of
one particle past another.
39
VISCOSITY
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to shear or
angular deformation. The friction forces in fluid flow result from
the cohesion and momentum interchange between molecules in the
fluid.

As the temperature increases, the viscosities of all liquids decrease,

while the viscosities of all gases increase. This is because the force
of cohesion, which diminishes with temperature predominates with
liquids.
40
Consider two parallel plates, sufficiently large so that edge
conditions may be neglected, placed a small distance Y apart, the
space between being filled with the fluid. The lower surface is
assumed to be stationary, while the upper one is moved parallel to
it with a velocity U by the application of a force F corresponding to
some area A of the moving plate. Such a condition is approximated,
for instance, in the clearance space of a flooded journal bearing
(any radial load is being neglected).

41
 U

dy
Y

y
u du

42
Particles of the fluid in contact with each plate will adhere to it, and
if the distance Y is not too great or the velocity U too high, the
velocity gradient will be a straight line.

F a (AU)/Y
43
Equation of Viscosity
It may be seen from similar triangles that U/Y can be replaced by
the velocity gradient du/dy. If a constant of proportionality m is

t = F/A =
introduced, the shearing stress t between any two thin sheets of
fluids may be expressed by

m(du/dy)
44
When the Newton’s equation of viscosity is transform, it serves to
define the proportionality constant called the coefficient of
viscosity, the absolute viscosity, the dynamic viscosity, or simply
viscosity.

m = t /(du/dy)
The dimensions of absolute viscosity are force per unit area divided
by the velocity gradient.
Dimensions of m = (N/m2)/s–1 = Ns/m2
45
A widely used unit for viscosity is the poise (P), after Poiseuille,
who was one of the first investigators of viscosity. The poise = 0.01
Ns/m2. The centipoise (cP) (= 0.01 P = mNs/m2) is frequently a
more convenient unit. In many problems involving viscosity there
frequently appears the value of viscosity divided by density. This is
defines as the kinematic viscosity, n, usually measured in cm2/s,
also called the stoke (St).

n = m /r
46
SOLVED
PROBLEMS ON
VISCOSITY
47
Problem 7:
A liquid has an absolute viscosity of 23.0 cP. It weighs 8.4 kN/m 3.
What is its kinematic viscosity?

m = 23.0 cP = 23 (0.01 Ns/m2) = 0.23 Ns/m2

r = g/g = (8.4 kN/m3) / 9.8066 m/s2) = 856.566 kg/m3

n = m / r = (0.23 Ns/m2) / (856.566 kg/m3) = 2.685 x 10–4 m2/s

= (2.685 x 10–4 m2/s) (10 cm/m)2 = 0.0269 St

48
Problem 8:
A flat plate 30 cm x 50 cm slides on oil (m = 0.8 Ns/m2) over a large
plane surface. What force is required to drag the plate at 2 m/s, if
the separating oil film is 0.4 mm thick?

A = (0.3 m) (0.5 m) = 0.15 m2;

dy = (0.4 mm)/(1000 mm/m) = 0.0004 m
du/dy = (2 m/s) / 0.004 m = 5000 s–1

F = mA (du/dy) = (0.8 Ns/m2)(0.15 m2) (5000 s–1) = 600 N

49
SURFACE TENSION
Liquids have cohesion and adhesion, both of which are forms of
molecular attraction. Cohesion enables a liquid to resist tensile
stress, while adhesion enables it adhere to another body. The
attraction between molecules forms an imaginary film capable of
resisting tension at the interface between two immiscible liquids or
at the interface between a liquid and a gas.

The liquid property that create this capability is known as surface

tension.
50
CAPILLARITY
Capillarity is due to both cohesion
and adhesion. When the former is
of less effect than the latter, the
liquid will wet a solid surface with
which it is in contact and rise at
the point of contact; if cohesion
predominates, the liquid surface
will be depressed at the point of
contact.

51
 h = 2s cos q / gr
where s = surface tension in units of force per unit length
q = wetting angle
g = specific weight of liquid
r = radius of tube
h = capillary rise (or depression)

52
SOLVED
PROBLEM ON
CAPILLARITY
53
Problem 9:
Compute the capillary depression of mercury (q = 140) to be
expected in a 2.5 mm-diameter tube. At 20 C the surface tension of
mercury is 0.4641 N/m.
gHg = Hg gwater = (13.56)(9.8066 kN/m3) = 132.977 kN/m3
r = 2.5 mm = 0.0025 m
h = 2s cosq /gr
= [2 (0.4641 N/m)(cos 140)] / [(132.977 kN/m3)(0.0025 m)]
= – 0.002139 m = 2.139 mm (depression)

54
THANK
S!
Any questions?
You can find me at
jonrayala1976@gmail.com

55