Neurocomputing 74 (2011) 1883–1893

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Neurocomputing
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/neucom

Neuro-fuzzy control of antilock braking system using sliding mode

incremental learning algorithm
Andon V. Topalov a, Yesim Oniz b,, Erdal Kayacan b, Okyay Kaynak b
a
Control Systems Department, Technical University of Sofia, Plovdiv, Bulgaria
b
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o abstract

Available online 9 March 2011
Keywords:
Adaptive neuro-fuzzy control approach
Sliding mode incremental learning
algorithm
Antilock braking system (ABS)
A neuro-fuzzy adaptive control approach for nonlinear dynamical systems, coupled with unknown
dynamics, modeling errors, and various sorts of disturbances, is proposed and used to design a wheel
slip regulating controller. The implemented control structure consists of a conventional controller and a
neuro-fuzzy network-based feedback controller. The former is provided both to guarantee global
asymptotic stability in compact space and as an inverse reference model of the response of the
controlled system. Its output is used as an error signal by an incremental learning algorithm to update
the parameters of the neuro-fuzzy controller. In this way the latter is able to gradually replace
the conventional controller from the control of the system. The proposed new learning algorithm makes
direct use of the variable structure systems theory and establishes a sliding motion in terms of the
neuro-fuzzy controller parameters, leading the learning error toward zero. In the simulations and in
the experimental studies, it has been tested on the control of antilock breaking system model and the
analytical claims have been justified under the existence of uncertainty and large nonzero initial errors.
& 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction for optimal performance, the controller must operate at an

Antilock braking system (ABS) is an electronically controlled
system that helps the driver to maintain control of the vehicle
during emergency braking by preventing the wheels from lock up.
Once the wheel lock up occurs, the directional stability of the
vehicle will be lost and the vehicle cannot be controlled by
steering wheel inputs any more, which may result in severe
damage and injury. Hence, the primary function of ABS can be
stated as to sustain stable vehicle orientation even under condi-
tions such as sudden braking and slippery road surfaces.
Another significant feature of ABS is that by keeping brake
pressure just below the point of causing a wheel to lock, ABS
ensures that maximum braking power is used to stop the vehicle.
This may give rise to shorter stopping distances on slippery or
snowy surfaces. However, it is not possible to generalize this
situation for every road type, because on very soft surfaces, such
as gravel or unpacked snow, ABS may result in even longer
stopping distances.
The design of a wheel slip regulating controller is not an easy
task and many difficulties arise because of the highly nonlinear
and uncertain structure of an ABS. One of the shortcomings is that
 Corresponding author.
E-mail address: yesim.oniz@boun.edu.tr (Y. Oniz).
unstable equilibrium point. A small perturbation of the controller
input may induce a drastic change in the output. The performance
of ABS is not always satisfactory due to the existing high
dependence of the system parameters on the road conditions
that vary over a wide range. At present, affordable sensors that
are capable to identify accurately the road surface, and provide
these data to the ABS controller do not exist and the available
sensor signals are usually highly uncertain and noisy [1]. In
addition, an accurate measurement of vehicle’s absolute velocity
is required to calculate the wheel slip. To solve the latter problem,
a number of estimators have been proposed throughout the
literature. For instance, in [2], recursive least squares method is
used to estimate the real time vehicle velocity.
All these factors hamper the development of an accurate
mathematical model of ABS and therefore advanced control
design techniques are required for the wheel slip controller that
are able to cope with ill-defined systems, containing uncertainties
in their dynamic models. Sliding mode control is a preferable
option, as it guarantees the robustness of the system against
changing work conditions. Kachroo and Tomizuka proposed a
sliding mode controller in [3] that can maintain the wheel slip at
any desired value. Unsal and Kachroo [4] proposed a sliding mode
observer to track the reference wheel slip, and a proportional plus
integral (PI)-like controller is used to reduce the chattering
problem.

0925-2312/$ - see front matter & 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.neucom.2010.07.035
1884 A.V. Topalov et al. / Neurocomputing 74 (2011) 1883–1893
Besides sliding mode control there are several control schemes
including adaptive, fuzzy logic and neural network control
approaches, and hybrid controllers consisting of combinations of
these. A self-learning fuzzy controller is combined with a sliding
mode controller in [5]. The stability of the system is guaranteed,
as the tuning algorithms for the controller are derived in the
Lyapunov sense. Mauer proposed a fuzzy controller in [6] to
identify the condition of the road surface. The controller adjusts
the braking torque based on the current and past values of wheel
slip and brake pressure. Layne et al. [7] also adopted the fuzzy
approach and model the plant to be controlled as a first-order
linear dynamic system.
Because of their ability to approximate linear and nonlinear
mapping, neural network-based (NN-based) controllers are devel-
oped to improve the stability, convergence, and robustness of the
control system by compensating the effects of nonlinearities and
system uncertainties [8]. Whereas feedforward NNs are designed
in [9,10], the recurrent neural networks are proposed in [11,12].
For instance to the latter approach, in [8], a hybrid control system
with a recurrent neural network observer is developed for
antilock braking systems. The hybrid control system is composed
of an ideal controller and a compensation controller. In [13], two
parallel NNs are utilized to realize a neuro-sliding mode control,
where the equivalent control signal and the corrective control
signal are taken from the outputs of neural network 1 and neural
network 2, respectively.
An observer-based direct adaptive neuro-fuzzy controller for
ABS is developed in [14] under the assumption that only the
wheel slip is measurable. To track the varying desired slip value,
an observer-based output feedback control law and a law for
online tuning of the weighting factors of the direct adaptive
fuzzy-neural controller are derived. Will et al. [15] developed a
hybrid nonlinear control system that combines the sliding mode-
based observer with a PID controller. The proposed controller
does not require the information of surface type and can compute
the optimal value of wheel slip online based on the data from
longitudinal accelerometers and wheel speed sensors. In [16] an
ABS controller is designed using genetic neural fuzzy control.
While a neural optimizer is employed to find the optimal wheel
slip, the fuzzy component computes the braking torque required
to track the optimal slip. A genetic algorithm is used to adjust the
parameters of the fuzzy logic component.
In the present paper a new neuro-fuzzy adaptive control
approach is proposed for nonlinear dynamical systems, coupled
with unknown dynamics, modeling errors, and various sorts of
disturbances, and subsequently used to design a wheel slip regulat-
ing controller. In spite of the existing variety of learning algorithms
used for training of neuro-fuzzy networks, they can be mainly
classified into two groups: (i) algorithms relying on the gradient
descent methodology and involving the computation of partial
derivatives or sensitivity functions, which can be considered as
extensions of the well-known learning algorithm with backpropa-
gation of the error [17] and (ii) algorithms based on evolutionary
computations with genetic algorithms (GAs) being the most widely
used among them [18]. The algorithms belonging to the first group
inherit some of the major drawbacks of the gradient descent type
learning among which, in particular, are the slow speed of learning
because of the entrapment of local minima and the difficulty to
obtain analytical results concerning the convergence and stability of
the learning schemes [19]. The algorithms from the second group
have also well-known disadvantages such as being computationally
intensive and showing slower than gradient-descent algorithms
convergence to the optimal point after reaching the near-optimal
area due to their randomness [20].
Stability of the online learning neuro-fuzzy structures used in
control applications is another very important issue [21]. The
effectiveness of the variable structure control (VSC) scheme in
handling imprecisions and uncertainties and the existing possi-
bility to analyze rigorously convergence and stability have sti-
mulated its application in the learning schemes of the intelligent
structures. The results obtained in this direction have shown that
the convergence of the learning strategies can be significantly
improved. Such intelligent systems exhibit the robustness and
invariance properties inherited from VSC technique while still
maintaining good approximation capability and flexibility.
The proposed incremental learning algorithm makes direct use
of the variable structure systems theory and establishes a sliding
motion in terms of the neuro-fuzzy controller parameters, leading
the learning error toward zero. The convergence of the algorithm
is established and the conditions are given. Its salient character-
istics are stable online tuning of the parameters in the premise
and the consequence parts of the fuzzy rules and fast learning
speed. The zero level set of the learning error variable is
considered as a sliding surface in the space of network learning
parameters. It controls the error dynamics. The latter is defined as
the control signal produced by a conventional controller con-
nected in parallel and it is described using a differential equation.
Differently from the gradient-based learning methods which aim
to minimize an error function, here the learning parameters are
tuned by the proposed algorithm in a way to enforce the error to
satisfy this stable equation.
The so-called feedback-error-learning concept, proposed
in [22] and initially applied to control of robot manipulators,
has been used to tune online the controller parameters. It relies
on the parallel work of two feedback controllers—a neuro-fuzzy
feedback controller (NFFC) and a conventional feedback control-
ler. It is common to assume that a proportional plus derivative
(PD) controller is used as a conventional controller. It serves both
to guarantee global asymptotic stability in compact space and as
an inverse reference model of the response of the system under
control. The output of the PD controller is used as an error signal
to update the parameters of the neuro-fuzzy controller and in this
way the latter is learning online to eliminate the conventional
controller from the control of the system.
In the simulations and in the experimental studies, the
proposed control approach has been tested on the control of an
antilock breaking system model and the analytical claims have
been justified under the existence of uncertainty and large
nonzero initial errors.
The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 starts with an
introduction to the quarter vehicle model describing longitudinal
motion of the vehicle and angular motion of the wheel under
braking, then continues with the proposed adaptive neuro-fuzzy
control approach used to design an intelligent controller for
tracking of the varying slip value. Then, the developed new
variable structure systems-based method for parametric adapta-
tion of fuzzy rule-based neural networks with a scalar output is
presented. Section 3 is devoted to the obtained results from
simulations and real-time experiments, and the concluding
remarks are given in Section 4.
2. The adaptive neuro-fuzzy control approach
2.1. The system to be controlled
The free body diagram of the quarter vehicle model describing
longitudinal motion of the vehicle and angular motion of the
wheel under braking is presented in Fig. 1 [23]. Although the
model is quite simple, it preserves the fundamental character-
istics of an actual system. In deriving the dynamic equations of
the system, several assumptions are made. First, only longitudinal
 A.V. Topalov et al. / Neurocomputing 74 (2011) 1883–1893 1885

Ft in (1) and (2) stands for the road friction force which is given
by Coulomb Law:
Ft ¼ mðlÞFn ð3Þ
Fn is calculated by the following equation:
d1 o1 þ M10 þTB þ Mg
Fn ¼ ð4Þ
LðsinfmðlÞcosfÞ
where L is the distance between the contact point of the wheels
and the rotational axis of the balance lever and f is the angle
between the normal in the contact point and the line L.
Under normal operating conditions, the rotational velocity of
the wheel would match the forward velocity of the car. When the
brakes are applied, braking forces are generated at the interface
between the wheel and road surface, which causes the wheel
speed to decrease. As the braking force at the wheel increases,
Fig. 1. Schematic view of quarter vehicle model [23].
slippage will occur between the tire and the road surface. The
wheel speed will tend to be lower than vehicle speed. The
parameter used to specify the difference between the above two
Table 1 velocities is called wheel slip (l), and it is defined as
Nomenclature. r2 o2 r1 o1
l¼ ð5Þ
r 2 o2
Name Description
While a wheel slip of 0 indicates that the wheel velocity and
o1 Angular velocity of the upper wheel
the vehicle velocity are the same, a ratio of 1 indicates that the
o2 Angular velocity of the lower wheel
TB Braking torque tire is not rotating and the wheels are skidding on the road
r1 Radius of the upper wheel surface, i.e., the vehicle is no longer steerable.
r2 Radius of the lower wheel The road adhesion coefficient is a nonlinear function of some
J1 Moment of inertia of the upper wheel physical variables including wheel slip and it can be approxi-
J2 Moment of inertia of the lower wheel
d1 Viscous friction coefficient of the upper wheel
mated using the following formula developed by [23]
d2 Viscous friction coefficient of the lower wheel p
c4 l 3 2
Fn Total normal load mðlÞ ¼ p þc3 l þc2 l þ c1 l ð6Þ
m Road adhesion coefficient aþl
l Wheel slip
The corresponding m2l curve for different road conditions can
ld Desired slip
Ft Road friction force
be seen in Fig. 2.
M10 Static friction of the upper wheel
M20 Static friction of the lower wheel 2.2. The control scheme and the neuro-fuzzy network structure
Mg Moment of gravity acting on balance lever

In the antilock braking system the slip of each wheel has to be

dynamics of the vehicle is considered. The lateral and vertical
motions are neglected. Furthermore, it is assumed that there is no
interaction between the four wheels of the vehicle [24].
The setup shown in Fig. 1 consists of two rolling wheels. The
lower wheel imitates relative road motion, whereas the upper
wheel animates the wheel of the vehicle. We define the car
velocity to be equivalent to the angular velocity of the lower
wheel, o2 , multiplied by the radius of this wheel, r2, and the
angular velocity of the wheel to be equivalent to the angular
velocity of the upper wheel, o1 . It is further assumed that the
controlled to prevent it from locking in a way that a high friction
is achieved. Thus a maximum braking force is generated, mini-
mum stopping distance for the vehicle is achieved and steerability
is maintained and its directional stability and steerability are also
maintained. The wheel slip dynamics are characterized by strong
0.45
0.4
0.35
Road Adhesion Coefficient

lower wheel can be covered by different materials to enable

various road conditions and transition between such conditions. 0.3
Regarding the model, there are three torques acting on the
0.25
upper wheel: braking torque, friction torque in the upper bearing
and the friction torque among the wheels. Similarly, two torques 0.2
are acting on the lower wheel: The friction torque in the lower
bearing and the friction torque between these wheels. System 0.15
parameters are presented in Table 1.
During deceleration, a braking torque, TB, is applied to the 0.1
upper wheel, which causes wheel speed to decrease. According to Dry Asphalt
0.05 Packed Snow
Newton’s second law, the equation of the motion of the system
Rough Ice
can be written as 0
J1 o
_ 1 ¼ Ft r1 ðd1 o1 þ M10 þ TB Þ ð1Þ 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Wheel Slip
J2 o
_ 2 ¼ ðFt r2 þ d2 o2 þM20 Þ ð2Þ Fig. 2. m2l curve for different road conditions.
1886 A.V. Topalov et al. / Neurocomputing 74 (2011) 1883–1893

nonlinearity and model uncertainties. The first factor is a result of

tire force saturation and the next one that varies over wide range
is mainly due to variations of road conditions and vehicle
parameters such as mass, center of gravity of the vehicle, etc.
The ABS controller should have a robust adaptive behavior with
respect to highly uncertain tyre characteristics and fast changing
road surface properties [25].
The complexity of the ABS control problem creates a need for
advanced control design techniques that are able to overcome
limitations on traditional feedback control techniques. Since the
model-based approaches have problems in the operating condi-
tions where the model used is no longer valid, a common method
for handling unknown nonlinearities is to introduce computa-
tional intelligence structures, tuned online using adaptive con-
trol techniques. In the present paper a neuro-fuzzy adaptive
control approach for nonlinear dynamical systems, coupled with
unknown dynamics, modeling errors, and various sorts of dis-
turbances, is proposed and used to design a wheel slip regulating
controller. The latter is designed under the assumption that the
wheel sleep is measurable and that the desired optimal value of
the wheel slip that depends on the road conditions can be also
computed online. Fig. 4. The fuzzy-neural network.
The proposed control scheme is depicted in Fig. 3.
The classical PD controller is provided both as an ordinary stronger and more flexible representation capability than the
feedback controller to guarantee global asymptotic stability in Mamdani fuzzy model [28].
compact space and as an inverse reference model of the response The incoming signals, x1 ðtÞ ¼ eðtÞ and x2 ðtÞ ¼ ðd=dtÞeðtÞ, are
of the system under control. The PD control law is described as fuzzified by using Gaussian membership functions, and are
follows: associated with Ai and Bj fuzzy subsets respectively which are
defined by their corresponding membership functions mAi ðx1 Þ and
d mBj ðx2 Þ for i¼1,y,I and j ¼1,y,J.
tc ¼ kP eþ kD e ð7Þ
The fuzzy if–then rule Rij of a first-order TSK model with two
dt
input variables where the consequent part is a linear function of
where e ¼ ld l is the feedback error, ld is the desired slip value, the input variables can be defined as follows:
kP and kD are the controller gains.
As it can be seen from (7) the PD control law has two terms—a Rij : If x1 is Ai and x2 is Bj , then fij ¼ ai x1 þ bj x2 þdij
proportional one that makes a change to the output that is
where ai, bj and dij are given constants.
proportional to the current error value and a derivative term that
In the current investigation the coefficients ai and bj in the TSK
depends on the rate of change of the error. The proportional
fuzzy rule Rij are assumed to be equal to zero which is a widely
response is adjusted by multiplying the error by a constant kP,
used simplification.
called proportional gain. The magnitude of the contribution of the
The strength of the rule Rij is obtained as a T-norm of the
derivative term to the overall control action is adjusted by using a
membership functions in the premise part (by using a multi-
constant kD, called derivative gain.
plication operator):
Consider a neuro-fuzzy network with two inputs and one
output serving as a feedback controller (the NFFC block in Fig. 3). Wij ¼ mAi ðx1 ÞmBj ðx2 Þ ð8Þ
Its structure implements Takagi–Sugeno–Kang (TSK) fuzzy model
and is presented in Fig. 4. TSK and Mamdani models are the two The main reason that most neuro-fuzzy models use multi-
most widely used fuzzy models for modeling and control [26,27]. plication as the T-norm is that the majority of neural network
The consequent part of the TSK model is a function of the input learning algorithms require the mathematical model to be
variables instead of a fuzzy subset. In the recent years, the TSK derivable.
fuzzy model has gained more and more attention, especially in The Gaussian membership functions mAi ðx1 Þ and mBj ðx2 Þ of the
fuzzy control. This is due to the fact that the TSK fuzzy model has inputs x1 and x2 in the above expression have the following
appearance:
" #
ðx1 cAi Þ2
mAi ðx1 Þ ¼ exp  2 sAi
" #
ðx2 cBj Þ2
mBj ðx2 Þ ¼ exp  ð9Þ
s2Bj

where the real constants c, s 4 0 are among the tunable para-

meters of the above neuro-fuzzy structure.
Therefore (8) can be rewritten also as follows:
" #
ðx1 cAi Þ2 ðx2 cBj Þ2
Fig. 3. Block diagram of the proposed adaptive neuro-fuzzy control scheme for
Wij ¼ exp   ð10Þ
s2Ai s2Bj
ABS slip tracking.
 A.V. Topalov et al. / Neurocomputing 74 (2011) 1883–1893 1887

The output signal of the fuzzy-neural network tn ðtÞ is calcu- From (15) to (18) it follows that t and t_ will be bounded
lated as a weighted average of the output of each rule [28]: signals too, i.e.,
PI PJ
i¼1 Wij fij jtðtÞj r Bt , jt_ ðtÞj r Bt_ 8t ð19Þ
tn ðtÞ ¼ PI Pj J¼ 1 ð11Þ
i¼1 j¼1
Wij where Bt and Bt_ are some known positive constants.
After the normalization of (11), the output signal of the neuro- Using the sliding mode control theory principles [29] the zero
fuzzy network will acquire the following form: value of the learning error coordinate tc ðtÞ can be defined as time-
varying sliding surface, i.e.,
J
I X
X
tn ðtÞ ¼ W ij fij ð12Þ Sc ðtn , tÞ ¼ tc ðtÞ ¼ tn ðtÞ þ tðtÞ ¼ 0 ð20Þ
i¼1j¼1
which is the condition that the neuro-fuzzy network is trained to
where W ij is the normalized value of the output signal of the become a nonlinear regulator to obtain the desired response
neuron ij from the second hidden layer of the network: during the tracking-error convergence movement by compensa-
Wij tion for the nonlinearity of the controlled plant.
W ij ¼ PI PJ ð13Þ
Wij The sliding surface for the nonlinear system under control
i¼1 j¼1
_ is defined as
Sp ðe, eÞ
The control signal generated by the wheel slip controller is the
_ ¼ e_ þ we
Sp ðe, eÞ ð21Þ
overall brake torque t determined as follows (see Fig. 3):
t ¼ tc tn ð14Þ with w being a constant determining the slope of the sliding
surface.
where tc and tn are the brake torques generated by the PD
controller and the neuro-fuzzy feedback controller respectively.
Definition. A sliding motion will appear on the sliding manifold
Sc ðtn , tÞ ¼ tc ðtÞ ¼ 0 after a time th, if the condition
2.3. The sliding mode learning algorithm
Sc ðtÞS_ c ðtÞ ¼ tc ðtÞt_ c ðtÞ o 0 is satisfied for all t in some nontrivial
semi-open subinterval of time of the form ½t,th Þ  ð1,th Þ.
The following vectors have been specified: XðtÞ ¼ ½x1 ðtÞ x2 ðtÞT :
vector of the time varying input signals; W ðtÞ ¼ ½W 11 ðtÞ W 12 ðtÞ . . . It is desired to devise a dynamical feedback adaptation
W 21 ðtÞ . . . W ij ðtÞ . . . W IJ ðtÞT : vector of the normalized output mechanism, or online learning algorithm for the neuro-fuzzy
signals of the neurons from the second hidden layer; network parameters such that the sliding mode condition of the
sA ¼ ½sA1 . . . sAi . . . sAI T , sB ¼ ½sB1 . . . sBj . . . sBJ T , cA ¼ ½cA1 . . . above definition is enforced.
cAi . . . cAI T and cB ¼ ½cB1 . . . cBj . . . cBJ T :vectors of the tuning
parameters s and c of the Gaussian membership functions Theorem 1. If the adaptation law for the parameters of the
relevant to the fuzzification of the signals supplied to the first considered neuro-fuzzy network is chosen respectively as
and second input of the NFFC respectively; f ðtÞ ¼ ½f11 ðtÞ f12 ðtÞ . . . sAi
f21 ðtÞ f22 ðtÞ . . . fij ðtÞ . . . fIJ ðtÞ: vector of the time variable weight c_ Ai ¼  a signðtc Þ ð22Þ
sTA sA
coefficients of the connections between the neurons from the
second hidden layer and the output neuron of the fuzzy rule- sBj
based neural network. c_ Bj ¼  a signðtc Þ ð23Þ
sTB sB
The following assumptions have been used in this investi-
gation: sAi
Due to the control scheme adopted (Fig. 3), where the s_ Ai ¼  a signðtc Þ ð24Þ
sTA sA
conventional controller serves to guarantee global asymptotic
stability in compact space, the input signals x1 ðtÞ and x2 ðtÞ, and sBj
their time derivatives can be considered bounded: s_ Bj ¼  a signðtc Þ ð25Þ
sTB sB
jx1 ðtÞj r Bx , jx2 ðtÞj r Bx 8t ð15Þ
W ij
jx_ 1 ðtÞj r Bx_ , jx_ 2 ðtÞj rBx_ 8t ð16Þ f_ ij ¼  T a signðtc Þ ð26Þ
W W
where Bx and Bx_ are assumed to be some known positive
constants. where
Based on the same arguments, the vectors defining the tuning sAi ¼ x1 cAi , sA ¼ ½sA1 sA2 . . . sAI T
parameters s and c of the Gaussian membership functions are
considered bounded as follows: sBj ¼ x2 cBj , sB ¼ ½sB1 sB2 . . . sBJ T
JsA J r Bs , JsB J r Bs
and a is a sufficiently large positive design constant satisfying the
JcA J r Bc , JcB J r Bc ð17Þ inequality:
where Bs and Bc are some known positive constants. 4Br Bf þ Bt_
a4 ð27Þ
It will be assumed that, due to physical constraints, the time 18Bq Bf
variable weight coefficients of the connections between the
neurons in the second hidden layer and the output neuron are with the positive constants Br and Bq bounded by the following
also bounded, i.e., inequalities:
Bx þ Bc Bx þBc
jfij jr Bf 8t ð18Þ Br r 2Bx , Bq r2 ð28Þ
B2s B3s
for some positive constant Bf.
From (8)–(13) and (15)–(17) it follows that 0 o W ij o1. In Then for any arbitrary initial condition tc ð0Þ, the learning error
P P
addition, it can be easily seen from (13) that Ii ¼ 1 Jj ¼ 1 W ij ¼ 1. tc ðtÞ will converge to zero during a finite time th, which may be
1888 A.V. Topalov et al. / Neurocomputing 74 (2011) 1883–1893

estimated as used in this investigation instead of the sign function in the

dynamic strategy described in (22)–(26):
jtc ð0Þj
th r ð29Þ tc
að8Bq þ 4Br ÞBf Bt_ signðtc Þ ¼ ð33Þ
jtc jþ d
and a sliding motion will be maintained on tc ðtÞ ¼ 0 for all t 4 th .
where d ¼ 0:05.
Proof. See the Appendix. All figures below show simulation results for the quarter
vehicle model with initial longitudinal velocity of V¼20 m/s
The relation between the sliding line Sp and the zero adaptive
maneuvering on a straight line. The numerical values used in this
learning error level Sc, if w is taken as w ¼ kP =kD , is determined by
study can be seen in Table 2. The reference wheel slip, which is
the following equation:
  the slip value that corresponds to the peak value of tire road
kp friction coefficient, is calculated for different road conditions, i.e.,
Sc ¼ tc ¼ kD e_ þkP e ¼ kD e_ þ e ¼ kD Sp ð30Þ
kD rough ice, compact snow and dry asphalt. During the simulation
The tracking performance of the slip control system in ABS can studies, the vehicle is considered going out from rough ice road
be analyzed by introducing the following Lyapunov function conditions to compact snow and then from compact snow to dry
candidate: asphalt.
The reference slip is considered to vary as a function of the
Vp ¼ 12S2p ð31Þ vehicle velocity. For this purpose, a pseudo-static curve is used to
calculate the reference wheel slip and the corresponding tire
Theorem 2. If the adaptation strategy for the adjustable parameters friction coefficient. These values are used to construct a table,
of the NFFC is chosen as in (22)–(26), then the negative definiteness which relates the vehicle speed to the peak values of tire road
of the time derivative of the Lyapunov function in (31) is ensured. friction coefficient and to the reference wheel slip. Next, the
reference wheel slip is made available to the proposed controller
Proof. Evaluating the time derivative of the Lyapunov function
at each step of the control loop [31].
in (31) yields
Fig. 5 shows the response of the system to the PD controller
1 alone and the NFFC coupled with a PD controller. It can be seen
V_ p ¼ S_ p Sp ¼ 2 S_ c Sc
kD
jtc j Table 2
r 2 ½að18Bq Bf Þ þ4Br Bf þ Bt_ 
kD Numerical values [23].

o 0, 8Sc ,Sp a0 & ð32Þ

Symbol Value
Remark. The obtained result means that, assuming the sliding
mode control task is achievable, using tc as a learning error for r1 0.0995 m
the NFFC together with the adaptation laws (22)–(26) enforces r2 0.0990 m
f 65.611
the desired reaching mode followed by a sliding regime for the
L 0.37 m
slip control system in ABS. J1 0:00753 kg m2
J2 0:0256 kg m2
3. Simulation and experimental results d1 0:00011874 kg m2 =s
d2 0:00021468 kg m2 =s
3.1. Simulation results M10 0:0032 N m
M20 0:0925 N m
c1  0.04240011450454
In this section, a number of computer simulated dynamic c2 0.00000000029375
responses are obtained to investigate the performance of the c3 0.03508217905067
proposed control algorithm. The sampling time used in the c4 0.40662691102315
a 0.00025724985785
simulations is 10  3 s. Since the plant dynamics are slower enough p 2.09945271667129
compared to this sampling time, the designed neuro-fuzzy con-
troller with the continuous time sliding mode learning algorithm
can be used straightforwardly in a digital computer
0.35
implementation.
In order to avoid division to zero in the adaptive laws (22)–(26)
0.3 Dry Asphalt
an algorithm is written to make the denominator equal to 0.001
always when its calculated value is smaller than this threshold.
It is well known that sliding mode control suffers from high- 0.25
frequency oscillations in the control input, which are called
Wheel Slip

‘‘chattering’’. Chattering is undesired because it may execute the 0.2 Compact Snow
high-frequency response of the system. The common methods to
eliminate the chattering are usually classified into two 0.15
groups [30]:
0.1 Rough Ice
1. Using a saturation function to replace the signum function.
Reference
2. Inserting a boundary layer so an equivalent control replaces 0.05 NFFC+PD
the corrective one when the system is inside this layer. PD
0
Since when applying the second method a finite steady-state 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
error would always exist, most of the approaches use the satura- Time (s)
tion or the sigmoid function to replace the signum function. In
order to reduce the chattering effect the function in (33) has been Fig. 5. The wheel slip.
 A.V. Topalov et al. / Neurocomputing 74 (2011) 1883–1893 1889

the NFFC learns the system dynamics in a finite time duration,
and makes the system performance better compared to the
conventional PD controller alone. As explained in the previous
sections, to obtain a mathematical model of ABS is very difficult
and sometimes impossible because of the nonlinearities and
noises both coming from inside and outside of the system. In
such cases, the conventional controller cannot remain always
well-tuned and the adaptive neuro-fuzzy controller structure
proposed will help to maintain the desired performance.
The control signals for both controller structures (the PD
controller alone and the adaptive NFFC coupled with a PD
controller) can be seen in Fig. 6. It can be observed that the
neuro-fuzzy feedback controller has been able to take over the
control operation, thus becoming the leading controller after a
short time period. This results in zero output from the conven-
tional PD controller. The output of the PD controller becomes
nonzero only during the time intervals when the vehicle goes
from one road condition to the other.
Fig. 7 shows the phase space behavior. It figures out that Sp ¼ 0
line is attracting invariant. Clearly the error vector is guided
toward the sliding manifold and due to the design presented, it is
forced to remain in the vicinity of the attracting loci without
explicitly knowing the analytical details of the equations of
motion of the slip control system.
Fig 8 presents the best results obtained during the experi-
ments with PD controller implemented alone and with NFFC. It
can be seen that it is not possible to enforce an ABS to the desired
trajectory using PD control law only. Although the PD controller
coupled with NFFC is also not capable of tracking the reference
trajectory accurately, it still exhibits better performance com-
pared to the PD control law only.
Three membership functions have been used for each of the
two inputs of the NFFC. Since the parameters of the neuro-fuzzy
controller have not been well-tuned initially (initial parameters
of the fuzzy membership functions m11 , m12 , m13 , m21 , m22 , and
m23 have been selected to be s ¼ ½0:01,0:01,0:01,2,2,2 and

10 10

8 8

6
Derivative of Slip
6
Control Inputs

4 4

2 2

0 0 PD
τc NFFC+PD
τn Reference
−2 −2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Time (s) Slip

Fig. 6. The control signal. Fig. 8. Phase space behavior of slip.

10

6
Time Derivative of Error

4 Sp

−2

−4
−0.01 −0.005 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04
Error

Fig. 7. Phase space behavior of error.

1890 A.V. Topalov et al. / Neurocomputing 74 (2011) 1883–1893

1 laboratory setup (see Fig. 11). To imitate the behavior of the

vehicle during braking on a dry and straight road, the wheel is
0.9
μ initial accelerated until the velocity of the wheel reaches 70 km/h. It
0.8 μ final should be noted that on the available setup, the experiments can
be run for a specific road condition (just for dry road) and
Membership Function

0.7
therefore no experimental results could have been carried out
0.6 for changing road conditions. On the other hand, to be able to
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
−0.02 −0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
Error

Fig. 9. Membership functions for error.

1 Fig. 11. The ABS laboratory setup.

0.9
μ initial
0.8 μ final
0.9
Membership Function

0.7
0.6 0.8

0.5 0.7

0.4 0.6
0.3 0.5
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.3
0
−5 0 5 10 0.2
Time Derivative of Error Reference
0.1 PD
Fig. 10. Membership functions for the time derivative of error. NFFC+PD
0
20.5 20.6 20.7 20.8 20.9 21 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4
c¼[0, 0.015, 0.03, 1, 3, 7], respectively) at the beginning the
dominating control signal has been the one coming from the PD Fig. 12. The wheel slip.
controller. After a short time period however, using the control
signal tc as a learning error, the neuro-fuzzy feedback controller
has been able to take over the control, thus becoming the leading
controller (see Fig. 6). The NNFC membership function parameters 20
at the end of the simulation (after 0.7 s) have reached the
following values: s ¼ ½0:008,0:01,0:012,1:78,2:15,2:52 and 10
c¼[  0.007,0.009,0.025, 1.7,2.25,6.19] for m11 , m12 , m13 , m21 ,
m22 , and m23 , respectively. However, in order to be able to use 0
Control Inputs

the same learning step size for both of the inputs, the error and
the time derivative of error values are normalized. The values −10
given above are for the unnormalized case. Moreover, two
different learning step sizes are used for the weight update law
−20
of the neural network and for the adaptation law for the s and c
values of the input membership functions.
−30
Figs. 9 and 10 show the membership functions of the two NFFC
inputs at the beginning (t ¼0 s) and at the end of the simulation
(at time t ¼0.7 s). −40 τc
τn
3.2. Experimental results −50
20.5 20.6 20.7 20.8 20.9 21 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4
Time (s)
Number of real time experiments have been performed to
validate the results obtained in the simulations on an ABS Fig. 13. The control signal.
 A.V. Topalov et al. / Neurocomputing 74 (2011) 1883–1893 1891

compare the experimental results with the simulation results in Then V_ c can be further expressed as follows:
the previous subsection, the reference wheel slip has been 8 2 0 13 9
changed to an upper value suddenly. Hence, the change in road <X J
I X X J
I X =
V_ ¼ tc 4f_ ij W ij þ fij @W ij K_ ij þW ij _
W ij K ij A5 þ t_
conditions, i.e., from wet to dry asphalt, has been imitated. Once : ;
i¼1j¼1 i¼1j¼1
the velocity threshold has been reached, the braking operation is
started. There is another velocity threshold which states the 2
X J
I X X J
I X
minimum velocity level for applying ABS control algorithms.
¼ tc 4 f_ ij W ij 2 W ij ðAA_ þBBÞf
_ ij
Under this minimum value of the velocity, the system becomes i¼1j¼1 i¼1j¼1
unstable if ABS algorithm is applied. Under such a circumstance, 0 1 3
I X
X J X J
I X
the maximum braking torque should be applied to the wheels þ2 @W ij fij W ij ðAA_ þBBÞ
_ A þ t_ 5
without considering the target value of slip. i¼1j¼1 i¼1j¼1
Similar to the simulation results, the performance of PD 8 "
< X I X J
A
control law has been improved by the hybrid control methodol- ¼ tc a signðtc Þ2 W ij fij 2 ðx_ 1 sAi þ 2a signðtc ÞÞ
ogy consisting of a conventional PD controller coupled to NFFC : sAi
i¼1j¼1
(see Fig. 12). As can be seen from Fig. 13, that the neuro-fuzzy #
X I X J
B
feedback controller is trying to take over the control operation þ 2 ðx_ 2 sBj þ 2a signðtc ÞÞ þ2
after a short time period. The output of the PD controller tends to sBj i¼1j¼1
2
go to zero simultaneously. X J
I X
A
4W ij fij W ij ðx_ 1 sAi
i¼1j¼1
s2Ai
!# )
B
4. Conclusions þ2a signðtc ÞÞ þ ðx_ 2 sBj þ 2a signðtc ÞÞ þ t_
s2Bj
2
A novel approach for generating and maintaining sliding J
I X
X J
I X
X
regime in the behavior of a system with uncertainties in its ¼ tc 4a signðtc Þ2 W ij fij rij 4a signðtc Þ W ij fij qij
dynamics is introduced. The system under control is under a i¼1j¼1 i¼1j¼1

closed-loop simultaneously with a conventional PD controller and 3

X J
I X J
I X
X
an adaptive variable structure neuro-fuzzy controller. The pre- þ2tn W ij rij þ4tn a signðtc Þ W ij qij þ t_ 5
sented results from a simulated control of the slip in ABS have i¼1j¼1 i¼1j¼1
demonstrated that the predefined sliding regime could be gener- 2
J
I X
X
ated and maintained if the NFFC parameters are tuned in such a ¼ tc 4a signðtc Þ2 W ij rij ðfij tn Þ
way that the reaching is enforced. Another prominent feature that i¼1j¼1
3
should be emphasized is the computational simplicity of the J
I X
X
proposed approach. 4a signðtc Þ W ij qij ðfij tn Þ þ t_ 5
i¼1j¼1
2 3 2 3
X J
I X J
I X
X
¼ 4a4a W ij qij ðfij tn Þ5jtc j42 W ij rij ðfij tn Þ þ t_ 5tc
Acknowledgments i¼1j¼1 i¼1j¼1

X
I J
X
The work of A.V. Topalov was supported by the Ministry of
rajtc jþ 4ajtc j W ij Bq ðBf þ Bf Þ
Education and Science of Bulgaria Research Fund Project BY-TH- i¼1j¼1
108/2005. The work of O. Kaynak was supported in part by the J
I X
X
Bogazici University Research Fund Project 08A204 and in part by þ2jtc j W ij Br ðBf þ Bf Þ þ Bt_ jtc j
the TUBITAK Project 107E284. i¼1j¼1
¼ jtc j½að18Bq Bf Þ þ 4Br Bf þBt_  o 0 ðA:4Þ
where rij and qij are defined as follows:
Appendix A. Proof of Theorem 1 A B
rij ¼ x_ 1 þ x_ 2 ðA:5Þ
sAi sBj
Consider the following Lyapunov function candidate:
A B
Vc ¼ 12t2c ðtÞ ðA:1Þ qij ¼ þ ðA:6Þ
s2Ai s2Bj
The time derivative of Vc is given by
jrij j rBr , jqij j r Bq ðA:7Þ
V_ c ¼ tc t_ c ¼ tc ðt_ n þ t_ Þ
2 0 1 3 The inequality (A.4) shows that the controlled trajectories of
X I X J
d the learning error tc ðtÞ converge to zero in a stable manner.
¼ tc 4 @ f W A þ t_ 5
dt i ¼ 1 j ¼ 1 ij ij It is possible now to be shown that such a convergence takes
2 3 place in finite time. The differential equation that is satisfied by
X I X J
4 _ _ the controlled error trajectories tc ðtÞ is as follows:
¼ tc ðf ij W ij þ fij W ij Þ þ t_ 5 ðA:2Þ
i¼1j¼1

It can be easily shown that I X

X J
t_ c ðtÞ ¼ a signðtc Þ2 W ij rij ðfij tn Þ
J
_ ¼ W K_ þW X X ðW K_ Þ
I i¼1j¼1
W ij ij ij ij ij ij ðA:3Þ
J
I X
X
i¼1j¼1
4a signðtc Þ W ij qij ðfij tn Þ þ t_
where K_ ij ¼ 2ðAA_ þ BBÞ,
_ A ¼ ðx1 cA Þ=sA and B ¼ ðx2 cB Þ=sB .
i i j j
i¼1j¼1
1892 A.V. Topalov et al. / Neurocomputing 74 (2011) 1883–1893

2 3
X J
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551–560.
i¼1j¼1
2 3
X
I J
X
42 W ij rij ðfij tn Þt_ 5tc ðtÞ Andon V. Topalov received the M.Sc. degree in control
i¼1j¼1 engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems,
Technologies and Automation, Moscow State Univer-
r ½að18Bq Bf Þ þ4Br Bf þ Bt_ jtc ðtÞj o0 ðA:12Þ sity of Civil Engineering (MGGU), Moscow, Russia, in
1979 and the Ph.D. degree in control engineering from
and a sliding motion exists on tc ðtÞ ¼ 0 for t 4 th .
the Department of Automation and Remote Control,
Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow,
in 1984.
References
From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the
Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD,
[1] M.R. Akbarzadeh, K.J. Emami, N. Pariz, Adaptive discrete-time fuzzy sliding Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of
mode control for anti-lock braking systems, in: Proceedings of the Annual Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia, Plovdiv,
Meeting of the North American, Las Vegas, USA, 2002, pp. 554–559. where he is presently an Associate Professor. He has
 A.V. Topalov et al. / Neurocomputing 74 (2011) 1883–1893 1893

held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Okyay Kaynak received the B.Sc. degree with (First
Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. He has coauthored one Class Honors) and the Ph.D. degree in electronic and
book and authored or coauthored more than 70 research papers in conference electrical engineering from the University of Birming-
proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of ham, Birmingham, UK, in 1969 and 1972, respectively.
intelligent control and robotics. From 1972 to 1979, he held various positions within
the industry. In 1979, he joined the Department of
Electrical and Electronics Engineering Bogazici Univer-
sity, Istanbul, Turkey, where he is presently a Full
Professor. He has served as the Chairman of the
Yesim Oniz was born in Istanbul, Turkey, on July 10,
Computer Engineering and the Electrical and Electro-
1981. She received the B.Sc. degree in mechatronics
nic Engineering Departments and as the Director of the
engineering from Sabanci University, Istanbul, in 2004
Biomedical Engineering Institute, Bogazici University.
and the M.Sc. degree in electrical and electronic
Currently, he is the UNESCO Chair on Mechatronics
engineering from Bogazici University, Istanbul, in
and the Director of the Mechatronics Research and Application Centre. He has held
2007, where she is currently working toward the
long-term (near to or more than a year) Visiting Professor/Scholar positions at
Ph.D. degree in electrical and electronic engineering
various institutions in Japan, Germany, the US, and Singapore. His current research
in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engi-
interests are in the fields of intelligent control and mechatronics. He has authored
neering.
three books and edited five and authored or coauthored more than 200 papers
She is currently a Research Assistant with the
that have appeared in various journals and conference proceedings.
Mechatronics Research and Application Center,
Dr. Kaynak has served as the President of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
(2002–2003) and as an Associate Editor of both the IEEE Transactions on Industrial
Bogazici University. Her research interests include
Electronics and the IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks. He is now the Editor-
robotics, variable structure systems, intelligent control, and fuzzy and neurofuzzy
in-Chief of the IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics. Additionally, he is on
controls.
the Editorial or Advisory Boards of a number of scholarly journals.

Erdal Kayacan was born in Istanbul, Turkey, on

January 7, 1980. He received the B.Sc. degree in
electrical engineering from Istanbul Technical Univer-
sity, Istanbul, in 2003 and the M.Sc. degree in systems
and control engineering from Bogazici University,
Istanbul, in 2006, where he is currently working
toward the Ph.D. degree in electrical and electronic
engineering in the Department of Electrical and Elec-
tronics Engineering.
He is currently a Research Assistant with the Mecha-
tronics Research and Application Center, Department
of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Bogazici
University. His research interests include soft comput-
ing, intelligent control, fuzzy theory, gray-system theory, analysis and control of
electrical machines, and harmonizing international standards related to electric
machines and drives.