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Scaffold-Free Robotic 3D Printing of a Double-layer Clay Shell

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 Proceedings of the IASS Annual Symposium 2020/21 and
the 7th International Conference on Spatial Structures
Inspiring the Next Generation
23 – 27 August 2021, Guilford, UK
S.A. Behnejad, G.A.R. Parke and O.A. Samavati (eds.)

Scaffold-Free Robotic 3D Printing of a Double-layer Clay Shell

Mahan Motamedia*, Romain Mesnilb, Robin Ovalc , Malo Charierb, Olivier Baverela,b
a
GSA ENSAPM, École Nationale Supérieure d’Architecture Paris-Malaquais, France
*
mahan.motamedi@enpc.fr
b
Laboratoire Navier, Ecole des Ponts, Univ.Gustave Eiffel, CNRS, France
c
University of Cambridge, Structures Research Group, Cambridge, UK

Abstract
The ancient vaulting techniques from drylands are an excellent inspiration for applying robotic 3D
printing of a large-scale structure since they have solutions to fabricate earthen vaults in sustainable
manners. The precision of the advanced hardware accompanied by software potential for managing vast
and complex data opens a wide range of possibilities for constructing environmental-aware and
affordable structures. In pursuit of the previous explorations in [1] for scaffold-free 3D printing methods,
this paper explores the case study of a double-layered vault. The double-layered vaults have some
advantages over thin shells, such as thermal resistance. For the 3D Printing concerns, the double-layered
earthen shell stands better than thin shells in reaction to the structure self-weight. The chosen extrusion
paste is the Kaolinite clay mixture. The research's main objective is gathering the following information
during the printing process: First, to analyse and investigate geometries stable with fresh clay. Second,
to assay the effect of shell cross-section optimisation on the structure's strength. Third, to evaluate the
effect of different slicing strategies on the structure's stability. Fourth, to deliberately squeeze the clay
laces (Layer Pressing Strategy). Fifth, to evaluate the Lace Heating Strategy's effect on the stability of
the structure. Finally, two clay prototypes are successfully 3D printed using a 7-axis robot and a clay
extruder to prove the validity of the strategy. Figure 1 shows the double-layered shell's sequential layers
with varying cross-sections widths.

Figure 1 Successive cross-sections of the double-layered shell

Copyright © 2021 by the author(s) as listed above. Published in the Proceedings of the IASS Annual Symposium
2020/21 and the 7th International Conference on Spatial Structures, with permission.
Proceedings of the IASS Annual Symposium 2020/21 and the 7th International Conference on Spatial Structures
Inspiring the Next Generation

Keywords: Clay structures, Clay 3D Printing, Scaffold-Free 3D Printing, Funicular shells, Robotic 3D Printing,
Earth Architecture

1. Introduction

1.1 Motivation
The obligation of using scaffolds and temporary supports or pallets has always been a big challenge in the
construction industry. The records of the contemporary shell-like structure's construction reveal that most of these
shells' fabrication is costly and inefficient.

In contrast to the temporary shell's construction, historically, in drylands, masons invented methods to eliminate
the need for pallets and formworks to construct mud or brick vaults due to the lack of wood resources. Nowadays,
those masons do not exist, or their number is very few, and they cannot answer the need for the fast growth of
modern cities. Fortunately, new advanced fabrication technologies such as robots can mimic and automate those
masters of vaulting. Combining advanced digital fabrication tools such as robotic arms with past experiences and
techniques will open a broad range of solutions for fabricating efficient and environmentally friendly shell-like
structures.

1.2 Contribution
This research project studies the methods and solutions for 3D Printing large-scale earthen shells and vaults
without using formworks and pallets. The idea is to encode ancient brick-laying masons' techniques and integrate
them with advanced robotic manufacturing systems. These methods apply to other domains of robotic 3D printing
of shells, such as concrete 3D printing, elaborately discussed in [2]. This paper focuses on the construction of
shell-like structures with earth-based materials due to several reasons:

1- Earthen materials are neglected in the construction industry since there is a lack of knowledge to adapt
this material to modern buildings' requirements [3].
2- The earthen buildings have low embodied energy [4].
3- Earthen materials are omnipresent, and they encourage the construction of the local materials for
sustainable development [5].
4- The raw earth buildings are fully recyclable. If more stability is needed, there is the possibility to
transform them into ceramics by heating them.[6]
5- Clay 3D Printing has the advantage of interrupting and restarting 3D printing.

The outcome of this research fits in extraterrestrial application such as studies in [7] or investigations by [8] and
terrestrial efforts to sustainable developments using natural materials. The additive manufacturing of large-scale
earthen shells has to deal with several disciplines such as material science, civil and mechanical engineering,
architecture, computer graphics and robotics. This paper studies the design, analysis and fabrication process of
two funiculars 1 (Work only in compression) geometries to address the challenges and solutions for Scaffold-free
3D Printing of earthen shells. We take clay as a reference for earth-based material.

1.3 Outlooks
The methods that we used to fabricate the sample prototypes for this paper concerning the classification by
Duballet et al. [9] label as 𝑎𝑎0 𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜0 𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒1 𝑒𝑒 1 𝑠𝑠 0 𝑟𝑟1 . This mean that we have 3D-printed objects that are smaller than one
meter and the extruded lace size is between 8mm and 5cm, there is no assembly needed, the fabrication is in a
controlled environment with no support and using a single six-axis robot. The actual application of this prototype
applies to 𝑎𝑎0 𝑥𝑥01 𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒1 𝑒𝑒 0 𝑠𝑠 0 𝑟𝑟 2 or 𝑎𝑎0 𝑥𝑥02 𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒1 𝑒𝑒 0 𝑠𝑠 0 𝑟𝑟 2 or 𝑎𝑎0 𝑥𝑥02 𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒1 𝑒𝑒 1 𝑟𝑟 5 . The other scenarios for real-scale fabrication is the
utilisation of cable-driven robots [10] for on-site or factory-based fabrication.

1
In this paper when we use the term funicular, it always refer to the forms that are funicular under the structures
self weight.
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Proceedings of the IASS Annual Symposium 2020/21 and the 7th International Conference on Spatial Structures
Inspiring the Next Generation

2 Geometrical Exploration

Due to the lack of tensile strength in earth-based materials, the form-finding of funicular geometries is
compulsory if solutions to reinforce the earth material to increase its resistance against tensile stresses
are out of this paper's scope.
There are numerous ways of finding funicular forms. The most dominant numerical tools for the form-
finding of funicular geometries are as follow:
1- Force density method.[11]
2- Thrust-Network Analysis.[12]
3- Dynamic relaxation.[13]
We use Dynamic Relaxation (from the Kangaroo plugin in Grasshopper [14]) and the Force Density
Method to generate squinch vaults with the funicular property. We also use the Surface Method to create
a NURBS surface along the arch-like profile curves to generate the early experiments' vault geometries.
Figure 2 shows the process of form-finding with the tools above.

Figure 2 Funicular form-finding process with the Force Density Method, Dynamic Relaxation and the Surface Method

3 Slicing Strategies
The chosen slicing strategy directly impacts the success of 3D printing, affecting the structure's local
stability during the printing process (Refer to 4.4). There are several methods to slice a geometry for 3D
printing. These methods differ by the slicing thickness and the slicing angle, which may be constant or
variable. The most conventional method for slicing is 2.5 D printing topology (Figure 4 no.1), typical
for FDM and CNC 3D printers. Most of the current concrete 3D printing companies and institutes use
this method to print structural elements, bridges [15], houses [16] and urban infrastructures [17]. This
method is efficient for printing vertical elements. However, it is not the best candidate to print doubly-
curved funicular forms that span horizontally, especially when it comes to scaffold-free 3D printing,
because of the local cantilevers between the layers. The 3D topology printing is an apt solution to reduce
the local cantilevers between printing laces and maximising the interface between the successive laces
[1]. The 6-axis robotic arms allow users to print the laces in a tangent direction to the form-found

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Proceedings of the IASS Annual Symposium 2020/21 and the 7th International Conference on Spatial Structures
Inspiring the Next Generation

geometry at each layer of the 3D printing process. The slicing method has two main characteristics: the
distance and the slicing angle. The distances and angels of slicing planes may be constant or variable.
Figure 3 shows the sets of different slicing strategies for the same geometry. The red texts mention the
variable properties, while the blue texts mention the constant properties.

Figure 3 Classification of slicing strategies

Method (1) depicted in Figure 3 is the conventional horizontal slicing method for 2.5 D printing systems.
Method (2) has slicing planes with constant distance and constant angle. Method (3) keep the angles
constant but varies the distances. Method (4) uses the heat method [18] that generates the layers with
constant distances from each other on arbitrary geometries, but the angles vary. Therefore, the layers
are not planar. Method (5) varies both the angles and distances. The intersection of the radially oriented
planes on an axis with the target geometry generates this slicing pattern.

4 Material properties, finite element analysis and geometrical enhancement

To understand the shell's structural stability during the printing process, one must analyse structural
failure's critical aspects at each step(layer) of printing. A compression shell is subjected to the following
failure modes:
1- Structural Buckling 2
2- Material Failure 3
3- Global equilibrium failure
To evaluate the structure behaviour, one must analyse the above factors at each step (Layer) of
Printing. When the builders slice the geometry into very thin layers, all the intermediary geometries'
analysis becomes costly and time-consuming. Not all the printing steps needed to be analysed. We
can reduce the analysis into a few steps by approximating the printing process.

4.1 Mixture properties

The fresh printing mortar properties are decisive for the structural stability during printing. In this paper,
we performed all the prototypes with the same material. The mixture consists of 0.58 mass unit of water
for each Kaolin clay mass unit. We performed several material experiments such as squeezing (inspired
by [19]), plunger, and vertical extrusion to achieve this mixture's properties. The maximum compressive
strength of the material is −4 × 10−3 𝑀𝑀𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃4 and the maximum tensile capacity is 5 × 10−3 𝑀𝑀𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃5.

2
Elastic Buckling
3
Plastic Failure
4
In the conference proceeding, this number mistakenly was written in KPa.
5
In the conference proceeding, this number mistakenly was written in KPa.
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Proceedings of the IASS Annual Symposium 2020/21 and the 7th International Conference on Spatial Structures
Inspiring the Next Generation

4.2 Plastic failure analysis

To assess the plastic failure during the printing process, choosing the correct failure theory is crucial.
At this step, we analyse the structural failure due to material collapse under self-weight.
Observations revealed that the fresh Kaolin clay mixture has a ductile behaviour in compression and
a brittle behaviour in tension. Therefore, the Rankine failure theory is a safe choice to predict the
plastic failure at each printing step, which happens when one of the two principal stresses applied
to the material (σ1 and σ2) is higher than the material maximum tensile (σT ) or material maximum
compression capacity (σp). Equation 1 and 2 define the Rankine failure theory criterion, with:
𝜎𝜎𝐶𝐶 < 𝜎𝜎1 < 𝜎𝜎𝑇𝑇 (1
𝜎𝜎𝐶𝐶 < 𝜎𝜎2 < 𝜎𝜎𝑇𝑇 (2

4.3 Step-wise elastic buckling analysis

Based on the Masonry safety theory, an arch will buckle when the stress thrust line crosses the arch's
extrados or intrados. This fact applies to the network of arches (i.e. Double curvature funicular forms).
The funicular geometries are proper forms for 3D printing with earth-based materials, as mentioned in
chapter two. Suppose we design a funicular target geometry and slice it into several consecutive laces.
In that case, the laces' aggregation from the first layer until the last layer before the printing completion
produce the same number of geometries as the number of layers. These geometries are not necessarily
funicular as the target geometry. Therefore, to design a printable structure, one must design a locally
funicular and globally functional geometry as funicular as possible. This approach applies to thin shells,
such as studies in [2]. However, the 3D printing of cantilevered clay structures with no formwork due
to the meagre initial yield strength and long hardening time of clay is subjected to increase the shell's
thickness to compensate for the material's low stiffness. Therefore, based on the masonry safety
theorem, one can design a thick target funicular geometry compared to thin shells and verify if the thrust
stress networks at each step of printing cross the shell's extrados and intrados.

Figure 4 Step-wise evaluation of thrust network in the section of a shell

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Proceedings of the IASS Annual Symposium 2020/21 and the 7th International Conference on Spatial Structures
Inspiring the Next Generation

As shown in Figure 4, the thrust network is crossing from the vault's extrados at the third and fourth
steps. The crossed thrust network from the shell's thickness can lead to the first hinges on the shell's skin
and buckling after.

4.4 Slicing pattern effect on structural behaviour

Figure 5 shows three different slicing patterns applied to the same geometry with the same cross-section
with equal thickness. The buckling load factor at each printing step for each pattern shows that the
slicing pattern directly influences the structural stability. Indeed, the slicing pattern participates in
structural stability during the printing process through the following aspects:
1- The slicing pattern indicates the local cantilevers in between the laces
2- The slicing pattern indicated the applied load's orientation to the progressing structure through
each Lace's deposition.
3- The slicing pattern defines how many layers are supported by the printing base.

Figure 5 Slicing patterns and their effect on structural stability

4.5 Shell's cross-section

The cross-section of the shell plays a vital role in its structural stability. We performed the analysis by
assuming the shells' cross-sections to be solid. However, using 3D Printing technology, we can control
material deposition and reduce material consumption. The cross-section is tuned to reduce its self-
weight while controlling structural stability. The process is two-fold. First, narrow the shell's thickness
from the bottom to the top (Figure 6-a). Second, remove material from the shells cross-section (Figure
6-b). Rodiftsis explores different topologies for a shell's cross-sections in [20]. Here we use a triangular
infill between the shell's outer and inner skin. As such, the stresses due to the self-weight are reduced
while the stiffness is maintained thanks to the bracing between the two skins.

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Proceedings of the IASS Annual Symposium 2020/21 and the 7th International Conference on Spatial Structures
Inspiring the Next Generation

Figure 6 Shell's cross-section details

Figure 6 (b) depicts three different densities of the cross-section's infill. (1) low density, (2) medium and
(3) high infill density. If the density increases, the structure becomes heavier. Consequently, the loads
applied to the structure are higher. On the other hand, if the infill density is low, the structure's buckling
load factor decreases, and the structure becomes less stable. One has to find the acceptable infill density
for the cross-section for a trade-off between the buckling load factor and the applied stresses to the
structure.

5 Fabrication
The previous sections define how we form-find a geometry, slice it, analyse its structural stability step-
wise, and finally design the shell's cross-section. This section discusses the methods of prototype
fabrication.

5.1 Tuning the laces geometries

To have a higher quality of 3D Printed laces and understand how much we can vary the laces' width
using the same nozzle diameter, we experimented with the deposition of linear laces with varying
speeds. Nozzle diameter was 8 mm. The goal was to achieve the laces' width regarding extrusion speed
(Ve) and Robot movement speed (Vr). Graph 1 shows the gathered information from our experiments.
Experimenters must perform the same test for different material composition and the nozzles with
different sizes.
Table 1 The width of the laces corresponding to different robot movement speeds (Vr) and material extrusion speeds (Ve)

Ve _8800 Bit Ve _7840 Bit Ve _6880 Bit Ve _5920 Bit Ve _4960 Bit Ve _4000 Bit
Vr _60 mm/s 7.25 mm 7.3 7.25 7.3 7.6 7.2
Vr_55 mm/s 8.15 7.45 7.45 7.3 7.4 7.4
Vr _50 mm/s 8.95 7.5 7.7 7.6 7.2 7
Vr_45 mm/s 9.2 8 8.15 7.6 8.2 7.4
Vr _40 mm/s 10 8.5 9.6 8.3 8 7
Vr_35 mm/s 10.2 9 9.7 8.5 7.9 7.8
Vr_30 mm/s 11.55 10 10.1 10 8.9 8.2
Vr_25 mm/s 12.7 11 11 10 9.9 10
Vr _20 mm/s 14 12 11.3 11 10.8 10
Vr _15 mm/s 18 14 14.5 12 11.9 11.5
Vr _10 mm/s 26.5 20 18.5 13.2 16.5 15

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Proceedings of the IASS Annual Symposium 2020/21 and the 7th International Conference on Spatial Structures
Inspiring the Next Generation

The units of the extrusion speed in table 1 is in the Bit. The systematic unit for the extrusion rate is gram
per second. Formerly we have measured the flow's debit as ten gr/s for the 16100-bit signal. The results
in Table 1 prove that we can vary the laces' width to have the laces thinner than the nozzle diameter 6 up
to a certain amount before material tearing or higher width by Lace pressing strategy (Refer to section
5.2). The highlighted numbers in red mention the laces' widths, not as expected. These anomalies may
be due to the tolerances in robot speed and the printing table's calibration

5.2 Lace Pressing Strategy (LPS)

The lace pressing happens when the cross section of deposited lace is larger than the cross section of the
nozzle [21]. There are three major benefits to press the laces :
1- Increasing the laces' width and decrease their height to extend the laces' interface.
2- Evaporation of the laces reduces the material shrinkage and, consequently, the geometrical
deformation during and after printing.
3- Ensuring that the distance between the nozzle and the layer is zero. Therefore, we control the
layers' height and eliminate the accumulated error in the structue's height—this error emanates
from the natural deformation of laces caused by their self-weight. By pressing the laces
deliberately, we control the laces' deformation for the deposition of the next Lace.
Finally, it is essential to know that the over pressing may cause deformation in sub laces and
consequently structural failure due to the lace's deformation.

Figure 7 Comparison of three printing strategies.

Figure 7 shows how the laces' interface increase with angled printing (tangent to the target geometry all
over the surface) and the Lace Pressing Strategy. (1) shows 2.5 D printing where the laces' contact
surface is low for low slopes. Figure 7 (2) shows 3D printing, where eliminating the local cantilevers
leads to an increased laces interface compared to 2.5D printing. Figure 7 (3) shows 3D printing with the
angled LPS, where the laces have a larger width and lower height than without LPS, increasing the laces'
interface.

5.3 Lace Heating Strategy (LHS)

The fresh clay mixture is weak due to its low yield strength. For pump-ability and extrudability, using
a mixture with a higher yield strength is not applicable with our setup. There are several solutions to
address this issue:
1- Using additives such as alginate[22], alcohol or other bio-based additions such as oak seed
extract, cellulosic glue, casein, linseed oil [23] to increase the material's yield strength after
deposition.

6
This is not posible with fresh concrete due to material tearing.
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Proceedings of the IASS Annual Symposium 2020/21 and the 7th International Conference on Spatial Structures
Inspiring the Next Generation

2- Using more robust pumps and extruders to print a mixture with higher yield strength.
3- Printing the structure in several steps. The process is paused just before the structural failure
and resumed after the printed part is stiff enough to tolerate the following parts' weight. This
solution will increase printing time.
4- Heat or sinter the material after the deposition of each lace.
We explored the fourth solution using a heat gone with 1500 W power.

Figure 8 Heating the printed laces with a heat gun after lace deposition with an extruder

The lace heating process is applicable during the printing process. We can have a robot print the laces
and another heat them after the laces' deposition. If the materials are overheated, the laces' cohesion will
decrease; ergo, the cold-joint phenomena will occur.

5.4 Prototype of a Squinch with arc and parabolic base.

The first successfully printed prototype is a squinch geometry with a parabolic base (Refer to section
5.4.2 —the slicing strategy allows non-constant distance and non-constant angles. The prototype's size
is 66 cm×37 cm×27 cm using around 35 litres of Kaolin clay. We tested different laces height and
extrusion flow rate parameters.

5.4.1 The Squinch with arc base

The first prototype buckled under its self-weight due to the structure's low buckling load factor and the
low cohesion of laces. The nozzle size is 10 mm—the constant target geometry's cross-section
thickness is 2 cm. We slice the geometry with a maximum height of 1 cm for the laces. The total
number of layers is 30, and the structure buckled in the 16th layer (Highlighted in red in Figure 9). The
estimated buckling load factor of the global geometry is 1.66, though the buckling load factor at the
16th layer is 4.54.

5.4.2 The Squinch with parabolic base

For the second prototype, we modified the geometry and the cross-section. The size of the geometry is
66 cm×37 cm ×27 cm. The geometry's cross-section thickness gradually reduces from the bottom to
the top. The cross-section width is 7 cm in the base of the geometry and 2 cm at the vault's crest. The
base shape of the geometry is a parabola. The layer's maximum height was set to 4mm, while the
nozzle diameter remained 10 mm. Therefore, we were pressing the laces more than the previous

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Proceedings of the IASS Annual Symposium 2020/21 and the 7th International Conference on Spatial Structures
Inspiring the Next Generation

prototype. The slicing method remained the same as the previous prototype. We calculated the global
buckling load factor of the prototype as 4.36. We analysed the geometry in several steps (Layers) for
the buckling load factor and the maximum and minimum principal stresses applied to the self-weight
structure. We verified the conditions to be satisfying. This time the model was successfully 3D Printed
without buckling. We have not yet assessed the shrinkage and the model's deformation after drying
time.

Figure 9 The two attempts to prototype a squinch

5.5 Prototype of a Squinch with polyline base.

We had executed another type of Squinch with a polyline base. We utilized the same method as other
prototypes for the step-wise structural analysis. However, we have hired another method for the slicing
to press all the geometry layers equally. For the prototypes mentioned in 4.4.1 and 4.4.2, since the height
of the layers varied and was not constant, we had the laces more squeezed in the bottom of the arch-like
laces and minor in the middle. We sliced the geometry with constant distance and variable angle (refer
to Figure 3, no 4). Therefore, we could have complete control over the layers pressing.

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Inspiring the Next Generation

Conclusion
This paper presents 3D printing clay structures' methods and concerns using no formwork. First,
methods to form-find apt geometries for support-less 3D printing of clay shells are introduced. Second,
the structural stability analysis concerns for 3D printing cantilevered structures using fresh clay are
depicted. Moreover, the effect of slicing strategies on the structure's stability is evaluated. Third,
technical fabrication concerns are explained. Finally, we propose lace heating and the angled Lace
pressing techniques to increase the structural stability during the printing process. There is more research
to be done for having a better understanding of the effect and consequences of applying heat during the
printing process on structural stability.

Acknowledgement
Special thank to Malo Charier for his full assistantship during the prototyping steps . Special thanks to
Sébastien Maitenaz for his advices accompagnement during several fabrication sessions. We had
performed all the prototypes and experimentations of this project at Ecole des Ponts et chausses, Build’in
lab. The laboratoire GSA from École Nationale Supérieure d’Architecture Paris-Malaquais is the host
institude and sponsor of this research paper.

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