Module 2 - Individual Behaviour

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BUSINESS SCHOOL Bhubaneswar
Individual behaviour
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“Son, the life of the sparrow is in your hands”

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• Topics need to be covered:
Individual Differences
Personality & theories of Personality
 Perception
Learning & Behaviour Reinforcements

•
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No two individuals are exact
duplicates!!!!
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Individual Differences
• In Psycholology, Individual Differences are referred to as the

extent & kind of variations or similarities among people on some
of the important psychological aspects such as intelligence,
personality, interest & aptitude.
• Individual differences occur due to genetic & environmental
factors
– We inherit certain characters from our parents through Genetic codes
– The phenotypes or the expressed form of our characteristics depend
on contributions of the socio-cultural environment.
– The environment is responsible as how we are reared, the kind of
atmosphere at house, education cultural practices and many more.
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Hereditary differencesBhubaneswar
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Individual differences dueBhubaneswar
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environment
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Factors causing Individual
differences
Physiological variables- Age/Sex/Physical
features
Individual
Variables
Socio-Psycholological variables –
personality/Perception/Learning/Motivation/A
ttitudes& values
Individual
behaviour
caused by
Organizational variables – Organizational
Structure/Processes/ Climate
Situational
Variables
Job Variables – Nature of Job/ Work
Environment
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Psychological Assessment
• Refers to the use of specific

procedures for evaluating personal
qualities, behaviours & abilities of the
Individuals.
• These procedures describe people by

specifying how they are different from
or similar to other individuals.
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BUSINESS SCHOOL Managers should take both Bhubaneswar
individual & situational variables
as integrated components rather
than as separate entities
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PERSONALITY
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Scorpion and the frog story
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The term personality is derived from the Latin word
persona meaning a mask.

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“Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of

that psychophysical system that determines his unique
adjustment to his environment.”
- Gordon Allport
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• “Relatively stable pattern of

behaviours and consistent internal
states that explain a person's
behavioural tendencies”
• Personality is the sum total of ways in

which an individual reacts and
interacts with others.
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• Personality is ---We get a good idea

of what personality is by listening to
what we say when we use "I". When
you say I, you are, in effect, summing
up everything about yourself - your
likes and dislikes, fears and virtues,
strengths and weaknesses. The word
I is what defined you as an individual,
as a person separate from all others.”
Adams (1954, cited in Schultz &

Schultz, 1994)
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Personality determinantsBhubaneswar
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• Heredity
• Environment
• Situation
• Culture
• Family & Social Background

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Approaches
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• Trait and type approaches.

• Trait Theories
• Type Theories
• Dynamic approaches.
• Psychoanalytical theories
• Learning and behavioral approaches.

• Behaviorist theories.
• Social learning theories.
• Cognitive theories.
• Humanistic approaches
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BUSINESS SCHOOL Trait Theory Bhubaneswar
Personality traits are "enduring

patterns of perceiving, relating to, and
thinking about the environment and
oneself that are exhibited in a wide
range of social and personal contexts."
A trait is what we call a characteristic way in which

an individual perceives, feels, believes, or acts.
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Theorists
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1. Traits are relatively stable over time,
2. Traits differ among individuals

3. Traits are also bipolar and
4. Traits influence behavior.
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Three trait theory

In 1936, psychologist Gordon Allport found that one
English-language dictionary alone contained more than 4,000
words describing different personality traits. He
categorized these traits into three levels.
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Three trait
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1. Cardinal Traits: Traits that dominate an individual’s whole life, often to

the point that the person becomes known specifically for these
traits.Christ-like, Mother Theresa’s altruism , etc.
2. Central Traits: These are the general characteristics that form the basic
foundations of personality. Terms such as intelligent, honest, shy and
anxious are considered central traits.
3. Secondary Traits: These are the traits that are sometimes related to
attitudes or preferences and often appear only in certain situations or
under specific circumstances. Some examples would be getting anxious when
speaking to a group or impatient while waiting in line.
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16 personality factor theory

Trait theorist Raymond Cattell reduced the number of main
personality traits from All port’s initial list of over 4,000 down
to 16 by means of a statistical technique called factor analysis.
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BUSINESS16 personality
SCHOOL factor theory Bhubaneswar
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Universal trait theory

British psychologist Hans Eysenck developed a model of
personality based upon just three universal traits were
sufficient to describe human personality.
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Universal trait theory
1. Introversion/Extraversion: Introversion involves directing attention on inner

experiences, while extraversion relates to focusing attention outward on other
people and the environment. So, a person high in introversion might be quiet and
reserved, while an individual high in extraversion might be sociable and outgoing.
2. Neuroticism/Emotional Stability: This dimension of Eysenck’s trait theory is
related to moodiness versus even-temperedness. Neuroticism refers to an
individual’s tendency to become upset or emotional, while stability refers to the
tendency to remain emotionally constant.
3. Psychoticism: Later, after studying individuals suffering from mental illness,
Eysenck added a personality dimension he called psychoticism to his trait
theory. Individuals who are high on this trait tend to have difficulty dealing with
reality and may be antisocial, hostile, non-empathetic and manipulative.
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What’s for dinner???
Moral: The problem may not be with the other one as we always
think, could be very much within us!
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Big five model

Both Cattell’s and Eysenck’s theory have been the subject of
considerable research, which has led some theorists to believe
that Cattell focused on too many traits, while Eysenck focused
on too few. As a result, a new trait theory often referred to as
the "Big Five" theory emerged. This five-factor model of
personality represents five core traits that interact to form
human personality. Lewis Goldberg proposed a five-dimension
personality model, nicknamed the Big five.
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Big fiveSCHOOL
BUSINESS model Bhubaneswar
1. Openness to Experience: the tendency to be imaginative, independent,

and interested in variety vs. practical, conforming, and interested in
routine.
2. Conscientiousness: the tendency to be organized, careful, and
disciplined vs. disorganized, careless, and impulsive.
3. Extraversion: the tendency to be sociable, fun-loving, and affectionate
vs. retiring, somber, and reserved.
4. Agreeableness: the tendency to be soft-hearted, trusting, and helpful
vs. ruthless, suspicious, and uncooperative.
5. Neuroticism: the tendency to be calm, secure, and self-satisfied vs.
anxious, insecure, and self-pitying.
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Big Five Personality Traits Bhubaneswar
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Extroversion
This trait includes characteristics such as excitability, sociability,
talkativeness, assertiveness, and high amounts of emotional expressiveness.
Sociable, gregarious, and assertive
I love excitement and am a cheerful person
Agreeableness
This personality dimension includes attributes such as trust,
altruism, kindness, affection, and other prosocial behaviors.
Good-natured, cooperative, and trusting.
People find me warm and generous and selfless
Conscientiousness
Common features of this dimension include high levels of thoughtfulness,
with good impulse control and goal-directed behaviors
Responsible, dependable, persistent, and organized.
People find me reliable and I keep my house clean
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Emotional Stability
Individuals high in this trait tend to experience emotional instability,
anxiety, moodiness, irritability, and sadness.
calm, self-confident, secure (positive) versus nervous, depressed, and

insecure (negative).
am very moody I often feel sad and down
Openness to Experience
This trait features characteristics such as imagination and insight, and
those high in this trait also tend to have a broad range of interests.
I am a very curious person & enjoy challenges
Imaginativeness, artistic, sensitivity, and intellectualism.

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HEXACO model
Michael Ashton and Kibeom Lee , in 2008, proposed a six
dimensional HEXACO model of personality structure. Ashton and
Lee especially emphasize the Honesty-Humility (H) factor as
differentiating the HEXACO model from other personality
frameworks. Specifically, the H factor is described as sincere,
honest, faithful/loyal, modest/unassuming, fair-minded, VERSUS
sly, deceitful, greedy, pretentious, hypocritical, boastful and
pompous. The H factor has been linked to criminal, materialistic,
power-seeking and unethical tendencies.
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HEXACO model
1. Honesty-Humility
2. Emotionality
3. Extraversion
4. Agreeableness
5. Conscientiousness and
6. Openness to Experience .
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Criticisms
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1. Being purely descriptive and offering little explanation of the
underlying causes of personality
2. Lead some people to accept oversimplified classifications
3. Underestimate the effect of specific situations on people's
behavior.
4. Poor predictors of behavior.

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Types
BUSINESS SCHOOL Vs Traits Bhubaneswar
Personality type refers to the Personality trait refers to

psychological classification of psychological classification of
different types of people different levels or degrees
For example, according to type theories, there are two types of

people, introverts and extroverts. According to trait theories,
introversion and extroversion are part of a continuous dimension,
with many people in the middle.
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4 Temperament theory
Temperament theory has its roots in the ancient four
humors theory. It may have origins in ancient Egypt or
Mesopotamia, but it was the Greek physician Hippocrates
(460–370 BC) who developed it into a medical theory.
Next, Galen (AD 131–200) developed the first typology of
temperament. The word "temperament" itself comes from
Latin "temperare", "to mix". In the ideal personality, the
complementary characteristics or warm-cool and dry-moist
were exquisitely balanced.
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Temperament
BUSINESS theory
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4 Humors 4 Temperaments
Blood Sanguine (pleasure-seeking and sociable)
Yellow bile Choleric (ambitious and leader-like)
Black bile Melancholic (introverted and thoughtful)
Phlegm. Phlegmatic (relaxed and quiet)

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Sanguine Phlegmatic
(pleasure-seeking and sociable) (relaxed and quiet)
4 Temperaments
Melancholic Choleric
(ambitious and leader-like)
(introverted and thoughtful)
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5 Temperament theory
Five temperaments is a theory in psychology, that expands upon the
Four Temperaments proposed in ancient medical theory. The
development of a theory of five temperaments begins with the Two-
factor models of personality and the work of the late William Schultz,
and his FIRO-B program. It is a measure of interpersonal relations
orientations that calculates a person's behavior patterns based on the
scoring of a questionnaire.
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5 Temperament
BUSINESS SCHOOL theory Bhubaneswar
4 Humors 5 Temperaments
Blood Sanguine (pleasure-seeking and sociable)
Yellow bile Choleric (ambitious and leader-like)
Black bile Melancholic (introverted and thoughtful)
Phlegm. Phlegmatic (relaxed and quiet)
Supine (Low self esteem)
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Sanguine Phlegmatic
(pleasure-seeking and sociable) (relaxed and quiet)
Supine
(Low Self esteem)
Melancholic Choleric
(ambitious and leader-like)
(introverted and thoughtful)
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Type A and Type B theory

Type A personality behavior was first described as a
potential risk factor for heart disease in the 1950s by
cardiologists Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman. After a
ten-year study of healthy men between the ages of 35 and
59, Friedman and Rosenman estimated that Type A
behavior doubles the risk of coronary heart disease in
otherwise healthy individuals.[
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and Type B theory
Type A Type B
Ambitious, rigidly organized, highly status Live at a lower stress level and typically
conscious, can be sensitive, care for other work steadily, enjoying achievements but
people, are truthful, impatient, always try not becoming stressed when they are not
to help others, take on more than they achieved. When faced with competition,
can handle, want other people to get to they do not mind losing and either enjoy
the point, proactive, and obsessed with the game or back down. They are often
time management. People with Type A reflective, thinking about the outer and
personalities are often high-achieving inner worlds. Furthermore, Type B
"workaholics" who multi-task, push personalities may have a poor sense of
themselves with deadlines, and hate both time schedule and can be predominately
delays and ambivalence. right brained thinkers.
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Type D theory
Type D personality, a concept used in the field of medical
psychology, is defined as the joint tendency towards
negative affectivity (e.g. worry, irritability, gloom) and
social inhibition (e.g. reticence and a lack of self-
assurance). The letter D stands for 'distressed'. Johan
Denollet, professor of Medical Psychology at Tilburg
University, Tilburg, The Netherlands, developed the
construct based on clinical observations in cardiac patients,
empirical evidence, and existing theories of personality.
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Type DSCHOOL
BUSINESS theory Bhubaneswar
1. Individuals with a Type D personality have the tendency to experience
increased negative emotions across time and situations and tend not to
share these emotions with others, because of fear of rejection or
disapproval.
2. The prevalence of Type D personality is 21% in the general population
and ranges between 18 to 53% in cardiac patients.
3. Type D is associated with a 4-fold increased risk of mortality,
recurrent myocardial infarction (MI), or sudden cardiac death,
independently of traditional risk factors, such as disease severity.

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Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

This was one of the more influential ideas originated in the
theoretical work of Carl Jung as published in the book Psychological
Types. The original developers of the personality inventory were
Katharine Cook Briggs and her daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers. these
two, having studied extensively the work of Jung, turned their
interest of human behavior into a devotion of turning the theory of
psychological types to practical use.
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Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus

Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus is a book written by
American author, and relationship counsellor, John Gray. The book
asserts that most of common relationship problems between men and
women are a result of fundamental differences between the genders,
which the author exemplifies by means of the book's eponymous
metaphor: that men and women are from distinct planets – men from
Mars and women from Venus – and that each gender is acclimated to
its own planet's society and customs, but not those of the other.
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Men Are
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SCHOOL from Venus
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When men are stressed, they withdraw until they find a solution to the
problem. When women are stressed their natural reaction is to talk
about issues (even if talking does not solve the problem).
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Psychoanalytical
BUSINESS SCHOOL Theories Bhubaneswar
• Psychoanalytic theories explain human behaviour in terms of the
interaction of various components of personality.
• Sigmund Freud was the founder of this school.
• Freud drew on the physics of his day (thermodynamics) to coin the
term psycho-dynamics.
• Based on the idea of converting heat into mechanical energy, he
proposed psychic energy could be converted into behaviour.
• Freud's theory places central importance on dynamic, unconscious
psychological conflicts.
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Structural model of personality

The founder of psychoanalytic theory was Sigmund Freud. The
term psychoanalysis is used to refer to many aspects of Freud’s
work and research, including Freudian therapy and the research
methodology he used to develop his theories. Freud relied heavily
upon his observations and case studies of his patients when he
formed his theory of personality development.
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Structural
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According to Freud the mind can be divided into

two main parts:
• The conscious mind includes everything
that we are aware of. This is the aspect
of our mental processing that we can
think and talk about rationally.
• The unconscious mind is a reservoir of

feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories
that outside of our conscious awareness.
Most of the contents of the unconscious
are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as
feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict.
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Neo-Freudian Theory
These other theorists became known as Neo-Freudians. Neo-

Freudians, such as Adler, Horney, Jung, and Erikson, agreed with
Freud that childhood experiences matter; however, they expanded
on Freud's ideas by focusing on the importance of sociological and
cultural influences in addition to biological influences.
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• For example, Erik Erikson believed that
Freud was incorrect to believe that
personality is shaped almost entirely by
childhood events. Other issues that
motivated neo-Freudian thinkers
included:
– Freud's belief that personality is entirely
shaped by early childhood experiences
– Freud's lack of emphasis on social and
cultural influences on behavior and
personality
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Erikson’s Psychosocial stages
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Personality & BehaviourBhubaneswar
BUSINESS SCHOOL
• Self Concept & Self Esteem –

– Self Concept – The way individuals define themselves to who they
are and derive their sense of identity
– Self Esteem – The extent to which they consistently regard
themselves as capable, successful, important and worthy individuals
• People with high self esteem tend to take on more challenging assignments
& contribute significantly to the organizational effectiveness
• Need Patterns – According to the personality characteristics,
there are four types of needs:
– Needs for Achievement
– Needs for Affiliation
– Needs for Autonomy
– Needs for Dominance
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• Machiavellianism – manipulation of others

as a primary way of achieving one’s goals.
– People with high mach score tend to be cool,
logical in assessing the system around them,
willing to twist and turn facts to influence
others.
• Locus of Control – Whether people
believe that they are in control of events,
or events control them.
– Former category of people seek opportunities
for advancement, and rely more on their
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BUSINESS SCHOOL
• Tolerance for Ambiguity – Based on personality

characteristics, some people can tolerate high level
of ambiguity without experiencing undue stress,
while people who have a low tolerance for ambiguity
may be affective in structured work setting but is not
efficient in a dynamic environment.
– Managers need to work in an environment of uncertainty,
hence need to develop a high tolerance for ambiguity
• Type A & type B
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• Introversion & Extroversion –

– Introversion – Tendency in individuals which
directs them to turn inward and experience
and process feelings, thoughts and ideas
within themselves. – R & D
– Extroversion – Tendency in individuals to turn
outward of themselves searching for external
stimuli with which they can interact – Publicity & PR
dept
• Work-ethic orientation-
– High work-ethic oriented workers – people
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The piece of glass that is plain is clear through and through, allowing
you to see others and their lives. But when it is covered with silver, then
you can see only yourself.
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PERCEPTION
Concept of Perception
Sensation vs Perception
 Perceptual Process
 Thematic Apprehension Test
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Human Resources Story
• Sometimes the Real Picture is Hidden!!

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One man's meat could Bhubaneswar
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another man's poison
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Visual Perception
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Auditory Perception
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Olfactory Perception
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Haptic Perception
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Gustatory Perception
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Sensation: your window to the world

Perception: interpreting what comes in
your window.
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Sensation vs PerceptionBhubaneswar
BUSINESS SCHOOL
• Sensations - the passive process of

bringing information from the
outside world into the body and to
the brain.
• Perception - the active process of

selecting, organizing, and
interpreting the information
brought to the brain by the senses
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• A stimulus can be measured in a variety of ways

including it’s size, duration, intensity, or wavelength.
• A Sensation occurs anytime a stimulus activates one

of your receptors.
• The sense organs then detect any change in energy,

such as light, heat, sound, and physical pressure.
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BUSINESS SCHOOL Sensation Bhubaneswar
• Sensation occurs when special

receptors in the sense organs—the
eyes, ears, nose, skin, and taste buds—
are activated, allowing various forms of
outside stimuli to become neural signals
in the brain. (This process of converting
outside stimuli, such as light, into neural
activity is called transduction.)
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Sensory Systems
• Transduction - Communication between the

brain & the rest of the body occurs via
neuron. Information goes from the senses to
the thalamus , then to the various areas in
the brain.
• All senses involve something called receptor

cells. Their job is to transduce (transform
or even “translate”) physical
stimulation/physical energy from the
environment into electrochemical messages
that can be understood by the brain.
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So where do vision and hearing
(& the other senses) happen?

The Brain!
• The physical energy in the
environment is detected by
the eyes, ears, etc. but we
can’t see, hear, etc. until
the brain interprets them—
i.e., makes sense of them.
So in a way, we see, hear,
smell, etc. in our brains!
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Absolute Threshold
• The Absolute Threshold is the level of

stimulus that produces a positive
response of detection 50% of the time.
• the lowest level of stimulation that a

person can consciously detect 50
percent of the time the stimulation is
present.
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The Absolute Thresholds forBhubaneswar
BUSINESS SCHOOL the
“5” senses in humans are the
• Vision: Seeing a candle flame 30 miles away on a clear
following:
night.
• Hearing: Hearing a watch ticking 20 feet away.
• Taste: Tasting 1 teaspoon of sugar dissolved into 2

gallons of water.
• Smell: Smelling one drop of perfume in a 3 room house.
• Touch: Feeling a bee’s wing falling a distance of one

centimeter onto your cheek.
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Perception Defined
• The process by which we become aware of objects and

events in the external world.
• The process of making sense of the world around us.
• Many people ignore the fact that all of us are different

and that these differences equip us to view the world
from our very own vantage points. Usually we spend
more energy defending our own position than
understanding others.
Where does the triangle begin?

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Distal stimuli, proximal stimuli, and percepts
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figure-ground organization
Factors that influence
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perception
• Attitudes
• Moods
• Motives
Characteristics of
Perceiver
• Self Concept
• Interest
• Cognitive Structure
• Expectations
• Figure & Ground

Characteristics & • Proximity
Organization of
Target • Similarity
• Closure
• Time
Characteristic of • Work Setting
Situation
• Social Setting
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Perception Process
• The perceptual process is a sequence of steps

that begins with stimuli in the environment
and ends with our interpretation of those
stimuli. This process is typically unconscious
and happens hundreds of thousands of times a
day. An unconscious process is simply one that
happens without awareness or intention.
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BUSINESS SCHOOL Perceptual Process Bhubaneswar
• Perception is the process of interpreting and understanding

one's environment.
• It is a complex psychological process, but it can be boiled

down to four steps: observation, selection, organization and
interpretation.
– First we observe information (sensory data) from the environment

through our senses: sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell.
– Next, our mind screens the data and will select only the items we will
process further.
– Finally, we organize the selected data into meaningful patterns for

interpretation and response.
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BUSINESS SCHOOL Selection Bhubaneswar
• The world around us is filled with an infinite number of stimuli that

we might attend to, but our brains do not have the resources to pay
attention to everything.
• Thus, the first step of perception is the (usually unconscious, but
sometimes intentional) decision of what to attend to.
• Depending on the environment, and depending on us as individuals,
we might focus on a familiar stimulus or something new.
• When we attend to one specific thing in our environment—whether
it is a smell, a feeling, a sound, or something else entirely—it
becomes the attended stimulus.
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• Several internal and external factors influence selecting stimuli

– External factors seeking attention:
• Location
• Colour
• Size
• Contrast
• Motion
• Repetition
• Familiarity
– Internal factors seeking attention:
• Learning
• Age difference
• Interest
• Ambivalence (mixed feelings)
• Paranoid perception (mental illness)
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BUSINESS SCHOOL Organization Bhubaneswar
• Once we have chosen to attend to a stimulus in the

environment (consciously or unconsciously, though
usually the latter), the choice sets off a series of
reactions in our brain.
• This neural process starts with the activation of our
sensory receptors (touch, taste, smell, sight, and
hearing).
• The receptors transduce the input energy into neural
activity, which is transmitted to our brains, where
we construct a mental representation of the stimulus
(or, in most cases, the multiple related stimuli)
called a percept.
• An ambiguous stimulus may be translated into
multiple percepts, experienced randomly, one at a
time, in what is called "multistable perception.“
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• Three Dimension of perception organizing:

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BUSINESS SCHOOL
Gestalt Principles of Vision Bhubaneswar
• Figure-ground
– We recognize objects (figures) by
distinguishing them from the background
(ground)
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• Closure
– We tend to fill in gaps in a figure
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• Similarity
– Parts of an image that look alike tend to be
grouped together
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• Proximity
– Parts of an image that are near one another tend to be
grouped together
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BUSINESS SCHOOL interpretation Bhubaneswar
• After we have attended to a stimulus, and our

brains have received and organized the
information, we interpret it in a way that makes
sense using our existing information about the
world.
• Interpretation simply means that we take the
information that we have sensed and organized
and turn it into something that we can
categorize.
• PERCEPTUAL SET – Previously held beliefs about objects/ situations
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Rubin SCHOOL
BUSINESS Vase - Rubin's Vase, a well-known
Bhubaneswar
optical illusion depicted below
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Process of Perception
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From a psychological point of view, the process of sensation, on the

one hand, and perception, on the other, work together through
what are termed respectively `bottom-up' and `top-down'
processing.
• The`top-down' phase concerns

• The bottom-up phase concerns the mental processing that
the way in which we process the allows us to order, interpret and
raw data received by our make sense of the world around
sensory apparatus. us.
• One of the key characteristics • One of the key characteristics

of bottom-up processing of top-down processing concerns
concerns the need for our need to make sense of our
selectivity. environment and our search for
meaning.
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Harold Kelly’s
BUSINESS SCHOOL Attribution Theory of perception
Bhubaneswar
• ATTRIBUTION – Process by which an individual assigns causes to the

behaviour he or she conceives.
• Attribution simply refers to how a person explains the cause of
another's or his or her own behaviour.
• Attribution thus is the most relevant application of perception

concepts to organization behaviour - the issue of person perception
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Attribution (Social Perception)
Disposition
Explanations for behaviour based on
al
●
an actor’s personality or intellect.
Attributions
Situational ●
Explanations for behaviour based on
an actors’s external situations or
Attributions environment
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Attribution cues
• To understand whether a behaviour was

based on dispositional attribution or
situational attribution we need to rely on
three cue:
Consistency Attribution cues that reflect how consistently a person
●
engages in some behaviour overtime
Consensus Attribution cues that reflect how a person’s behaviour

●
compares with that of others
Distinctiveness Attribution cues that reflect the extent to which a person

●
engages in some behaviour across a variety of situations

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Attribution errors
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How many Fs?

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ASCHOOL
BUSINESS Duck . . . Or a Rabbit? Bhubaneswar
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Young, or old?
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Young, or old?
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Native American . . . Or Eskimo?
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Which line is longer?

A B
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Count the black dots . . .Bhubaneswar
BUSINESS SCHOOL
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Ladder up… or down?
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Which way is water flowing?
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Stage 4:
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Memory
• We Don’t Retain All We Select!

– Photographic Memory & Hypnosis (still not perfect)
• Factors That Influence Long-term Memory
– A) Recency of Time (today vs. 10 years from now)
– B) Frequency of Use (628-2254, names, TV channels)
– C) Importance (test information, PIN number,
anniversary)
– D) Emotional Connection (1st kiss,, wedding)
– E) Weirdness/Uniqueness (sumo wrestlers, 500 lbs.
Dancer, Tool Videos)
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Perception Errors
• Perceptual error means not seeing the

reality!!
• Illusion can be understood as reliable

perceptual error
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BUSINESS SCHOOL Stereotyping Bhubaneswar
• A stereotype is a generalization about a group of people.
• When we judge someone on the basis of our perception of the group to

which he or she belongs, we are using the shortcut called stereotyping.
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BUSINESS SCHOOL Horn & Halo Effect Bhubaneswar
• Horn Effect Based on one NEGATIVE quality, we assumed the

person is BAD. i.e. we perceived the whole person, based on ONE
quality.
• Halo Effect Drawing general impression of individual on the basis

of a single characteristic. i.e. if someone is good at one dimension,
he/she is perceived to be good at other dimensions as well.
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Primacy & Recency Effect
• Primacy Effect – The common adage

that first impressions count is
technically known as Primacy Effect.
First impressions lasts long.
• Recency Effect - When the most

RECENT information influence our
judgment, even though we have a whole
of other information on the Person.
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Similar to me effect
• The Similar-to-Me Effect We tend to

favor/like or give favorable judgment to
those who are similar to us.
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Fundamental Attribution Error
• The tendency to underestimate the

influence of external factors and
overestimate the influence of internal
factors when making judgments about
the behavior of others.
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Self Serving Error
• Self-Serving Bias The tendency for

individuals to attribute their own
successes to internal factors while
putting the blame for failures on
external factors.
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Self-Fulfilling Profecy
• Self-fulfilling prophecy People’s

preconceived expectations and beliefs
determine their behavior, thus, serving
to make their expectations come true
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LEARNING &
BEHAVIOUR
REINFORCEMENTS
 Concept of Learning
 Components of Learning Process
 Factors Affecting Learning
 Learning Theories
 Conditioning Theory
 Cognitive Learning Theory
 Social Learning theory
 Reinforcement
 Types
 Administering Reinforcement
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• Learning may be defined as "any

relatively permanent change in
behaviour or behavioural potential
produced by experience".
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BUSINESS SCHOOL Learning Bhubaneswar
• “Learning is the process by which

new behaviours are acquired. It is
generally agreed that Learning
involves changes in behaviour,
practicing new behaviours and
establishing permanency in the
change.”
-- T. R. Mitchell (a leader of relational psychoanalysis)
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Distinctive CharacteristicsBhubaneswar
BUSINESS SCHOOL
• First, learning always involves some

kind of experience.
• Second, the behavioural changes that

take place due to learning are
relatively permanent.
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Approaches to LearningBhubaneswar
BUSINESS SCHOOL
• The mediational (i.e. mental) event could be memory, perception, attention or

problem solving etc. These are known as mediational processes because they
mediate (i.e. go-between) between the stimulus and the response. They come
after the stimulus and before the response.
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Observational Learning Bhubaneswar
BUSINESS SCHOOL
• Observational learning, also known

as modeling, was studied a great deal
by a scientist named Albert Bandura.
• Bandura believed that many of us learn

through copying others.
• Modeling is said to have two

components, observation and imitation.
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• Bandura set up a very famous

experiment called the Bobo Doll
experiment to elucidate his ideas.
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Process of Learning
• Drive – Strong stimulus that impels

actions
• Cue Stimuli – Conditions under which

a stimulus will increase the probability
of eliciting a specific response.
• Responses – Must be operationally

defined and preferable physically
observable
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• Reinforcement – Environmental events

affecting the probability of occurrence of
responses with which they are associated
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• Retention – The stability of learned

behaviour over time
• Extinction – Tendency for the

conditioned response to decrease or
disappear.
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Learning Theories
• Are the conceptual framework that

described how information is
absorbed, process and retaining
during learning
– Classical Conditioning
– Operant Conditioning
– Cognitive Learning Theory
– Social Learning Theory
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Classical Conditioning
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Pavlov Experiment
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Pavlov Experiment
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Types of Stimulus & Response
• A stimulus is an observable environmental event that has a potential to

exert control over a behavioural response. A response is an over
behaviour by a learner.
• Put it in a simpler way, a stimulus is anything that can directly influence
behaviour and the stimulus produces a response.
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Operant Conditioning
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Types of reinforcements &
Punishments
• Reinforcement is a consequence that increases the probability that a
behaviour will occur.
• On the other hand, punishment is a consequence that decreases the
probability a behaviour will occur.
• Put it another way, reinforcement will strengthen a behaviour while
punishment will weaken a behaviour.
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Social Learning Theory Bhubaneswar
BUSINESS SCHOOL
• Both behaviourism and social learning theory agree that experience is an

important cause of learning.
• They also include the concepts of reinforcement and punishment in their

explanation of behaviour.
• Furthermore, they agree that feedback is important in promoting learning.
• Most of the principles of the social learning theory were developed by Bandura
• Social learning theory believes that students learn by observing or watching and
imitating other people. This process is called modelling or observational learning.
• The newer version of social learning theory is called the social cognitive theory.
The change is due to a greater emphasis on cognitive processes in learning.
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• ThereSCHOOL
BUSINESS are 4 processes involved inBhubaneswar
observational learning. These

include attention, retention,
production, and motivation

Module 2 - Individual Behaviour

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Module 2 - Individual Behaviour

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AMITY GLOBAL

BUSINESS SCHOOL Bhubaneswar

“Son, the life of the sparrow is in your hands”

• Topics need to be covered:

Personality & theories of Personality

Learning & Behaviour Reinforcements

• In Psycholology, Individual Differences are referred to as the

• Refers to the use of specific

• These procedures describe people by

The term personality is derived from the Latin word

persona meaning a mask.

“Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of

• “Relatively stable pattern of

• Personality is the sum total of ways in

• Personality is ---We get a good idea

Adams (1954, cited in Schultz &

• Family & Social Background

• Trait and type approaches.

• Learning and behavioral approaches.

Personality traits are "enduring

A trait is what we call a characteristic way in which

1. Traits are relatively stable over time,

2. Traits differ among individuals

Three trait theory

1. Cardinal Traits: Traits that dominate an individual’s whole life, often to

16 personality factor theory

Universal trait theory

1. Introversion/Extraversion: Introversion involves directing attention on inner

Big five model

1. Openness to Experience: the tendency to be imaginative, independent,

calm, self-confident, secure (positive) versus nervous, depressed, and

am very moody I often feel sad and down

I am a very curious person & enjoy challenges

Imaginativeness, artistic, sensitivity, and intellectualism.

1. Being purely descriptive and offering little explanation of the

underlying causes of personality

2. Lead some people to accept oversimplified classifications

3. Underestimate the effect of specific situations on people's

4. Poor predictors of behavior.

Personality type refers to the Personality trait refers to

For example, according to type theories, there are two types of

Blood Sanguine (pleasure-seeking and sociable)

Yellow bile Choleric (ambitious and leader-like)

Black bile Melancholic (introverted and thoughtful)

Phlegm. Phlegmatic (relaxed and quiet)

Type A and Type B theory

1. Individuals with a Type D personality have the tendency to experience

share these emotions with others, because of fear of rejection or

2. The prevalence of Type D personality is 21% in the general population

and ranges between 18 to 53% in cardiac patients.

3. Type D is associated with a 4-fold increased risk of mortality,

recurrent myocardial infarction (MI), or sudden cardiac death,

independently of traditional risk factors, such as disease severity.

Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus

• Psychoanalytic theories explain human behaviour in terms of the

interaction of various components of personality.

• Sigmund Freud was the founder of this school.

• Freud drew on the physics of his day (thermodynamics) to coin the

• Based on the idea of converting heat into mechanical energy, he

proposed psychic energy could be converted into behaviour.

• Freud's theory places central importance on dynamic, unconscious

Structural model of personality