Robotic manipulators 

are capable of performing repetitive tasks at

speeds and accuracies that far exceed those of human operators.
They are now widely used in manufacturing processes such as spot
welding and painting. To perform their tasks accurately and reliably,
manipulator hand (or end-effector) positions and velocities are
controlled digitally. Each motion or degree of freedom (DOF) of the
manipulator is positioned using a separate position control system.
All the motions are coordinated by a supervisory computer to
achieve the desired speed and positioning of the end effector. The
computer also provides an interface between the robot and the
operator that allows programming the lower-level controllers and
directing their actions.
This two link robotic arm study is intended to analyze the relationship between the desired and
actual motion and path taken by the robot during operation. Using the linearized EOM and the
coefficients of the cubic polynomial, the simulation of the manipulator to move from position 1 to
position 2. The polynomials for the two-segment continuous-acceleration trajectory of the
manipulator can be used to analyze the comparison between the desired and actual x versus y path.
The analysis in this study creates a visualization of the robot’s physical constraints and how they
affect its operation. One can employ this analysis to understand when and why error associated with
the manipulator occurs during the robot’s operation.

The dynamic equations of a robotic manipulator represent a

complex, nonlinear and multivariable system. One of the first
methods of controlling such systems was inverse dynamics, which
is also known as the special case of a linearization method of
feedback based on cancelling nonlinearity in a dynamic system.
However, variability and uncertainty are barriers to exact dynamic
inversion. Therefore the control of inverse dynamics has limited
practical validation.
Variable impedance control is one of the most popular approaches
to robotic manipulator control because of its independence from the
system model. However, impedance control lacks optimality and
robustness due to several disadvantages: the painstaking work of
adjusting impedance parameters (unique to each subject with
amputation), difficulty in detecting subphases in one step, lack of
feedback and passivity
To overcome this difficulty, control techniques based on the
passivity property of Euler-Lagrange equations were observed.
Especially for robust and adaptive control problems, this passive
approach is a great advantage over the inverse dynamics method.
This motivates the design of robust passivity-based regulators for
prosthetic devices, formally guaranteeing the convergence of
system error trajectories and quantitatively establishing robustness
to known perturbations. For this reason, robust passivity-based
control has received considerable attention as a powerful control
law that guarantees stability and efficient monitoring of arbitrary
trajectories despite uncertainties in the system model parameters.
These control models have also been used in the development of
active prosthetics for the lower extremities and have shown results.
the robot end effector is controlled to move to a neighborhood around the desired position by using
the Cartesian-space feedback only. A Cartesianspace region is formulated to enclose the desired
position, where the robot region is specified outside the Cartesianspace region and the human
region is specified inside the Cartesian-space region. After the end-effector transits from the robot
region to the human region, the robot becomes passive, and human identify the desired position
and guide the end effector to move to the desired position.

The link flexibility of a robotic manipulator must be considered in

modeling and control when the manipulator is of a large dimension
or lightweight. Large manipulators play important roles in many
applications, such as construction automation, environmental
applications and space engineering. Lightweight arms have great
potential in the design of high-performance industrial robotic
manipulators since they allow high speed operation and
low energy consumption. However, due to the complexity of the link
deformation, which is a distributed parameter system, accurate
modeling and high performance control of flexible manipulators
pose a major challenge in practical design.
 Due to the complexity involved with link deformation however,
establishing the exact dynamic model even for one link flexible
manipulators is unrealistic, and certain simplifying approximations
about the link deformation have to be made. In addition to small
deformation, the most commonly used assumption in the robotic
literature is that it can be satisfactorily modeled by the Euler–
Bernoulli beam theory. Under such an assumption, the effects of
both rotary inertia and shear deformation of a flexible link are
neglected. However, it is well known in mechanics, particularly in
beam and plate theory, that both of them have significant effects on
the dynamic behavior of flexible structures 
 fractional-order PID (FOPID) controller tuned with adaptive
weighted particle swarm optimization (AWPSO) and genetic algorithms
(GAs) on two different models. The first application is the temperature
control for continuous stirred tank reactor. The second application
demonstrates a car active suspension system. The FOPID controller
parameters include three parameters as a PID controller and another two
parameters to furnish the FOPID structure. The parameters of the FOPID
controller (the PID part) for each application have been, first, estimated
and tuned using the AWPSO and the other two parameters for the FOPID
controller have been, optimally, estimated using the GA. The transient
behavior of the two applications has shown an acceptable behavior
compared to the conventional PI/PID controllers tuned by the AWPSO
only. Three different error criteria have been selected for the two
applications to testify the optimum tuned parameters of the two different
classes of controllers. These error criteria are the integral square error, the
integral absolute error, and integral time absolute error. 

A major challenge to do so from an algorithm point of view is that

the instrument appearance is difficult to model over time. Initially,
methods relied on knowing the instrument geometry to track the
instrument [123,124]. Alliteratively, visual survoing has been the
basis of a number of methods in order to overcome the need to
know the instrument structure beforehand [125,126]. Unfortunately,
such methods have difficulties in dealing with prolonged tracking
time and require failure-checking systems. More recent methods
have leveraged machine learning methods to provide fast and
robust solutions
To approach
Using the MATLAB program a code was written to analyze the robot’s motion in the xy plane and
changes in the angular velocity and acceleration of both joints and the end effector. The MATLAB
code is designed to develop the various graphs that follow to simulate the location on both joints
and end effector with respect to time and determine the true effects of the robot’s physical
constraints as they relate to the actual motion versus the ideal motion of the robot. The
transformation matrices are designed to capture the relationship between the reference frames of
the links of the robot. The associated kinematic equations of the robot are used to determine the
joint parameters that provide a desired position for the end effector. The positions of motion,
constant variables, gains of each joint’s proportional controller and transfer functions are defined
prior to the development of the linear and nonlinear EOM. The respective plots which follow are
developed to illustrate how the two link robot moves in 2D space and what region in its workspace
does it encounter error associated with the end effector not reaching the desired end position. Some
plots are developed to identify causes of error related to the robot’s operation and physical
constraints.