PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY

Introduction:

Plants power the biological and human world. Directly or indirectly; they feed the human race and all other
animals on earth. They provide most of our energy supply such as wood or as coal and oil from the fossil plants. Plants
also offer one of our principal hopes for renewable energy resource to place fossil fuels as their supply run out. Plants
provide many other commodities such as lumber; cotton and other fibers; beverages such as coffee, tea, wine and beer;
and the raw material for various plastics. It is important , therefore , to understand plants and haw they provide so many
resources. Botany or plant science embodies our knowledge of these matter, acquired by the scientific methods of
observation and experimentation. Diseases are born with man and drugs came into existence since a very early period to
remove the pain of diseases and to cure them. Thus , the story of drugs as old as mankind. Drugs used in medicine today
are either obtained from nature or are of synthetic origin. Natural drugs are obtained from plants, animals or mineral
kingdom. Drugs from microorganisms like antibiotics were not known in the early period. Natural drugs obtained from
plants and animals are called drugs of biological origin and their active principles, because of which they have their
therapeutic use are produced in the living cells of plants or animals. Botanical knowledge underlies our efforts to
improve plants and their management, in endeavoring to assure an adequate supply of food , fiber, drugs and forest
products for the earth’s ever-growing populations.

1. Biology: It is the science that deals with the study of living objects. Biology is divided into two branches.
A. Botany: Which deals with plant.
B. Zoology: Which treats of animals.

2. Scope of Botany: The subject of Botany deals with the study of plants from many points of view
1. This science investigates the internal and external structures of plants
2. It deals with their diverse function like:
a. Manufacture of food.
b. Various kinds of movements exhibited by them.
c. Mode of respiration.
d. Their modes of reproduction.
3. Their adaptations to the diverse conditions of environment.
4. Their distribution in space and time.
5. Their life history and relationship with other plants and classification into natural groups.
6. Their evolution from the lower and simpler forms to the higher and more complex one.
7. The laws of heredity.
8. The varied uses that can be adapted to improve plants in the direction of better quality and higher yield, and
even to produce newer types of plants for better uses.

3. Branches of Botany:
1. Morphology: (morphe= form, logos= study). This deals with the study of form and features of different plant
organs. It also includes a study of development of embryo.

2. Histology: It is studying a detailed structure of tissues making up the different organs of plants as revealed by
the microscope, it has two branches.
a. Anatomy: It is the study of gross internal structure of plant organs by the technique of section-cutting.
b. Cytology: It is dealing with the cell structure with special reference to the behavior of nucleus.
Particularly of the chromosomes.

3. Physiology: This deals with various functions that the plants perform. Functions may be vital or mechanical.

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 4. Ecology: This deals with the interrelationships between the living organs and their environment which
includes all conditions surrounding them.

5. Taxonomy or Systemic Botany: This deals with the description and identification of plants and their
classification into various natural groups according to the resemblance and differences in their morphological
characteristics.

6. Organic Evolution: This deals with the sequence of descent of more complex, more recent and more
advanced types of plants from the simpler, earlier and more primitive types through successive stages in different
periods of earth.

7. Genetics: this deals with the fact and laws of inheritance of charactersfrom one generation to another.

8. Paleontology: This deals with the remains of ancient plants preserved in the form of fossils.

9. Pharmaceutical Botany: It deals with systemic botany, in this system it investigates botanical properties of
the medical, toxic and useful plants, and determined their place, distribution, active ingredients, uses and values in this
system.

4. The Plant Cells:

Cells: They are the structural units of which the body of the plant is composed.

Distinctions between Plants and Animals: Higher plants and higher animals are readily distinguished from one
another by their possession of distinctive organs in both cases for discharge of definite functions, but it is very difficult to
make a distinction between unicellular plants and animals. The distinguishing features in general are:

1. Cell wall and cellulose: The plant cell is different from the animal cell by the presence of cell- wall made from
cellulose or some modification of it.

2. Chlorophyll: It is the green coloring matter of leaves and tender shoots, is highly characteristic of plants with
the exception of fungi and total parasites.
Chlorophyll is contained in special protoplasmic bodies, called plastids, which often occur in large numbers in the cell.
They are absence in animal cell.

THE PLANT KINGDOM

(Regnum Vegetablum)
There are two main divisions of the plant kingdom:
A. Cryptogams: They are lower plants, which never bear flowers or seeds. The main groups of Cryptogams from
the lower types to the higher are the following:
1. Thallophyta: They are lower Cryptogams in which the plant body is not differentiated into the root,
stem and leaf. Such an undifferentiated plant body is called a thallus. Thallus bearing plants are called
Thallophyta.
a. Bacteria: They are the smallest known organisms, not visible to the naked eye. They are unicellular,
non-green, usually spherical or rod-like. They occur almost every where.

b. Algae: They are commonly green Thallophyta containing chlorophyll although this color may be
masked by other color in matters.

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 c. Fungi: They are non-green Thallophyta containing no chlorophyll. They grow mostly on land either as
saprophytes or in living bodies as parasites.

d. Lichens: They are association of Algae and Fungi.

2. Bryophyta: They are a group of higher Cryptogams in which the plant body may be thalloid or leafy.
They develop some root-like structures called rhizoids, but no true roots, and the conducting tissue is very
simple and primitive. They grow on all damp walls, on moist ground and on bark of trees forming a sort of
beautiful green carpet. They are classified as:
1.Thalloid Bryophyta
2. Leafy Bryophyta
3. Pteridophyta: They are the highest group of Cryptophyta in which the plant body is differentiated into
an under ground horizontal stem (Rhizome) or an erect stem, well-developed green leaves and true roots. The
plant body is more complicated which the development of conducting and mechanical tissues. They bear spores
on their leaves by which they reproduce and multiply.

B- Phnerogams or Spermatophytes: These are flowering or seed, bearing plants. Their two main characteristic
are:
1. Formation of the pollen-type for facility of fertilization.
2. Production of seeds for reproduction.

They are divided into two main groups:

1- Gymnosperms: (gymnos= naked, sperma=seed)

They are naked-seeded plants. That means the seeds are not enclosed in the fruit, the flowers are
unisexual, simple in construction and primitive in nature.

2. Angiosperms: (angio= case)

They are closed seeded plants, that means the seeds are enclosed in the fruit, they have the flowers
more complicated in construction and more advanced.

a. Dicotyledons: In this group the embryo of the seed bears two cotyledons, and the flower commonly bears
five petals or a multiple of this number, other characteristics are tap root in the root system and reticulate venation in
the leaves.

b. Monocotyledons: In this group the embryo of the seeds bears only one cotyledon, and the flower commonly
bears three petals or a multiple of this number. Other characteristics are fibrous roots and parallel venation in the
leaves.

Regnum Vegetable consist of 359.425 species of plants

1. Algae 20.000
2. Fungi 90.000
3. Bacteria 2.000
4. Lichens 15.000
5. Bryophyta 23.725
6. Pteridophyta 9.000
7. Gymnosperms 700
8. Angiosperms 199.000
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a. Dicotyledone 159.000
b. Monocotyledone 40.000

TAXONOMY
1. Taxonomic Characters: All plant posses hundreds of characters of a morphological, histological, embryo
logical, chemical and genetic nature which are potentially available for building up a classification of the plant
kingdom.

2. Botanical system and classification: As natural system in the world the international code of Botanical
Nomenclature is accepted, and the plant kingdom is divided into: (Engler’s Scheme): Division→ Class→ Order→
Family→Genus→ Species

1. Species: is defined as a group of individuals resembling one another in almost all respect, differing
only in minor details.

2. Genus: is a group of closely allied species, they resemble with one another in morphological
characters of the floral or reproductive parts.

3. Family: is a group of genera, which show general structural resembles with one another mainly in
their flora organs.

4. Order: is a group of family resembles one to another in morphological characters.

5. Class: is a group of orders resembles one to another.

6. Division: is a group of classes resembles one to another.

a. Binomial Nomenclature: Linnaeus (1707-1778). Before this time many plants were known by
a double Latin title, but this biologist represents the present binomial system. In which the first name
denotes the genus, while the second name denotes the species. All specific names may be written with
small initial letters while names are written with capitals. The name of the author who described a
species firstly is also written in an abbreviated from after the name of species.

Verbascum wiedemannianum FISCH. & MEY.

FISCH. = Fischer (surname)
MEY. = Meyer (surname)

The specific name is usually chosen to indicate

1. Some striking characteristic of the plant.
Astragalus cephalotes (flowers like a head)
Astragalus microcephalus (flowers like small head)

2. Some uses of the plant.

Papaveris somnifera (somnifer =narcotic)

3.The place of the plant.

Astragalus negevensis (Negev)
Verbascum sinaiticum (Sinai)
4.The human who described the plant at the first time.
Verbascum wiedemannianum (Wiedemann= surname)
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 5.The time of flowering
Colchicum autumnale (autumn)

b. Systems of Classification:
1. Artificial System: In this system only one most a few characters are selected arbitrarily and plants are
arranged into groups according to such characters. As a result closely related plants are often placed in different groups,
while quite unrelated plants are often placed in the same group, because of the presence or absence of a particular
character. This system enables us to determine readily the names of plants but does not indicate the natural relationship
that exists among the individuals forming a group.
Linnaean System: (1755) it is the best-known artificial system; Linnaeus classified plants according to the characteristics
of their reproductive organs.

2. Natural System: In this system all the important characteristics are taken into consideration and plants are
classified according are related to their characteristics. Thus according to their similarities and differences, mostly in
their important morphological characteristics, plants are first classified into a few big groups. These are further divided
and sub-divided into smaller groups until the smallest division is reached and that is a species.

3. Drugs Nomenclature:
The drug part of plant, which contains the active ingredient and uses as medicine is called a drug.
The drugs have two types according to their origin.
1. It consists of the all parts of the plants or from one part of the plant.
2. It consists of the product which produced as a secondary or after special treatment of the plant.

The drugs which consists of the all parts of the plant is few, but drugs consist of one part of the plant is more. The
names of the organs in Latin names are:
1. Folium Leaf 2. Folia Leaves
3. Flos Flower 4. Flores Flowers
5. Cortex Bark 6. Fructus Fruit
7. Semen Seed 8. Herba Herb
9. Lignum Wood 10. Radix Root
11. Bulbus Bulb 12. Tuber Tuber
13. Tubera Tubers 14. Rhizome Rhizom
15. Stipes Branch 16. Stipites Branches
17. Summitates The end of the branch 18. Stylus Style
19. Pericarpium Pericarp 20. Sporae Spors
21. Glandulae Secretion parts

About the second group the terms that used are:

1. Amylum Starch 2. Gummi Gum
3. Resina Resin 4. Balsamum Balsam
5. Oleum Oil 6. Cera Wax
7. Oleo-resina Oil with Resin 8. Pix Tar
9. Succus Juice

The drug names consists of organ name as single or plural, and the genus of the plant but some times the species name
is used with the genus name. The first letter of the genus and organs are capital. The organ name may be first, second or
the third name.
- Folia Digitalis
- Malvae Folium
- Chamomillae romane Flos
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- Semen Colchici
- Tuber Salep
- Equisti Herba
- Radix Saponaria albae

4. Plant Identification
Since the resemblance among the genera in a given botanical family are usually relatively obvious, at least
among vascular plants. Families are the most useful higher categories for the purposes of identifying the name of an
non-familiar vascular plant.

Flora: It is a manual identification manual organized by grouping under families. All the genera that occur in a
giving geographic origin. The first task in identifying an unknown plant is to determine the family to which it belongs
then the genus with in that family, and finally the species within that genus.

The botanist who prepares the manual normally devises and provides, as an aid to the identification an
analytical key. To the families covered, then under each key to the genera in it, and under each genus a key to the
species in it.
Palestinian Flora:

BACTERIOPHYTA
Bacteria occur almost everywhere.
1. Structure: Bacteria are the smallest and single celled organisms. They do not have true nucleus or true plastids and do
f bacteria made of proteins and
carbohydrates.
Flagella: is originating from the cytoplasm.
Plasma Membrane: formed by the cytoplasm.
Cytoplasm: spread uniformly throughout the cell and contain vacuoles.
Vacuoles: stored food granules Incipient Nucleus
2. Physiology of Bacteria: Bacteria are lacking in chlorophyll and thus are mostly unable to utilize carbon dioxide for
synthesis of organic compounds for their food. They are mostly heterotrophic in habit, leading a saprophytic or parasitic
life. A few, however are autotrophic, they are able to manufacture food for themselves.
3. Reproduction: Bacteria commonly multiply by fission.
4. Shapes of Bacteria:
a. Bacilli: are rod shaped bacteria
b. Cocci: are spherical shaped bacteria
c. Spirilla: are bacteria with the body spirally wound
d. Commas: are bacteria with the body slightly twisted like a comma

5. Harmful Effect of Bacteria:

Many parasitic (pathogenic) bacteria attack living plants, human beings and domestic animals and cause various and
often serious diseases in them. Normally they infect the host through wounds or may be breathed in or taken in with
food, water or milk. After infection of the body they not only absorb the stored food and destroy the cell but also at the
same time produce a toxin.
Some of the common disease-producing bacteria are
a. Bacillus typhosus causing Typhoid fever.
b. Bacillus anthracis causing Anthrax
c. Clostridium tetani causing Tetanus
d. Clostridium botilinum causing a dangerous type of food-poisoning called Ptomaine poisoning
e. Bacillus diphtheriae causing Diphtheria
f. Bacillus tuberculosis causing Tuberculosis
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g. Mycobacterium leprae causing Leprosy
h. Bacillus dysenteriae causing dysentery
k. Bacillus pneumonia causing Pneumonia
l. Vibrio cholerae causing cholera
Some kinds of the species of Streptococcus causing blood poisoning. Parasitic bacteria also attack plants and cause
various diseases.
6. Beneficial Effect of Bacteria: Although some bacteria are very harmful, it is a fact that a large number of them are very
useful in various ways, particularly in agriculture and some industries.
a. Agricultural:
1. Decay of organic substances: Bacteria act on the dead bodies of plant and animals and convert various organic
compounds into simple forms such as nitrates, sulfates. phosphates. For utilization by green plants again.

2. Nitrification: Proteins contained in the dead bodies converted into nitrates by different kinds of bacteria then
absorbed and utilized by the green plants.
3. Nitrogen Fixation: Azotobacter and Clostridium bacteria make fixation of the free nitrogen of the air in their own
bodies which is very important in the agriculture.
4. Fertility of the Soil: Bacteria bring about physical and chemical changes in the soil, particularly conversion of insoluble
materials into soluble and suitable forms for absorption by green plants.
b. Industrial: From an industrial stand point also many bacteria are most useful:
1-.Curing and ripening of tobacco leaves.
2- Fermentation of tea leaves.
3- Ripening of cheese.
4- Manufacture of vinegar from alcohol by acetic acid bacteria ( Acetobacter aceti ).
5- Fermentation of sugar into alcohol by yeast and a few Bacteria.
6- Curdling of milk to form lactic acid by Lactobacillus species.
c. Medical: In the field of medicine valuable antibiotic drugs have been obtained from a number of bacteria.
Definition: Antibiotic is the substance produce by microorganism and using in the control of reproduction and the life
cycle of another microorganism.
1- Strptomyces griseus produced Streptomycin
2- Strptomyces aureofaciens produced Chlotetracycline
3- Strptomyces rimosus produced Oxytetracycline
4- Strptomyces fradiae produced Neomycine
5- Strptomyces kanmyceticus produced Kanamycine
6- Strptomyces erythreus produced Erythromycine
7- Strptomyces venezuelae produced Chloramphenicol

Also some of the bacteria is produced vitamins

a. Strptomyces griseus and Strptomyces aureofaciens produced vitamin B12
b. Acetobacter saboxydans is used to make oxidation In the synthesis of vitamin C

PHYCOPHYTA
The algae were the first true plants. They are nonvascular plants and consist of the thallus, a plant body with little or no
tissue differentiation.They are range from unicellular, through multi-cellular but still microscopic cell filaments, to large
macroscopic plants composed of millions of cells (sea-weed). Although sea- weeds are obviously plant-like in form and
habit, growing attached to rock surfaces or other substances, at the other extreme may unicellular algae are motile,
free-swimming forms, moving about by means of flagella.
Algae occur almost everywhere in the environment on land, small or unicellular algae commonly grow on moist soil,
rocks and woods surfaces, and on the bark of trees. The smaller usually unicellular aquatic algae suspended in marine
and fresh waters are known as phytoplankton. They are serving as food for microscopic and nearly microscopic floating
or swimming aquatic animals. Many of them are flagellates.
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Algae growing attached to rocks or other substrates are termed benthic. These algae are usually filamentous or
macroscopic. The most conspicuous benthic algae are the sea- weeds. Which grow attached the rocks along ocean
shoves.
Fresh water benthic algae mainly green algae, are mostly much smaller and less complex. Many of the sea-weeds are
used as human food, being rich in carbohydrates and vitamins. Some are used as cattle feed, a source of iodine, as
fertilizers, a source of agar- agar, and diatoms.
1. Cyanophyceae:
It is a dark blue-green filamentous alga, it commonly occurs floating in ditches, sewers, shallow pools of water and also
on wet rocks and walls. Chlorophyll, carotanoid, phycocyanin, phycoerithrin, pigments are present in the cell and
according to the amount of phycocyanin (blue) or the amount of phycoerithrin (red) the color of the algae is
changed.These organisms may present in free type or as a colony. The colony enveloped in thin mucilaginous sheath.
2. Chlorophyceae:
It is a unicellular green alga found in ponds, ditches and other pools of stagnant water. Their reproduction may sexual or
asexual. Chlorella species:: They are contains proteins and vitamins (Pro-vitamin A and vitamin C). Isolation of antibiotic
from Chlorella vulgaris isrecorded.
3. Diatomeae: Diatoms produce a unique type of cell wall composed of silica (SiO2). Most diatom species are free-
floating, but some live attached to larger plants and other objects. There are both unicellular and colonial forms.
Diatoms are chemically inert, indestructible light, porous, composed of hard sharp particles.the residue of diatomes
formed diatomaceous earth and called Terra silica. They are yellowish white in color and consist of 65-92% from silica.
Also they contains aluminum, ferrous, magnesium oxide.
Terra silica is used as metal polish, tooth powder, heat insulators in boilers and furnaces, and as filters in refining sugar.
4. Phaeophyceae: They are black colored algae, contains chlorophyll and also contains phycoxanthin which gives the
black color to the alga.
a. Laminariales: In this order the important species are:
Laminaria species: Laminaria coloustoni, Laminaria digitata the useful part of this species is the branches and called
Stipites
Laminaria. Which has the ability to absorb water and their diameter will inflated 10 times as it self, so it used as sterile
type in the surgical operations.
b. Fucales:
Fucus vesiculosus: They contain iodine and used for the isolation of alginic acid and used in Guatr disease.
5. Rhodophyceae: Because they contain phycoerithrin beside chlorophyll and carotanoids their color may be red or
black.
Gelidium amansii, Gelidium corneum: This species is used in the isolation of Agar. Agar is a gelatinous substance, which
is universally used as a medium of culture for bacteria and fungi in the laboratory, as a sizing material in textile industry,
as a solidifying material in the preparation of pudding and jellies, as a base for shoe-polish, shaving cream, and
cosmetics.
MYCOPHYTAE
They do not contain chlorophyll so they are heterotrophic. Some fungi are unicellular , but some are composed of
branching filamentous structures termed hyphae. These usually into an interlaced network collectively known as a
mycelium.
Hyphae elongate by type growth . Septate hyphae are divided by cross walls into cellular units, whereas non- septate
hyphae have few or no cross walls. In most fungi the chief microfibrils component of the cell wall is chitin, which
polysaccharide. Cellulose occurs in the cell walls of some of the lower fungi but absent in most others.
Fungi are either saprotrophic or parasitic, some species including most rusts and powdery mildews are obligate
parasites, which are restricted to this mode of nutrition, others are obligate saprotrophs. Certain fungi are facultative
parasites that they can grow either saprotrophically or parasitically.The importance of fungi on human life, directly or
indirectly is immense. They have both harmful and beneficial effects in many ways, like bacteria many of them cause
several sometimes serious diseases in man and domestic animals. Many spoil bread and other food stuff.Many of such
fungi grow on leather, paper and books, linen and cotton clothes, wood and even valuable optical lenses and cause

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considerable damage and decay of them. Many fungi often cause serious diseases of crop plants grown for food and
industry. On other hand many fungi have proved to be useful to mankind in many ways.
Many soil fungi like certain bacteria, act on dead bodies of plants and animals decompose them and make the soil
fertile. Some industries dealing with the manufacture of alcohol, wines have developed on the proper use of yeast’s and
certain other fungi.
Producing of some valuable medicines like Ergot derivatives, Penicillin.
1. Phycomycetes
Mucor mucedo: It grow on stale moist bread rotten fruits, decaying vegetable etc. spreading like a cobweb. It used in
the preparing of alcohol from rice by fermentation.
Rhizopus nigricans : It is closely related to Mucor spec. using in the synthesis of corticosteroids.
2. Ascomycetes
a. Protascales:
Saccharomyces spec.: It grows abundantly in sugar solution such as the juice of date-palm, grapes etc. . Yeast has the
special property of changing sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide. Because of this property yeast is regarded as very
important economically since several industries have developed on this basis. Thus yeast is widely used in the making of
the bread, industrial of alcohol, beer, wine etc. of course different species and strains of yeast and also different media
are used for the above preparations. Yeast also prepares several vitamins in its body and is rich in proteins and fats.In
making bread the species S. cerevisiae is largely employed all over the world. Then this bread yeast is add to the
mixture of flour and water and kept at baking temperature the yeast cells multiply rapidly and begin to secrete an
enzyme (Zymase) which ferments the sugar of the flour and it breaks down the sugar into CO2 and alcohol. CO2 formed
during the fermentation is retained in the bread making it soft, spongy and flavors, while alcohol escapes.
The process of fermentation was studied by Louis Pasteur about the year 1857.When the yeast cells grow in sugar
solution they set up fermentation. Fermentation is the incomplete oxidation of sugars into alcohol and CO2 under the
influence of several species of yeast in the absence of oxygen. The change is due to the action of enzyme known as
Zymase
C6H12O6+ Zymase → 2 C2H5OH+ CO2+Zymase+ Energy

Candida albicans: They cause skin diseases in the human especially in the mouth of the children.
b. PLECTASCALES:
Penicillium species: They are commonly called blue or green mould, is a very common and widely distributed fungus,
growing on bread, vegetables, fruits. Jams, leather etc., Most species of Penicillium are saprophytic in habit, while a
few are parasitic on animals including hum an beings. Penicillium notatum is the source of the world famous penicillin.
Aspergillus species: commonly called blue mould is a very widely distributed fungus like Penicillium species of
Aspergillus commonly grow on almost all kinds of food stuffs. Aspergillus species are mostly saprophytic in habit but a
few are parasitic on animals including human beings, causing diseases of the ear and the lungs. Aspergillus can produce
a large number of enzymes which enable them to grow on a variety of organic media, so they are economically an
important fungus
1.Aspergillus oryzae is used industrially in the manufacture of alcohol from rice starch
2.Aspergillus niger is used in the manufacture of citric acid from saccharose.
c. PYRENOMYCETALES:
Claviceps purpurea: This mould is growing the plant of Secale cereale and causes diseases in this plant. The useful part
is Sclerotyum (Secale Cornutum). Sclerotyum is the parts of hyphae, which formed to protect the plant from the cold
during winter. It is 1-4 cm in length, 2-7cm in width and black colored. The drug is very toxic and has the activity to make
Vasoconstrictor effect, so it uses in the uterus bleeding. The active ingredient of the drug is alkaloid.
3. BASIDIOMYCETES
They include the largest and most complex fungi. These structures are sporocarps that develop from a vegetative
mycelium composed of septate hyphae growing in the ground or other sub- stratum .Basidiomycetes are so named
because they produce spores of special type called basidiospor which are borne externally on a club-shaped hyphal type
or basidium and are usually developed in large numbers in a sporocarp.
a.Hymenomycetales: They are headed mould and most of them are toxic.
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Amanita phalloides: The head is olive green. The toxic effect begin late ( after 8-12 hour ), the death often in 2-3 days.
Amanita verna, Amanita virosa: The head is white, it’s effect like Amanita phalloides
Amanita muscaria: The head is white with red spots. Toxic effect begins in 2-3 hours.This species contain toxic peptides
called amatoxins and phallotoxins. One of the amatoxin, ‫ل‬-amanitin, powerfully inhibits messenger RNA synthesis in
animal cells.
LICHENS
Lichens numbering over 15.000 species from a large peculiar and interesting group of plants, being associations of
specific fungi and algae. The associations of different fungi and algae give rise to distinct species of lichens. Commonly
they occur as grayish-green or greenish white incrustation of different dimensions on old walls, rocks, stem and
branches of shrubs and trees and on ground. They have a variety of forms and colors: white, grayish-green, yellow,
orange, brown, red and black. Many of them grow under extreme conditions of humidity and temperature, and may
survive long periods of desiccation.
They are very widely distributed over the earth, being especially common in tropical rain- forests as well as in cold even
very cold regions. In lichens the fungi and algae lead a symbiotic life, being of mutual help to each other. The fungi
absorb water and mineral salts from substratum, while the algae in their turn prepare necessary food for both.
Classification: Depending on the nature of the fungi and lichens have been classified into two groups.
1. Ascolichens: in which the fungi are members of Ascomycetes.
2. Basidiolichens: in which the fungi are members of Basidiomycetes.
-Lichens have a variety use some of them are a valuable source of food for wild animals and cattle. Some of them are
used due to their taste as appetizer Cetraria islandica: This lichen when dried has the name of Lichen Islandicus and uses
as appetizer because it contains citric acid. Lecanora esculenta: This lichen gives Manna Celesta and uses as food. Some
species are used in cosmetics, perfumes and soap.
BRYOPHYTA
The plants lacking an effective mechanism for translocation of water, essential mineral elements, and food over any
distance and without any specialized supporting elements, remained small and generally inconspicous. The plants that
come from this line known as the bryophytes, or land alga.
1. Hepaticae
They called liver wort Bryophyta. Most of them are plants of moist environments. They grow prostrate, or nearly so, on
the ground, on tree bark or on rotted wood and often occur on moist rocks and soil along wood land streams. The plants
body of a liverwort exhibits several adaptations to a land habitat, such as a cuticle covering an epidermis an thick walled
spores adapted to dissemination by air.
The liverworts are commonly classified in two groups-:
i) Thallose liverworts.
ii) Leafy liverworts.
In both groups the plant body is dorsiventral in form, but it is differentiated into an upper, or dorsal surface and lower or
ventral surface, the body growing close to the soil is attached to the soil by numerous thread like rhizoids, comparable
in function to root hairs.
2. Musci
The mosses are radially symmetrical, that is their leaves arise from all sides of a central axis. In many species the stems
are erect. Others have prostrate stems that give rise to erect branches and in other species the plant is entirely prostrate
and creeping.
Although the lateral appendages of the moss are called leaves, they are not homologous with the leaves of the
sporophytes of vascular plants. They are more leaf-like than the lobed thallus of the leafy liverworts, and in the true
mosses they usually possess a definite midrib.
Classification of the musci:
1- Bryales : the true mosses
2- Sphagnales:
3- Andreaeales: the rock mosses

PTERIDOPHYTA
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Pteridophyta are widely distributed from the moist tropics to beyond the Article Circle. The greatest number of species
is found in the moister parts of the tropics, especially at higher elevations. But ferns also flourish in temperate regions,
where they are familiar in woodlands and meadows and along road sides and stream banks. They range in size from
thiny, floating water ferns to the tree ferns of tropics, which attain heights of 6 to more than 18m and bear crowns of
huge leaves often 2 t 4 m long.
They are generally found in moist and shaded habitats. But some are able to grow in strong sunlight and even in
markedly xeric environments. Adaptation to dry environments may evident in stiff leathery leaves, sometimes with a
coating of wax or overlapping scales.
Most ferns of a Temperate Zone are terrestrial growing on soil or rocks some ferns are climbers and may are epiphytes
that live at various levels from just above the ground to the canopy of the forest. A rewarhable adaptation to this mode
of life is found in the bracket epiphyts (Drynaria and Platycerium spec.) in the tropic and subtropic regions of the world.
These are low, level epiphytes that grow on tree trunks. In the addition to the large green leaves, specialized short
sessile bracket leaves develop on the surface of the trunk. These grow over the rhizome, collect humus and protect the
roots from desiccation. The bracket leaves are persistent, and the strong veins that remain even after the mesophyll
decays, hold the humus as in a women basket.
Like most other vascular plants, the ferns have roots, stems, and leaves. The stems ordinarily live from year to year and
most ferns are therefore perennial. In temperate climates the leaves usually die in autumn, although certain species are
evergreen. Although the stems of some ferns are upright, even becoming tree -like in form. In most they are horizontal,
sometimes creeping or climbing over the surface of rocks or tree trunks but usually buried in the soil.If under ground
they are correctly referred to as rhizomes. The horizontal stems are slender and elongated with scattered leaves or short
and compact with clustered leaves.
The root system consists of numerous wiry or hair-like adventitions roots arising from the stem. The trunks of tree ferns
are often clothed with a thick Mantle of such roots, which contribute considerable support to the slender stem. Many
ferns reproduce by vegetative means, and for these growing outside the moist tropics this is often the major method of
propagation. The creepingrhizomes branch as they grow through the soil or leaf mold. If the rhizomes die at the base,
the branches persist as independent plants. This is usually the way in which colonies composed of numerous individuals
are Formed. The manner of growth of several species of ferns in which the rhizome is short and robust and the leaves
form compact clusters, has attracted considerable interest. The branching rhizomes gradually radiate outboard from a
common center, the site of the original plant, and as older, central parts die and decay, a ring-like group of plants is
formed.Fern leaves, commonly called fronds, consist of two parts the stalk or stipe and the blade. The blade may be
simple but more commonly is pinnatly compound. Each the larger divisions of the blade of such compound leaf is
termed a pinnae, and the pinnae is turn may be divided or dissected in verous ways. The fern leaf grows in a striking
manner. In the fern leaf growth at the apex continues for an extended period, and the tip of the growing frond becomes
tightly coiled like a watch spring, when the frond expands it uncurls because there is more elongation on the inner side
of the leaf than on the outer. This pattern of leaf development is one of the distinctive features of ferns and is rarely
found in other groups of vascular plants.
Ferns like other lower vascular plants reproduce sexually in a cycle involving independent diploid (saporphyte) and
haploid (Gametophyte). The saprophyte produces haploid spores in sporangia. The sporangia commonly develop in
clusters each of them is termed a sorus.A part from the weedy bracken, which of course must be counted on the
negative side, ferns cannot be said to have a great deal of economic significance.
1.They are widely cultivated as ornamentals, both indoors and out.
2.The young coiled leaves, or fiddle heads of several ferns are collected in early spring and cooked.
3.The rhizomes and leaf stalks of some ferns yield a medicinal product that has long been used in expelling tapeworms.
4.The matted fibrous roots of several species of ferns are used as a growing medium for orchids and other epiphytic
ornomentals.
EQUISETALES
Equisetaceae
Equisetum: (horse tail)
It is widely distributed over the earth, being specially abundant in marshy places. They are mostly short slender, much-
branched perennial herbs, hardly exceeding a meter in height.
11 | P a g e
Equisetum plants consists of a long creeping under ground rhizome and two kinds of aerial shoots; much branch and
unbranched shoots, arising from the rhizome.
Rhizome is provided with nodes and internodes and a whorl of scale-like leaves of each node. The branched shoots are
green in color and usually sterile, while the unbranched shoot is non green and fertile, being reproductive in function.
The fertile shoot end in a cone, and it dries up soon after the production of spores.
All the shoots, are distinctly ribbed with ridges and furrows and jointed with distinct nodes and internodes. There is a
whorl of scale-like leaves at each node partly enclosing the stem.
Equisetum arvense: This fern is gives the drug Herba Equiseti which used as diuretic and in the therapy of lung
diseases.
EUFILICALES
Polypodiaceae
This family is grow around the world in the dry and moist places. The ferns of this family most of them have rhizomes
and their leaves are dissected. The sorus are present in the lower part, or on the margin or in the coiled part of the
leaves.
Dryopteris filix-mas: (male fern)
The useful part is the rhizome which thick and black in nature. The upper part of it covered with the scales of leaves
nodes and the lower one is covered with thin black roots. This rhizome is called Rhizoma Filicis and used against the
flukes.
Adiantum capillus-veneris: (Venus hair)
The useful part of this fern is the herb or the leaf. The rhizome is thin. The leaves is very dissected and these stalks are
shiny black and their venation are dicotomous. The lobes of the leaves are coiled and the sorus are present in the coiled
part.
The useful part of this plant is the leaf and the herb which called Herba Adianti or Folia Adianti and used as expectorant.
SPERMATOPHYTA
They are vascular plants bearing flowers, vascular plants posses a conducting system for transporting water, minerals,
and photosynthetic products. Vascular plant bodies differentiated into stems, leaves, and roots and usually posses
strengthening tissues that aid in mechanical support. These and other features fit them for life on dry land, moist land
plants belong to this group. They are photoautotrophic plants and often called higher pants. They are reproduce and
disperse themselves by seeds, which are multicellular strructures that contain an embrionic plant.
Spermatophyta classified into two main subdivision:
A) Gymnospermae:
In this subdivision the plants seeds which form from the ovule are naked, because the carpel is not closed and the ovule
is not enclosed into the overy. The absence of normal carpel leading to the absence of stigmn and style so the pollen
grains in fall over the ovule directly and make germination. All the gymnosperms are woody plants, tree or small tree in
type. A part of them are showing stem with leaves on its apex. The other is showing a very branched stem. The climbers
and shrubs are found only in the advanced families of gymnosperms.
The gymnosperms leaves are generally persistant. Some of them are large and have pinnat vennation while the others
are needle like or scale leaves. Flouers are unisexual, the male flowers consists of pollen saes and the female ones
consists of ovules only. The flowers are generally collected in the form of a cone. The parieath of flower is formed from
scale appendages covering the reproductive
parts.
B) Angiospermae:
In this sub division the plants have ovules present in closed ovaryum consists of one or more carpels. The carpel consists
of ovary, style and stigmn and the pollen grains are fall over the stigmn and make germination.
Among the plants of angiosperms presence of woody plants, herbs and water plants are recorded. The flowers have
special forms and charcters, they are bisexual or unisexual,and the pollen grainsare fall over the stigma by different
types like anemophily, entomophily and hydrophily.
The leaves and fruits have special charcters in different types. This subdivision is classified into the main classes.
1- Monocotyyldonae.
2- Dicotyldonae.
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Comparision Between the Angiosperma and Gymnosperms plantscharacter Angiosperm Gymnosperm

Pollen grains present over the

Stigma.
.

Unisexual

present over the

ovule.

herbeceous, erect or
climber or stolon

herbaceous, simple
or branched.
Leaf Decideus or persistant in
d different type.

generally needle like

GYMNOSPERMAE
Ginkgoales
Ginkgoaceae
Habit: The tree of this family contains resine chanals, and the stem is tall and branched.
Leaves: The leaves are decideus .
Flowers: They are unisexual, make flowres have two stalked stamen with two pollen sacs and the female one consists of
two ovules present over one stalk.
In this family there is one genus with one species.
Ginkgo biloba: Ginkgo
This plant is growing in temperate places in china and Japan. It’s characters are the same with it’s family. The plant
contains heterosides like flavonoids and terpen compounds and used to increase the blood flow in the cerebral parts.
Taxaceae
Habit:The trees of this family doesn’t contains resine chanells.
Leaves: The leaves are persistant, linear or linear-lanceolate.
Flowers:The plants is unixeual, stamens 3-14 and every one contains 3-9 pollen sac. Ovule is single and present in fleshy
carpel.
In this family there is 3 genus and 13 species.
Taxus bacta: Yew Tree
This plant growing in Europe, alternate and very approached. This plant is very toxic and its active ingredient is taxol
which used as antitumoral agent.

Pinaceae
Habit:Trees.
Leaves: linear or linear-oblong, always with resin chanals, borne in
13 | P a g e
fascicles or whorls on the short sheats, or singly on long shoots.
Fruit: A woody cane.
Pinus species:Evergreen trees, branches wherled, leaves in pairs borne on short shoots. Cones falling in their entirecty,
cylindrical to avoid-seeds winged or unwinged.

Pinus pinea: Italian stone pine

The seeds are unwinged, rich from oil and the seed used as food after the removing of the hard testa.

Pinus brutia: Calabarion cluster pine

It used to give Terebenthina which consist of oil and resin and gives Oleum Terebinthinae by using steam distilation
method, and the other part called Colophonium. Oleum Terebinthinae are used externally as antiseptic and use as soap
in the rheumatism pains. As inhalation used a gainst bronchitis. Internally expectorant, diuretic, stomachic and as
urinary tract antiseptic.
The oil which used internally must be cleaned with the CaCo3 and distillation with steam distillation so it will be cleaned
from their acids. And have the name Oleum Terebenthinae rectificatum.

Pinus silvestris: Scotch pinc / pine

It’s buds Turio Pini is used as diuretic and expectorant. Using dry distillation we can isolate Pix liquida from their woods
which used in the dermatology.

Cedurs species:
Tall evergreen trees, long shoots bearing scattered leaves, short shoots bearing leaves in whols, leaves needle like, male
cones erect cylindrical, ripe female cones large, erect scales woody, over lapping, fan-shped, falling when ripe. Seeds
two to each scale, with a board, membranous, a pical wing.
Cedurs libani: Cedar of lebanen
It gives pix which used in traditional medicine as diuretic and in the dermatology.
Abies species:
Conical evergreen trees with whorled branches leaves linear to linear-oblong, flattened, acute to emarginate, often
appearing 2-ranked, leaf scars circular, disciform, female cones erect, with closely overlapping scales, the bracts
protruding or enclosed, the scales falling when ripe-seeds winged.
Abies alba: common silver fir tree
This plant’s stem is used to give Terebenthinae.

Cupressaceae
Habit:Resinous trees or shrubs.
Leaves: Scales-like, ore acicular-lanceolate.
Fruit: Somewhat fleshy or woody cane.
Cupressus species:Trees, leaves are all scale-like, adepressed, male cones cylindrical, terminal, female flowers consisting
of pellate scales with ovules in several rows at the base. Fruit a globose or ellipsiod cone formaed of 6-12 scales, each
with a central umbo. Separating when mature. Seeds winged.
Cupressus sempervirens: cypress tree
The cones are rich of tannen and the branch give volatile oil used as pestiside.
Juniperus species:
Evergreen shrubs or trees. Bark thin, leaves on young branches a cicular and rigid’s mature leaves either acicular, rigid,
jointed at the base, in whorls of three, or scale-like and decussate, rarely short, acicular and not jointed. Male flowers of
numerous stamens. Female flowers surrounded at the base by small persistent bracts, composed of 3-8 scales which
form a hard, fleshy fruit ripening in 1-3 years. Seeds unwinged.
Juniperus oxycedurs: Prickly cedar
By using the dry distillation the branches gives Pix Juniperi which used in the dermatology.
Juniperus communis: commen juniper tree
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The furits of this plant fructus Juniperi is used as diurectic.

Ephedraceae
Habit: Equistoid shrubs,
Leaves: They reduced to sheaths at the nodes.
Fruit: Berry-like .
Ephedra species: Sand cherry
Equisetoid shrubs. Leaves reduced to sheaths at the nodes, opposite, Male flowers in fascicles of 2-many, each
consisting of a communal filament bearing numerous anthers. Female flowers single or in pairs. Fruit berry-like, 2-
seeded.Ephedra equisetina, E. sinica, E. intermedia:
This species are gives alkaloid known as Ephedrine which used as respiratory system stimulant and as vasoconstructor.
The useful part of the plant is the branches which called Herba Ephedra.

ANGIOSPERMAE
I. MONOCOTYLEDONAE
This plants of this class are usually herbaceous, sometimes they are wood. The embryo of the seed has 1 cotyldone,
terminal or not differentiated. The vascular bundles of the stem in the transverse section are scattered throw the
section. The cambium is absent so the secondary growth is not present and there is no cork tissue in the plant.
The leaves are sessile, exstipulated, usually alternate. The blade is entire and has parallel venation with veins connected
by cross vienlets. The outer two whorl of the flower, are called parianth and consists of 3-merous. Pollen grains
monocolpate or 1-pored.
The primary flower, formula is P3+3 A3+3 G3. the stem is simple, if there is any branches or present in the plant it will
be in the inflorescence. The mature root system wholly adventitious.The secondary growth are present in some species
(Dracaena). As an exception presence of petiolated leaves are recorded (Smilax). Palmate or pinnat venation leaves
(Palmae, Musaceae) can be seen, also there is cork tissue present in some species (Zingiberaceae).
POALES
Graminene (Poaceae)
Habit: Herbs, rarely woody. The stem sylindrical with distinct nodes and internodes (sometimes hollow).
Leaves: simple alternate, with sheathing leaf base which in split open on one side opposite to the leaf blade, a hairy
structure called the ligule is present at the base of the leaf blade.
Flowers: Inflorescence usually a spike or panicle of spikelets; each spikelet consists of one or few flowers, and bears at
the base two empty glumes, a little higher up of flowering glume called lemma, and opposite to the lemma a somewhat
smaller glume known as the palea.
Flowers usually bisexual, sometimes unsixual, perianths represented by two minute scales called the lodicules.
Androecium consists of 3 stamen sometimes 6 as in rice, anthers versatile and pendulous. Gynoecium consists of 3
carpels often reduced to 1 ovary superior, 1 celled with 1 ounk styles usually 2 stigma feathery.
Fruit: Caryopsis and the seed is albuminous.From an economic standpoint Graminae is regarded as the most important
family, as cereals and mllets, which constitue the chief food of mankind, belong to this family. Some species are used as
building nutriuts while others have an important rol in domestic animals feeding.
Triticum sativum: Wheat
The useful part of this plant is the starch which present in the seed and has the name of Amylum Tritici. It used as
powder or in the ointments against the skin irritation. In pharmacy it used in the tablet and granule industry.
Oryza sativa: Rice
It is like the Triticum sativam the useful part it the seed which gives starch Amylum Tritici and have the same uses.
Zea mays: Muize
The starch which obtained from this plant has the name Amylum Maydis and used as food, in the tablet formulation,
and to obtain Vitamin C. from their embryo we can obtain fixed oil which used as food (oleum Maydis) and used
medicanally to decrease the chelestrol.
The styles which present over the fruit is called Stylus Maydis and used as diuretic.

15 | P a g e
Agropyron repens: Couch gross
The useful part of this plant is the rhizome and called Rhizoma Graminis which used as diuretic.
PRINCIPES (Arecales)
Palmae (Arecaceae)
Habit: Shrubs or trees, except calamus which is climber. The stem erect, unbranched and woody, rarely branched.
Leaves: usually forming a crown, plaited in bud, sometimes very large, either palmately cut or divided (fan palms) or
pinnately cut or divided (feather palms) petiol often with sheathing base.
Flowers: They are sessile, often production in immense numbers, regular, hypogynous, unisexual or bisexual, in simple
or compound spadix enclosed in one or more sheathing spathe perianth in two series, 3+3, commonly persistent in the
female flower. Andoecium consists of stamens usually in two series 3+3, filaments free or contact, anthers versatile, 2-
called. Gynoecium consists of 3 carpels syncarpous or apocarpous, ovary superior 1-or 3-locular with 1 or 3 ovules.
Fruit: Drupe or barry, the seed is albuminous.
Economically, this is one of the most important families.
1- Many palms gives sweet juice from which suggery or sugar is make, and they also yeild edible fruits.
2- The fibres of the palms are used for making mats, mattresses and branches and leaves of many palms are woven
into mats, hats and baskets.
3- Some palms are yield oil.

Areca Catechu: Areco-palm

The usueful part of this plant is the seed which called Semen Arecae. The active ingredieient of the seed is tannen and
alkaloid which used in the veterinary as antihelmenthic.
Cocus nucifera: Cocaa-nut palm
The useful part is the fruit which used as food and gives oil used in the industry and cosmotology.
Phoenix dactylifera: Date palm
Their fruits used as food.

LILIIFLORAE: (LILIALES)
Liliaceae
Habit: Perennial, rarely annual herbs, usually with rhizomes, corms, bulbs or tubers, rarely spinose climbers.
Leaves: Basal or cauline, sometimes reduced to cauline scales and then ovate or linear clododes is present.
Flowers: Infloresence can be a paincle, reaceme, umbel, corymb, or flowers solitary. Parianth biseriate segments 6, free
or connate, usually petiolated stamens 6, nectaries septal, basal or borne on perianth. Ovary 3-locular, always superior
styles 1-3, rarely 5 simple or loped.
Fruit: A capsule or berry. Seeds rounded trigetrous or discoid.
Urginea martima : Sea onion
The bulbus is the useful part and called Bulbus Scillae which contains cardiotonic glycosides and used as cardiotonic
and diuretic.
Colchicum autumnale : Colchicum
It is very toxic plant. The seeds which called Semen Colchici is the useful part and the active ingredient is colchicin
alkaloids which used as tincture in gout disease as analgesic.
Convallaria majalis : lily of the vally
The herb of this plant called Herba Convellaria contains cardiotonic glycosides used as cordiotonic and diuretic.
Allium Sativum : Garlic
The bulbus (Bulbus aalli sativa) is used as appetizer and antihepertensive.

Iridacease
Habit: Herbs with rhizomes, corms or bulbs.
Leaves: They are usually equitant.

16 | P a g e
Flowers: Perianth biseriate, inner and outer segments similar or markedly different, or perianth zygomorphic. Stamens
3, opposite outer perianth segments. Overy inferior, with many ovules, style 3- lobed, branches entire or divided,
petiolated or not, seeds globose to ellipsoid, angular to flattened, winged or unwinged.
Crocus Sativus: Crocus / Saffron
The stigma of the flower is the useful part and called Stigmata Crociwhich used as stimulant and increase the uterus
construction. Also the drog is used to give color, odor and taste for the food.

Iris spec: iris

The species gives the general characters of the family and the leaves mostly basal, flat, 4 angled or terete. Bracts and
bracteols partly or wholly membranous or herbaecous, sometimes leaf-like.
Flowers sessile or shortly pedicellate, solitary or in few-flowered cymes. Perianth segments 6, anthers 3, style branches
3. the rhizome of the plants is called Rhizoma Iridis which used as expectorant.
ZINGIBERALES
Zinigberaceae
Elettaria cardamomum: Bustard Cardumom
The useful part of the plant is the fruit which called Fructus Cardamomi. This drog is used as appetizer, stomachic and as
a spice. The active ingredient of the drug is volatile oil.
Zingiber officinale: Common ginger
It gives Rhizoma Zingiberis which used as tonic and spice.

ORCHIDALES
Orchidaceae
Habit: Perennial, autotrophic or occasionally heterotrophic herbs. Rhizome creeping or much reduced, with fibrous,
fleshy or tuber-like roots.
Leaves: basal or cauline, rarely absent, stem erect, with terminal inflorescence.
Flowers: Inflorescence a few-or many flowered spike. Flowers zygomorphic, very variable in size and color. Perianth or
2 whorls: an outer whorl of 3 similar segments (sepals) and an inner with two equal segments (petals) and on unequal
(labetum). Anther has or fertile stamen and two sterile one. Ovary inferior, sessile or minutely stalked, twisted or
straight, plesentation parietal.
Fruit: Mature fruit is a capsule.
Orchis species: Lizard orchis/
They gives tubers called Tubers Salep. The drog is rich of mucilage. And used as Laxative.
Vanilla planifolia: Common vanilla
The fruit of the plant is used to isolate vanillia and called Fructus Vanillae. Vanillin is used to give taste and odour to
the foods.

2. DICOTYLEDONAE
The plants of this class generally annual or perennial, herbaceous or woody. The embryo of the seed consists of 2
cotyldone. In the transverse section of the stem the vascular bundles are arranged in one ring. The cambium is present.
The leaves are petiolated, with entire margin or divided one, the venation system of the leaf is generally pinnate.
The flower whorls generally arranged is 5 whorls, and very one consists of 5 \part.
The primary flower formula is K5C5A5+5G5. in dirotyldone plants, the stem and root gives a lot of branched. The root is
consists of tap root system. The presence of the cambium lead to the secondary growth of the plants, and the plants can
be perennial. Generally the vascular bundles are collateral but in some families like solanaceae and cucurbitaceae it will
be bicolluteral and gives a characteristic property to the family.
As an expectation of the ring arrangement of the vascular bundles, the vascular bundles of piperaceae and
Berberidaceae is scattered through the section.
Sometimes presence of secondary cambium can be seen and the arrangement of the vascular bundles will be in the
mixed type as in cucurbitaceae. The venation of the leave blade has different type and the presence of palmate, parallel

17 | P a g e
venation beside the pinnal ven is recorded.Sometimes the 5 whorls of the flowers are reduced to 3 whorls as in
moncotyldonae (Berberidaceae).
The dicotyldonae class is divided into 3 subclass:
1- Poly petalae: Both calyx and corolla present; petals free, stamens and carpels also usually present, the former often
indefinite and the latter apocarpous or syncurpous. Within the sub-class progress is indicated through polysepalous
calyx to gamosepalous calyx, through indefinite number of stamens to definite number, and through hypogyny, perigyny
and epigyny.
2- Gamopetalae: Both calyx and corolla present; the latter gamopetalous; stamens almost always definite and
epipetalous; carpels usually two but sometimes more, free or united, ovary inferior or superior.
3- Monochlamydeae: flowers incoplete; either calyx or corolla absent, or sometimes both the whorls absent. Flowers
generally unisexual. In usually includes the families which do not fall under the above two sub-classes. Difference
between Dicotyledones and Monocotyledon
Property Dicot Monocot
Embryo With 2 cotyledons With 1 cotyledons
Root Tap root Fibrous root
Venation
Reticulate pinnate with free ending of veinlets Parallel, with no free ending of veinlets.
Flower Mostly penta-merous Trimerous
Vascular bundles In stems collateral and open, arranged in a ring, in roots rodial, xylem bundles usually 2-6 in stems
collateral and closed, scattered in roots radial xylem bundles usually many rarely few (5-8)secondary growth Present in
both stem and root; Absent (with fewexceptions)
MONOCHLAMYDEAE
PIPERALES
Piperaceae
The plants are growing in the hot places.
Habit: perennial herbs or shrubs with erect or climbing stems. The woody plants always green and the herbaceous
plants often fleshy, some of them have a stem with scattered vascular bundles like in monocotyledons. Leaves: the
leaves are alternate, petiolate, the lamina is entire with palmate, of pinnate venation and often fleshy-glutinous.
Flowers: Bisexual, with spike or compound spike inflorescence, stamens 1-10, the ovaryum is inferior.
Fruit: small drupe, the seed is oily in type with large amount of perisperm.
Piper nigrum: Black pepper
The useful part of the plants is the fruits which called Fructus Piperis nigri. This drog contains volatile oils and alkaloids.
This drog is used as antipyretic and stomachic but generally is used as a spice.
SALICALES
Salicaceae
Habit: Deciduous trees or shrubs.
Leaves: Alternate or rarely opposite, simple stipulate.
Flowers: Unisexual, bracteate, catkins erect or pendulous, bracts entire or laciniate. Stamens many ovary superior,
unilocular with 2 or 4 parietal placentas, ovules numerous.
Fruits: it is a 2-valved Capsule, seeds with long silky hairs.
Salix alba: white willoe
The useful part of the plant is the bark of the branches which called Cortex Salicis. These drug contains salicin glycoside
and used as antipyretic, homeostatic, antiseptic and used against the rheumatic pains.
URTICALES
Moraceae
Habit: Trees or shrubs with milky juice.
Leaves: Alternate, simple, toothed or labed; stipules often caducous.
Flowers: Unisexual, often in heads or hollow, flask-like flashy receptacles, a petalous, Perianth lobes 4 or reduced or
absent. male with stamens 1-4. Female flowers with ovary sypcorpous, superior to inferior, bicorpellate with 2 styles.
Morus alba: white mulberry
18 | P a g e
Their leaves are used to feed the insects which formed the silk.
Morus nigra: Black mulberry/
The useful part is the juice of the fruit which called Sirupus Mori which used against the fungal infection of the children
mouth as mouth gargle.
Ficus carica: Common fig tree/
The useful part is the fruits which used in fresh or dry type as food it is also hare laxative and pectoral effect.
Cannabinaceae
Habit: Erect or climbing herbs.
Leaves: Stipulate, opposite or alternates, simple.
Flowers: Inflorescence mostly axillary, perianth uniseriate, sepaliod. Male flowers with perianth 5-partite, stamens 5.
female flowers with perianth undivided, ovary unilaculor, ovule solitary, style central, with 2 linear stigmas.
Fruit: An achene, enclosed in persistent perianth seed with endosperm.
Cannabis Sativa: Indian hemp
The flower and the branches with leaves formed the drug Herba Cannabis which used as sedative and hipnotic. The
fruits which called Fructus Cannabis is contains high amount of fixed oil. Herba Cannabis contains resine as active
ingredient.
Urticaceae
Habit: Herb or rarely shrubs or small trees, they don’t contains milky juice.
Leaves: Simple, alternate or decussate.
Flowers: Unisexual, generally green. They are called in small groups. Perianth 4-morous, make flowers have 4 stamens,
Female flowers have superior or inferior ovary with one carpet.
Fruit: Achene or drupe and enclosed in the persistent perianth.
Urtica dioic: Stinging nettle
The herb of this plant have on irritant effect on the skin and increase the blood flow so it was used against the rheumatic
pains, the seeds of this plant Semen Urtica is used as a diuretic.

CHENOPODIALES
Chenopodiaceae
Habit: Herbs or Shrubs
Leaves: Alternate or opposite, exstipulate, entire lobed or pinnatisect often reduced to small scales.
Flowers: Bisexual or unisexual, in dichasial, spicate or paniculale inflorescence. Perianth O or 3-5 segments, usually
green, herbaceous or scarious, often accrescent in fruit and variously appendage. Stamens 0-5, opposite the perianth
segments ovary superior, ovule solitary.
Fruit: Usually an achene, seed horizontal or vertical, embryo curved annular or spiral.
Beta Vulgaris: Beet-root/
The roots of this plant is fleshy and tuber in type and called Saccharum. This tuber is contains about 12-20% sugar and
used in the isolation of sugar.
Chenopodium anthelminthicum: Gosse-foot/
The herb of this plant contains volatile oil which can be isolated with steam distillation and called Oleum Chenopodii.
This oil contains Askariod which toxic and used an anthelmentic.Caryophyllaceae
Habit: Herbs often Shrubs.
Leaves: usually opposite, simple, entire, stipulate or more usually exstipulate.
Flowers: Actinomorphic, usually hermaphrodite, solitary or in cymes, sepals 4-5, free or united a tube, petals 4-5, fee
often clawed sometimes with appendages on the inner face, stamens 3-10, ovary superior, 1-loculor or divided near the
base into 2-5 loculi, placentation free-central, ovules numerous or rarely few, styles 2-5.
Fruit: Usually a rapsule opening by as many or twice as many teeth or \valves, rarely rupturing irregularly, seeds many.
Gypsophila arrosti: Egyptien soap root/
The root of this plant is the root which called Radix Saponariae alba. this drag contains saponins and used as deterjan or
against the fungal infection because of the activity of saponins.
Saponaria officinalis: Soapwort/
19 | P a g e
The root of this plant is called Radix Saponariae rubrae and used as diuretic and as deterjan and contains saponins.
Herniaria glabra: Rupture-root/
The useful part of this plant is the herb which called Herba Herniaria and used in the kidney and bladder diseases as
diuretic.
Dianthus carryophyllus: clove pink/
This plants flowers contains volatile oil called Oleum Caryophllii which used as analgesic in the tooth pain and used in
the cosmetology.

POLYGONLES
Polygonaceae
Habit: Herbs, Shurbs or climbers.
Leaves: usually alternate, simple, stipules usually united into a membranous sheath around the stem.
Flowers: Inflorescence spihes or panicles, bisexual or unisexual, actinomorphic, pediceles usually with marked
articulation. Perianth 3-6 merous the segments united below, often enlarging in fruit. Detals absent, stamens 6-9, rarely
up to 16. Overy superior, unilocular, styles 2-4, ovule 1, basal.
Fruit: Nut, often enclosed in the persistent perianth.
Rheum palmatum: Rhubarb /
The rhizome of this plant is called Rhizoma Rhei. This droy contains Anthrasen compounds so it is used as laxative.
Fagopyrum esculentum: Buck wheat /
The leaves of this plant contains flavonoids which used to decrease the capilar permeability and fragility so it gives the
activity of P vitamin.
POLYPETALEAE
RANUNCULALES
Ranunculaceae
Habits: mostly perennial herbs or climbing shrubs.
Leaves: Simple, often palmetly divided, sometimes compound, alternate rarely opposite, often both radical and cauline,
usually with sheathing base.
Flowers: Generally cymose inflorescence, mostly regular, bisexual and hypogynous, sepals and petals in whorls, stamens
and carpels typically spiral on the elongated thalamus. Sepals usually 5, sometimes more, free. Petals 5 or more, free,
sometimes absent, often with nectaries. Stamens numerous, free,
spiral. Carpels usually numerous, sometimes few, free, opocarpous, with one or more ovules in each.
Fruits: Achenes or follicles, rarely a berry or capsule.
A conitum napellus:
The tuber of this plant is very toxic and called Tubera Aconiti. The drug is contained alkaloids compounds and used in
small doses as analgesic and decongestant.
Hydrastis canadensis:
The root of this plant is the useful part of the plant and called Radix Hydrastis. The drug is contains alkaloids and used to
stop the bleeding of the uterus.
Helleborus orientalis:
The root of this plant called Radix Helleborus. This plant is toxic and the drug contains cardiotonic glycosides and used in
the cardiac desaes.
Nigella sativa: Black cumin
The useful part of this plant is the seeds which called Semen Nigella. The drog is contained volatile oil, and fixed oil. The
drug is used as carminative, diuretic and to give good taste to the foods.
Lauraceae
Habit: Tress or Shrubs.
Leaves: Alternate, exstiputate, entire, glandular-panetate, evergreen.
Flowers: In axillary cluster, unisexual, actinomorphic, small, greenish, perionth 4-6-10 bed stamens 12, in whorls.
anthers opening by valves, ovary superior – 1 called.
Laurus nobilis : Roman Lourel
20 | P a g e
The fruit and the leaves of this plant is used in the medicine. And they called Fructus Laurii and Folium Laurii. The fruit is
rich of fixed oil and used as antirheumatic . The leaves contains volatile oil and used as a spice.
Cinnumomum ceylanicum: Common cinammun tree
The cortex of this plants which called Cortex Cinnamomi \ceylanici used as a spice and contains volatile oil called Oleum
Cinnamomi. This oil contains 70% sinnamic aldehyde and used in pharmacy to give taste and odor to the syrups.
Cinnomomum camphora: Comphor tree
The branches and stems of this plants gives Camphora which used as cardiac tonic and externally against the rheumatic
pains.

PAPAVERALES
Papaveraceae
Habit: Herbs, often woody at the base, with coloured or transparent Sap.
Leaves: usually alternate, occasionally opposite exstipulate, often much divided.
Flowers: Sepals 2, free usually caducous, petals 4, free or slightly united at the base, corollo actinomorphic, or
zygomorphic. Stamens numerous to 6 to 4, ovary superior, syncarpous often 2-20 carpels.
Fruit: A capsule, nut, 10 mentum or siliquiform, seeds 1 to numerous.
Papaver sommniferum: Opium poppy
Annular, the leaves are glabrous, blueish-green the base is sheathed on the stem, flowers white or violet, the fruit is a
capsule.Opium is immature capsules gives latex when injured, this latex becomes black and solid when dry. This drug
contains alkaloids morphine, codeine, papaverine, and narcotine. Opium is used as analgesic, norcotic, hepnotic,
anticough, antisposmolitic and make dependency. The seede of the plant contain alkaloids, and fixed oil which used as
food oil. The leaves is called Folia Papaveris and used as mild tranquillizer.
Papaver rhoeas: Corn poppy
This plant has red flower, and the flower called Flores Rhoeadas and used as pectoral and in pharmacy to give colour to
the syrups. It contains anthraderivatives and alkaloids.
Cruciferae
(Brassicaceae)
Habit: Annual herbs.
Leaves: Radical and cauline, simple, alternate, often 10 bed.
Flowers: the inflorescence is a raceme, corymbose twards the top, the flowers are regular and cruciform, bisexual and
complete, hypogynous. Calyx consists of sepals 2 + 2, free, in two whorls. Corolla consists of 4 petals, free in one whorl,
cruciform, with distinct limb and claw. Stamens 6 in two whorls, tetradynomous. Carpels 2, syncarpous, ovary, superiors
oblong, at first 1-called, later 2-called owing to the development of a false septum, with often many ovules in each cell,
placentation parietal.Fruit: A siliqua or Silicula.
Brassica nigra: Black mustard
The seeds of this plant is irritant and called Semen Sinapis. And used as a plaster in rheumatic pain and as food. Some of
the Brassica spec. used as food for the human like:
- Brassica oleracea var. capitata
- Brassica oleracea var. acephala
- Brassica oleraeca var. botrytis
- Brassica vopa var. rapa
ROSALES
Hamamelidaceae
Habits: Trees with balsamic sap.
Leaves: Evergreen or deciduous, alternate, long-petioled, palmately 10 bed, stipules deciduous.
Flowers: Numerous in globose heads subiended by 4 deciduous bracts, the male heads in terminal vacemes, the female
heads solitary. Male flowers with basifixied anthers. Female flowers with 4 staminodes, ovary of 2 united carples, with
axile placentation. Styles 2.
Fruit: Septicidal, bilocular capsule, immersed in the receptade, Seeds compressed, angled, narrowly
winged.Liguidambar orientalis: Storox tree ‫ ػ ش ثى ج شدش‬/
21 | P a g e
When the stem of the tree longitudinal injured it gives balsam called Styrax Liquidus. This drug is used internally as
expectorant and externally as antiseptic and antiparasitic. It used also in the industry as odour fixative.
Hamamelis virginiana: Witch hazel/
The leaves and the bark is used as drugs and called Folia
Hamamelidis and Cortex Hamamelidis the active ingredient of the two drugs is tannen and used as astrengant and
hemostatic. The extract of these drugs is used in the cosmotology to prevent the skin wrinkles.

Rosaceae
Habits: Woody or herbaceous, sometimes armed.
Leaves: Alternate, usually stipulate, simple or compound often with a toothed margin.
Flowers: Infloresceuce diverse, in trees and shrubs often borne on spur shoots. Flowers hermaphrodite or unisexual.
Actinomerphic, perigynous or opigynous. Sepuls 4-5, free epicalyx present or absent. Petals 4-5, free or absent, stomens
1-many. Ovary superior to inferior, of 1-many carpels.
Fruit: Follicles, achene, or drupe, pome. Seeds usually vithonl endorperm. This family is contained 4 subfamily:
‫أ‬. 1- Rosoideae: Ginecoum opocarp, ovaryum 1- many, every ovary gives are achen rarely drupe.
Rosa damascena: Damusk rose
The flowers are more with many petals. In the and of May the flowers open and collect, and with steam distilation the
flowers gives volatile oil called Oleum Rosae and water called Aqua Rosae. Oleum Rosoe is used in perfumery and
pharmacy to give odour to the preperats. Aqua Rosae is mild laxative and used in some eye deseases and to give odours.
The flowers of the plant is called Flores Rosae.
Rosa canina: Dog-Rose
The mature fruit is called Fructus Cynobasti and it contains a high amount of vitamin C and used as a source of this
Vitamin and used as a tea in traditional medicine
Rubus idaeus: Red raspherry
The useful part of the plant is the fruit, which gives a juice called Sirupus Rubi idaei. This drug is used in pharmacy to give
colour and odour to the syrups.
2- Dpiraeoidea: Gyneceum apoearp, ovary generally 5, fruit follicles.
Quillaja saponaria
The both of this plant is called Cortex Quillajae, the drug is contains saponins and toxic and irritant. It used as detergent
and emelgator.
3- Pomoideae: Gyneoeum sincarp, with 2-5 carpels fruit is a drug.
Crataegus monogyna (Howthorn)
The red fruits of the plant and the leaves used as cardiotonic and antihipertensive.The other important plants of this
subfamily which their fruits are used as food are:
- Cydonia vulgaris Quincc tree
- Malus communis Wild apple tree
- Pirus communis Pear tree
- Eriobotryo japonico Japan medlor

4- Prunoideae: the ovary is one with one carpel and free in the base of the resepta culum. The fruit is drupe.
Prunus Laurocerasus: Cherry-laurel
The leaves of this plant is called Folia Laurocerasi recens and used in fresh type. This leave contains siyanogenetic
glycoside. This glycoside gives siynahydric acid with hydrolysis and this acid is very toxic. With steam distilation of the
leaves gives Aqua Laurocerasi, this drug is dilute untrl the concentration of siyanhydric acid will be 1% and used as
tranqilaizer, anticough and deodornant.
Prunus a mygdalus: Almond tree
This plant has two varyete P. a. var. amara and P. a. var. dulcis.
The seed of the first plant gives fixed oil called Oleum Amygdali. This oil is used as exepient in the ointments, and nose
drops and used in cosmotolgy as skin emulient.The plant seeds gives with steam distilation valtile oil called Oleum
Amygdali amarae which contains siyanogenetic glycosides, and used in small amounts to change odour and taste.
22 | P a g e
Cerasus avium: Sour Cherry
The petiole of the fruit of this plant is used as duiretic.The other plants of this family which used of food are:
- Prunus domestica Prune tree
- Prunus armeniaca Apricol tree
- Prunus persica Peach tree
- Prunus cerasus Cherry tree

Leguminosae
Habit: Herbs, shrubs, trees, climbers. Roots of many species, particularly of Papilionaceae, have tubercles.
Leaves: Alternate, pinnutely compouned, rarely simple with a swollen leaf-base known as the pulvinus.
Flowers: Bisexual and complete, regular or zygomorphic hypogynous or slightly perigynons. Calyx constist of sepals
usually 5, sometimes 4. corolla consists of usually of 5 petals, sometimes 4, free or united. Androccium consists of 10 or
numerous stamens, sometimes less than 10, ree or united. Gynoeoium consists of 1 carpel. Ovary 1-called, with 1 to
many ovules, plucentation morginal.
Fruit: a legume or pod.This is the second biggest family among the dicotyledons after the compositae and from the
economic stand point this is probably the second most important family after the graminae, because the pulses which
are rich in proteins belong to it. Besides, the leguminous plants with root-nodules are natural fertilizers of the soil.
Primarily based on the characters of the corolla and androecium, Leguminosae has been divided into the following three
sub-faimilies.
1- Papilionaceae
Habits: Herbs, shrubs, trees and climbers.
Leaves: compound, unipinnate, rarely simple, stipules 2, free.
Flowers: Inflorescence usually raceme, the flowers zygomorphic, polypetalous and papilionaccous calyx usually consists
of 5 sepals, gamosepalons corolla usually consists of 5 petals, free, the posterion one is the largest called vaxillum, this
partly covers the two lateral ones called wings which is their trun cover the two inrrermost ones united into a boat-
shaped keel. Androecium consists of 10 stamens, diadelphous –(9) M, rarely free or mondelphous.
2- Caesalpinieae:
Habits: Shurbs and trees rarely climbers or berbs.
Leaves: Unipinnate or bipinnate rarely simple.
Flowers: Inflorescens commonly a racemc, flowers zygomorphic and polypetalous. Calyx usually consists of 5 sepals,
polysepalous sometimes gamosepalous. Corolla consists of usually 5 petals, free. Androecium consists of ten stamens or
fewer, free.
3- Mimoseae:
Habits: Shrubs and trees, sometimes herbs or woody climbers.
Leaves: Commonlu bipinnate.
Flowers: Inflorescence a head or spike, flowers regular, often small and a gregated in spherical heads. Calyx consists of
5-4 sepals generally gamosepalous. Corolla consists of 5-4 petals mostly gomopetalous. Androecium consists of
numerous or ten stamens, rarely 8 or 4, free or sometimes united at the base. Pollen often united in small masses.
Distinguishing Characters of Leguminosae:
Papilionaceae:
Astragalus microcephalus: Gum-Tragacanth plant
When the stem of this plant injured gives white gum called Tragacantha and used in the pharmacy in the formulation of
the tablets.
Glycyrrhiza glabra: liquorice plant
The roots of this plant is very useful and called Radix liquritiae. This drug is sweet in taste and used to give taste and in
dry cough. When the root is extracted with water it give liquiritie extract which used in the stomach ulcer. This drug is
contained triterpenic saponins.
Character
Papilionaceae Ceasalpiniae Mimoseac

23 | P a g e
Leaves usually 1-pinnate, rarely simpk, stipules often present. 1- or 2- pinnate rarely simple, stipules absent Bipinnuk,
stipules absent or present
Flowers Papilionaceous Zygomorphic Regular, small
Inflorescence Racemose Racemose Spherical head
Calyx Gomosepalous
Polysepalous
sometimes
gamosepal.
Gamosepalous
Corolla Plypetalous Plypetalous Gomopetalous
Androecium
Stamens ten, (9) = 1
rarely (10) or 10
Ten of fewer
Often indefinite
sometimes definite

Physostigma venenosum: Clubar bean

The seeds of this plant is the useful part called Faba Calabarica. This drug is contains alkaloids called physostigmin which
used in the eye deseases.Trigonella foenum-graceum: This plant have fixed and strong-odour and the seed contains oils
and mucilage. It used as appetizer, deoudenal ulcer and decrease the sugar level in human blood. Also it contains
diosgenin which used in the synthesis of corticosteroids. Contraindicated for pregnant in the first trimester.
Galega officinalis: Common goats’ rue
The herb of this plant called Herba Galega and contains alkaloids which decrease the level of sugar in the human blood.
Arachic hypogaea: Earth nut
The fruit of this plant contains 1-3 seed which contains a high amount of fixed oil Oleum Arachis which used as food oil.
This sub-family contains another useful plants which used as food:
- Phaseolus vulgaris Kidney Bean
- Pisum sativum Garden pea
- Cicer arietinim Chick-pea
- Lens eseulenta Lentil
Vicia faba Broad bean

Caesalpinieae:
Ceratonia siliqua: Carob tree
The dry fruit of this plant is used as powder against the diarrhia of the cheldrins. The seeds are rich of mucilage. (50%
more sweet than sugar, thus it is contraindicated for diabetes.
Cassia acutifolio: True Senna
Cassia angustifolia: Indian Senna
The two plants leaves is called Folia Senna and contains Anthracen derivatives which used as laxative and purgative.
Krameria traiandra: The root of this plant is red in colour and called Radix Ratanhiae.
The drug is used as astringent and used in the mouth gargles. This drug iscontains tannin.

Mimosoideae:
Acacia senegal: Gum arabix tree
When the stem of this plant is injured, it gives gums called Gummi Arabicum. This is drug is used in pharmacy in the
formulation of granules, tablet, and drugs, decrease the skin irritation, also used in the food an cosmotology.
GERANIALES
Linaceae
Linum usitatissimum: Common flax
24 | P a g e
The useful part of this plant is the seed which called Semen Lini. The drug is contains high amount of fixed oil and
mucilage. The fixed oil is called Oleum Lini which contains unsaturated fatty acids. This oil is easy to dry in the air so it
used in the paints. The seeds because of the mucilage they are used in the veterniery as laxative. Also the stem of the
plant is gives fibers.
Erythroxylaceae
Erythroxylon coca : Coca tree
The leaves of plant is called Folia Coca. The drug is contains alkaloid known as cocain. This alkaloid is used as local
anesthetic and used as narcotic. The leaves is give tonic feeling to the human because they stop the feel of hunger, thirst
and fatigue.
Zygophyllaceae
Peganum harmala: Harmel The seeds of the plant is the useful part and called Semen Pegani. The drug is contains
alkaloids which caused stimulation to the central nervous system. Also gives red point materyal.
Rutaceae
Habits: Shrubs and trees, rarely herbs.
Leaves: Simple or compound, alternate or rarely opposite, gland-dotted.
Flowers: Regular, bisexual and hypogynous, Calyx consists of 4-5 sepals, free or slightly connate. Corolla consists of 4-5
petals, free, androecium or united irregular bundles (Polyadelphous) Gynoecium consists of 4-
or sometimes free at the base and united above, either sessile or seated on the disc. Ovary usually 4-5 locular. With axile
placentation, ovules 2-
Fruits: A berry, capsule or hesperidium, seeds with or without endosperm.
Citrus species:
Small trees, leaves simple, alternate, thin, lateral, reins few, young twigs with single spines in the leaf axile, petioles
often winged or margined usually articulated with the leaf base.
Flowers white of lushed purplish, single and axillary or in short axillary racemes Calyx 4-5 partite, corolla 4-5 (usually 5)
partite. Stamens 4-10 x as many as the petuls. Ovary usually 10-14 locular. The ovules in 2 collateral rows. Fruit a fleshy
hesperidium.
Citrus aurantium: Sour orange
Immuture fruits pericarp called Pericorpium Aurantium amara and used as appetizer, stomachic, the plant flowers with
steam distilation gives volatile oil called Oleum Aurantii floris and used in perfumary and in pharmacy.
Citrus sinensis: Common orange tree
The fruits pericarp contains volatile oil called Oleum Auranti. This drug is used as stomachic and used in the pharmacy to
give odour and taste to the preparats.
Citrus limon: Common lemon tree
The fruits pericarp called Pericarpium Citri give volatile oil called Oleum Citri which used in pharmacy in the same
purposes. This genus contains another species which used as food:
- Citrus paradisi
- Citrus grandis
- Citrus reticulata
- Citrus limetta

Pilocapus jaborandi:
The leaves of this plant is called Folia Jaborardi, the drug is contains alkaloid called pilocarpin which act as atropin
antaganist and used in the eye hypertension as antihypertensive agent.
Ruta graveolens: Herb of grace
The herb of the plant is the useful part called Herba Rute. The drug is contains volatile oil and glycoside known as ruin. It
used to bring the menstruation in the women and the uses of it is very dengarous so it must be used carefully.
Euphorbiaceae
Ricinus communis: Caster oil plant

25 | P a g e
The seeds of this plant is called Semen Ricini and they are toxic and contains a high a mount of fixed oil. This oil is called
Oleum Ricini and we can take it from the seed by pressing of the seed. After the isolation of toxic materials, the oil is
used as laxative. Also it used painting and cosmotology.
RHAMNALES
Rhammnaceae
Frangula alnus: Alder buckthorn
The bark of the stem and branches is called Cortex Frangulae and contains anthraderiratives so it used as laxative, and it
effect in the large intestine.

MALVALES
Tiliaceae
Tilia cordata: Linden
The flowers of this plant is called Flores Tiliae. The drug is contains mucilage and volatile oil and is used as tranqulizer,
expectorant and in the dry cough. It is also used as diuretic .
Malvaceae
Malva silvestris: Common mallow
The leaves is called Folium Malvae and the flowers is called Flores Malvae. This two drugs is contains mucilage so it used
as laxative, antiirritant.
Althaea officinalis: Marsh-mallow
The leaves is called Folium Althaeae and the flowers is called Flores Althaea. And the root is called Radix Altheae. All
drugs contain mucilage so it used as laxative and anticough.
Gossypium species: Cotton
The seeds is covered by long or short hairs. After the isolation of the seeds the hairs will be cleaned and called
Gossypium Depuratum and it used in medicine as hemostatic. By pressing the seed it gives fixed oil called Oleum
Gossypii and used as food oil.

PARIETALES
Theaceae
Thea sinensis: Tea ‫ ي ا ش نا‬/
The leaves of tea act by speical fermantation method will be dried and then called Folia Theae. This drug is stimulant
astrengant, and contains cafein, theobromin and thyophyllin alkoloids, and also contains tannen.
MYRTALES
Punicaceae
Punica granatum: Pomegranute ‫ ن امس‬/
The bark of the root, stem and branches is called Cortex Granati. This drug is contains tannen and alkaloid so is used as
antihelmenthic.
Myrtacea
Myrtus communis: Myrtle
The leaves and flowers contains volatile oil which used in perfumery.
Eucalyptus globulus: Encalyptus
The leaves of this plant is callede Folia Eucalyptii which gives volatile oil called Oleum Eucalyptii. This oil is used as
antiseptic of the upper respiratory tract.

UMBELLIFLORAE
Umbelliferae
Ammi visnaga: Pick –tooth
The fruits of this plant is called Fructus Ammi visnagae and contains Khellin. This compound is sused as coronary
vasodilatory and UTI
Foeniculum vulgare: Common fennel

26 | P a g e
The fruits of the plant is called Fructus Foeniculi contains volatile oil called Oleum Foeniculi. This drug is used as
carminative and stomachic.
Pimpinella anisum: Anise
This fruits of this plant is called Fructus Anisi and contains volatile oil called Oleum Anisi. This drugs are used as
carminatives and stomachic.
Coriandrum sativum: Coriander
The fruits are the useful part of the plant and called Fructus Coriandri. This drug is used as carminative and stomachic.
Angelica archangelica: Angelica
This roots of this plants is called Radix Angelica and it used as stomachic, appetizer and diuretic.
GAMOPETALAE
GENTIANALES
Oleaceae
Olea europea: Olive tree
By pressing the fruit of this plant it gives fixed oil called Oleum Olivae this oil is used in the food and as laxative and to
stimulate the secretion of the bile. The leaves which called Folia Olivae is used as antihipertensi and to decrease the
sugar in the blood.
Loganiaceae
Strychnos-nux-vomica: Nux vomica tree
The seeds of this plant are very toxic and called Semen Strychni. This drug is contains a group of alkaloids which used in
the stimulation of the central nervous system.
Apocynaceae
Nerium loeander: Oleander
This plant is very toxic and contains cardio tonic glycosides.
Vinca minor: Chery-bean
This plant is contains a high amount of alkaloids. This plant is contains alkaloid called vincamin which used as
antihipertnsive and used in the brain vascular system deseases.

SOLANALES
Labiatae
Habit: Herbs and undershrubs, with square stem.
Leaves: Simple, opposite or whorled, with oil-glands.
Flowers: Zygomorphic, bilabiate, hypogynous and bisexual. Inflorescence verticillaster, sometimes reduced to true
cyme. Calyx consists of (5) sepals, gamosepalous, unequally 5-10 bed, persistant. Corolla consists of (5) petals,
gamopetalous, bilobiate. Androecium consists of 4 stamens, didynmous, sometimes only 2, Gynoecium consists of 2
carpels, syncarpous ovary 4-10 bed and 4-called, with one ovule in each cell, style gynobassic, develops from the
depressed center of the lobed overy, stigma bifid.
Fruit: A group of four nutlets, each with one seed.
Rosmarinus officinalis: Common Rosemary
The leaves which called Folia Rosmarini is contained volatile oil called Oleum Rosmarini. This oil is irritant so it used
externally as antirheumatic drug. The plant is stimulant and stimulate the menstruation of the women. Also the leaves is
used as a spice.
Salvia officinalis: common sage
The leaves of this plant which called Folia Salviae is contains valatile oil called Oleum Salviae. This drugs is used in the
mouth pains as gargles and helps in the treatment of the wounds of the mouth.
Mentha piperita; peppermint
The leaves of this plant which called Folia Menthae contains volatile oil called Oleum Menthae. The leaves are used as
stomachic, antiemetic, appetizer and in the bile duct diseases. Also it is used as a spice. Volatile oil is used as antiseptic,
anasthetic, and antispasmodic. Also it is used to give odour and taste for the preparats.
Lovandula angnstifolia: Lavender

27 | P a g e
The flowers which called Flores lavandulae contains volatile oil. The oil called Oleum levandulae and used to give odour
and used in perfumery.
Thymus vulgaris: Garden thyme
This plant gives volatile oil called Oleum Thymi. This oil contain a high amount of carvacrol and used as stomachi,
diuretic, antiseptic and cerebral vasodilatatory.
Teucrium chamaedrys:
The herb of the plant is used as appetizer, tonic and antispastic.

Solanaceae
Habit: Herbs and Shrubs.
Leaves: Simple, sometimes pimute, alternate.
Flowers: Regular, bisexual, hypogynous. Calyx consists of 5 sepals, united, persistant. Corolla consists of 5 petals united,
usually funnel or cup shaped. Androecium consists of 5 stamens, alternating with the corolla lobes. Gynoecium conists
of 2 carpels, syncarpous, ovary superior, obliquely placed, 2 celled or sometimes 4-called owing to the development of a
false septum. Ovules many, placentation axile.
Fruit: A berry or capsule with many seeds.
Atropa belladonna: Deadly nigh shade
This plant gives two drugs the leaf and the root. The leaves called Folia Belladonnae and the root called Radix
Belladonnae. These two drugs contains alkaloids hyocyamine, atropine and small amount of scopolamine. The leaves are
used as antispasmodic and atropine is midreatic. The tincture of the leaves is used against the stomach pains, ulcer,
kidney and liver pains. External ly used as local anesthetic.
Hyoscyamus niger: Henbane
The leaves is called Folia Hyoscyami and used as Folia Belladonna but it contains a high amount of scopolamine so it
used as spasmolytic.
Datura stramonium: Thorn-apple
The useful part of the plant is the leaves which called Folia stramoni the leaves contains hyocyamine, atropine and
scopolamine.
Nicotiana tabacum: Tobacco
The useful part of the plant is the leaves which called Folia Nicotianae. The leaves contains nicotine alkaloids. Nicotine
has toxic effect in the nervous system and used as a bad habit in smoking.
Solanum nigrum: Bluck nigh shade
The flowers and the branches with the leaves is called Herba Solani nigri. This drug is used as traqulizer and narcotic
drug.
Capsicum annuum: Capsicum
The fruit is the useful part of the plant and called Fructus Capsicii. It contains a high amount of vitamin C and alkaloid.
Because of the presence of the alkaloid the drug is used externally as antirheumatic agent.
Scrophulariaceae
Digitalis purpurea: Foxglove
The useful part of the plant is the leaves which called Folia Digitalis. The drug contains cardiotonic glycosides so it used
as cardiotonic agent and it has a duiretic effect.
PLANTAGINALES
Plantaginaceae
Plantago majos: Way bread
The useful part of the plant is the leaves which called Folium Plantago. It used internaly as diuretic and externally
against the injuries.

RUBIALES
Rubiaceae
Cinchona officinalis: Cinchona ‫ ايى ي ك نا ج شدش‬/

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The bark of the branches and stem are thre useful part which called Cortex Chinae. They are contains alkaloids so it
used as antipyretic and antimalaryal. The drug also has a burning taste so it used as appetizer and tonic. Some alkaloids
aso used as antiarthmic.
Coffea arabica: coffee tree
The seeds of the plant is the useful part called Semen Coffea. The drug contains alkaloids and used as stimulant and
against the dyspepsia.
Valerianaceae
Valeriana officinulis: common valerion
The root of this plant is called Radix Valerianae. The drug has bad odour because drug contains glycosides and used as
sedative and antispasmodic.
CUCURBITALES
Cucurbitaceae
Habit: Tendril climbers, tendrils simple or branched.
Leaves: Simple, alternate, broad and palmately veined.
Flowers: Regular, unisexual, epigynous, Calyx consists of 5 sepals, united, often deeply 5-10 bed. Corolla consists of 5
petals, united often deeply 5-10ed, inserted ont eh calyx-tue. Int eh male flowers androecium consists usually of 3
stamen, united in a pair, or 5, united in 2 pairs. Female flowers contains gynoecium consists of 3 carples, syncarpous
ovary infewrior, unilouclar, placentation parietal ounles many, style 1, stigmas 3.
Fruit: A pepo
Plants of this family are mostly used as vegetables, a few yield delicious summer fruits, and a few are medicinal.
Citrullus colocynthis: colocynth
The fruits of the plant is called Fructus Colocynthidis. And it used as very potent laxative.
Ecballium elaterium: squirting cucumber
The juice of the fruit is called Elaterium and used as potent laxative.
- Citrullus vulgaris water melon
- Luffa cylindrica Towel gourd
- Lagenaria vulgaris Bottle-gourd
- Cucumis sativus Cucumber
- Cucumis melo Melon
- Cucurbita pepo vegetable-marrow

CAMPANULALES
Lobeliaceae
Lobelia inflata: Indian tabaceo
The berb of the plant is called Herba Lobeliae. The drug contains alkaloids. So it used as expectorant and stimulate the
respiratory system.
Compositae
Habit: Mostly herbs and Shrubs.
Leaves: Simple, alternate or opposite, rarely compouned.
Flowers: Inflorescence a head or capitulum witrh an involucre of bracts. Flowers are of two kinds, the central ones
called disc florets are tubular, and the marginal ones called ray florets are ligulate. Sometimes all Horets are of one kind,
either tubular or ligulate.
Disc Florets: Regular, tubular, bisexual and epigynous, each usually in the axile of a bracteale. Calyx often mod, fied into
pappus, or into scales, or absent. Corolla consists of 5 petals, gamopetalous, tubular, androecium consists of 5 stamens,
filaments free but anthers united. Gynoecium consists of 2 capels, syncarpous, ovary inferior, 1-called with one basal
oule, style 1, stigma 2.
Fruits cypsela
Ray florets: Zygomerphic, ligulute, unisexual (female) or sometimes neuter and epigonous, each usually in the axil of
bracteole, calyx as in disc floret, corolla consists of S petals, gomopetalous , ligulute, Gynoecium as in the disc floret.
Fruit the same .
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Matricaria chamomilla: wild chamomile
The head of flowers is the useful part of the plant is called Flores Chamamillae vulgaris. This drug contains volatile oils
and used as stomachic, stimulants, anti-spasamodic, antiinflammatory and antiseptic. It used also as mouth gargle and
to give faint colour to the hair.
Anthemis nobilis: Roman chamomile
The head of flowers is the useful part of the plant is called Flores Chamomillae romanae and used as Flores
Chamomillae vulgaris.
Tussilago farfara: Colt’s foot
The leaves of the plant is very hairy and called Folia Farfarae. It used as anticough and contains mucilage.
Artemisia absinthium: Absiathium
The herb of the plant is the useful part of the plant called Herba Absinthii. The drug contains volatile oil and used as
appetizer and stomachic.
Helianthus anuus: Sun Flower
The fruits of the plants contains a high amount of fixed oil which used as food oil.

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