DLD Research Report

Digital logical Design

Assignment 1

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ABSTRACT
This is report is mainly about input of analog and digital signal and how microprocessor
works. It only understand digital values and this report will help us to understand how
analog and digital are interconverted. According to report Signals need to be processed
so that the information that they contain can be displayed, analyzed, or converted to
another type of signal that may be of use. In the real-world, analog products detect
signals such as sound, light, temperature or pressure and manipulate them. Converters
such as an Analog-to-Digital converter then take the real-world signal and turn it into the
digital format of 1's and 0's. From here, the DSP takes over by capturing the digitized
information and processing it. It then feeds the digitized information back for use in the
real world. It does this in one of two ways, either digitally or in an analog format by going
through a Digital-to-Analog converter. All of this occurs at very high speeds.

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TABLE OF CONTENT:

1. Analogue Signals
1.1 Definition of analogue signals
1.2 Why are analog signals necessary?
1.3 How to calculate analog signals
1.4 How to understand analog signals

2. Digital Signals
2.1 Definition of digital signals
2.2 Analog signals vs. Digital signals
2.3 Necessity of digitals signals

3. Microprocessor
3.1 Definition
3.2 Function of Microprocessor
3.3 Is Microprocessor analog or digital?

4. Real time analog devices

4.1 What is real time system?
4.2 Real time Analog Devices
4.3 Real time Analog input in Microprocessor

5. Analog to Digital Conversion

5.1 What is Analog-to-Digital conversion?
5.2 Process of ADC
5.3 Application

6. Digital to Analog Conversion

6.1 What is Digital to Analog conversion?
6.2 Process of DAC & Advantage and Disadvantages

7. Conclusions
8. References

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1. ANALOG SIGNALS
1.1 Definition:
An analog signal is a continuous signal that contains time-varying quantities. Unlike a
digital signal, which has a discrete value at each sampling point, an analog signal has
constant fluctuations. The illustration in the above figure shows an analog pattern
(represented as the curve) alongside a digital pattern (represented as the discrete
lines).
An analog signal can be used to measure changes in some physical phenomena
such as light, sound, pressure, or
temperature. An analog signal can be used
to measure changes in some physical
phenomena such as light, sound, pressure,
or temperature.
Even in digital devices, there is typically
some analog component that is used to take
in information from the external world, which
will then get translated into digital form (using
an analog-to-digital converter).

1.2 Why is analog signal necessary?

In the real world, most data are characterized by analog signals. In order to manipulate
the data using a microprocessor, we need to convert the analog signals to the digital
signals, so that the microprocessor will be able to read, understand and manipulate the
data.
Advantages:
• major advantages of the analog signal is infinite amount of data.
• Density is much higher.
• easy processing.
Disadvantages:
• Unwanted noise in recording.
• If we transmit data at long distance then unwanted disturbance is there. •
Generation loss is also a big con of analog signals

1.3 How to calculate analog signals:

Analog signal is a kind of continuous signal, such as temperature, humidity, light and so
on. In order to observe the voltage, current and other information in the analog signal, it
usually uses oscilloscope to measure.

An analog control output signal is used when a device

needs to function at more than two points in a range. A
common output range for an analog signal is 0-10 volts
(other analog signals used commonly are 2-10V, 4-

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20mA and 0-20mA). A digital control output signal allows a device to operate at only two
points.
The main purpose of an oscilloscope as shown in the figure is to graph an electrical
signal as it varies over time. Most scopes produce a two-dimensional graph with time on
the x-axis and voltage on the y-axis.

1.4 Understanding analogue signals:

Because a signal varies over time, it's helpful to plot it on a graph where time is plotted
on the horizontal, x-axis, and voltage on the vertical, y-axis. Looking at a graph of a
signal is usually the easiest way to identify if it's analog or digital; a time-versus-voltage
graph of an analog signal should be smooth and continuous.

While these signals may be limited to a range of maximum and minimum values, there
are still an infinite number of possible values within that range. For example, the analog
voltage coming out of your wall socket might be clamped between -120V and +120V,
but, as you increase the resolution more and more, you discover an infinite number of
values that the signal can actually be (like 64.4V, 64.42V, 64.424V, and infinite,
increasingly precise values).

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2. DIGITAL SIGNALS
2.1 Definition:
Digital signals are the language of modern-day computers. Digital signals comprise only
two states. These are expressed as ON or OFF, 1 or 0 respectively. Digital signals require
greater bandwidth capacity than analogue signals, thus are more expensive to
communicate. This diagram shows a digital signal.

2.2 Analog Vs. Digital:

Following are the points which clarify between these two quantities:
• The difference between analog and digital is similar to the difference between
continuous-time and discrete-time. However, in this case the difference involves the
values of the function.
• Analog corresponds to a continuous set of possible function values, while digital
corresponds to a discrete set of possible function values.
• A common example of a digital signal is a binary sequence, where the values of the
function can only be one or zero.

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2.3 Necessity of Digital Signals:

• Digital signals are the language of modern-day computers.
• Digital signals comprise only two states.
• These are expressed as ON or OFF, 1 or 0 respectively.
• Digital signals require greater bandwidth capacity than analogue signals, thus are
more expensive to communicate.
• This diagram shows a digital signal.

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3. MICROPROCESSOR
3.1 Definition:
A microprocessor is an electronic component that is used by a computer to do its work.
It is a central processing unit on a single
integrated circuit chip containing millions of
very small components including
transistors, resistors, and diodes that work
together.
A microprocessor can perform
mathematical operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division. A
microprocessor can move data from one memory location to another.
A microprocessor can make decisions and jump to a new set of instructions based on
those decisions.

3.2 Function of microprocessor:

The microprocessor is a multipurpose, clock driven, register based, digital integrated
circuit that accepts binary data as input, processes it according to instructions stored in
its memory and provides results (also in binary form) as output.

3.3 Is microprocessor analog or digital?

Internally all microprocessors are analog. They use electrical voltages to represent
digital states of 0 and 1. All of their logic is designed around manipulating those voltages
to produce digital behavior.
That pedantic detail aside, microprocessors are digital because it is the most efficient
way for us to build computers and represent abstract patterns in the simplest way
possible. Nothing is simpler than binary on or off. All digital logic constructs we build to
massive levels of complexity can be reduced to 0 and 1 and a small set of simple logic
operations. Everything else is a skyscraper built on that foundation.

Why? Because for general purpose computing nothing beats it. Early computers were
not based on binary numbers but rather mirrors our decimal world. Such machines were
needlessly complex and difficult to build, wasting very limited resources. As we got
better on it, we quickly latched onto binary logic as they way to go and have done so
ever since.

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4. REAL TIME ANALOG DEVICES

4.1 What is Real time?
When an event or function is processed instantaneously, it is said to occur in real-time.
To say something takes place in real-time is the same as saying it is happening "live" or
"on-the-fly." Real-time also describes the way streaming media is processed. Instead of
waiting for a file to completely download, the information is played back as it is
downloaded. This allows for news broadcasts, sound clips, and other streaming audio
and video data to be played live from the Internet. Thanks to real-time processing,
people can access information without having to wait for it. This is an important benefit
since these days, anything that takes longer than 5 seconds seems like a long time.

4.2 Real Time Analog devices

Every analog Device is Real time. Following are some examples of Analog devices:
(a)Microphone:
Microphones are used every single day to record both analog and digital audio so it
makes sense that there is a bit of confusion about whether microphones are analog or
digital devices, or both.
Are microphones analog or digital? Microphones convert sound waves into AC electrical
audio signals and are therefore analog devices. However, some microphones (like USB
mics) are designed with built-in analog-todigital converters and output digital audio,
making them “digital microphones.”
Just because a microphone is analog or digital does not mean it can only record analog
or digital. In fact, the vast majority of microphones today are analog and the vast
majority of modern audio recording is digital. Let’s talk a bit more about microphones
and their roles in digital and analog audio.
Microphones Are Analog First and Digital Second
Microphones first produce analog audio signals (AC voltages). These analog signals can
then be converted to digital signals if need be.

Microphones are transducers that convert mechanical wave energy (sound waves) into
electrical energy (analog audio signals or AC voltage).

The differentiating factor, then, of analog and digital microphones is the output:

• Analog microphones output analog signals (measured in millivolts and commonly

outputted through XLR or TRS connections).
• Digital microphones output digital signals (measured in bit-depth, sample rate,
and dBFS and commonly outputted via USB).

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A digital microphone is designed with a built-in analog-to-digital converter (ADC). The

ADC takes the analog signal from the mic diaphragm/capsule at its input and converts
that signal to digital information, which it then outputs.

(b) Amplifier:
Amplifier is the generic term used to describe a circuit which produces and increased
version of its input signal. However, not all amplifier circuits are the same as they are
classified according to their circuit configurations and modes of operation. The digital
amplifier system keeps the audio signal in the digital domain virtually all the way to the
speaker, while the analog-based system converts the signal to analog very early in the
process. The digital amplifier consists of two devices, the pulse width modulation
(PWM) processor and the power stage. Inter conversion of Analog and Digital signals

Once the signal is converted to PWM, it then passes to the power stage where it is
checked for error conditions and timing control is applied. The signal is then passed to
gate drivers, which control the Mosfet switches. Other functions in the power stage
include detection of and recovery from error conditions such as overcurrent,
overtemperature and under-voltage. The analog-input Class-D amplifier has a similar
power stage architecture.

At the last step, a low-pass inductor-capacitor filter after the power stage removes high-
frequency components from the audio signal to reduce electromagnetic interference,
and this is effectively the digital-to-analog conversion. Without this inductor and
capacitor filter the speaker itself becomes the D/A converter.

This analog conversion introduces no distortion to the signal, because the digital
amplifier converts the signal to analog with passive components. The conversion from
digital to analog occurs at the final output voltage, so it is unlikely to pick up noise that
will be audible. In contrast, the analog conversion occurs as the first step in an analog
amplifier and is at a low-level voltage, which is then processed and amplified. Any noise
on this low-level signal from processing or from coupling also will be amplified and will
affect the final signal quality.

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(c) Analog Telephones:

A telephone that sends and receives electrical frequencies in the range of the human
voice. Analog phones have been the norm since the
advent of telephones in the late 1800s.Single-line and
two-line phones that plug directly into landlines from the
telephone company are analog. In contrast, today's
multi-line office phones that connect to an inhouse PBX,
as well as cordless phones, send digital signals between
their base stations and the phones

Analog phone is also known as Plain Old Telephone

Service (POTS). Each subscriber has a phone number
assigned to them, which others can use to make calls to
that subscriber. Users are connected through a subscriber loop made of copper wiring.
This loop connects a home or business to a central switch office. When a call is made,
the voice signals are converted by the analog phone system into electronic signals.
Then, these signals are carried over the telephone line (in Digital forn) to the final
destination – another subscriber’s home or business.

(d) DVD
DVD (digital video disc) is a technology based on optical data storage similar to compact
disc (CD). Optical data storage is a method of storing digital information (1's and 0's) by
using light to read the information. Analog information is converted into digital
information, which is then encoded onto the disc from the inside edge out. Digital data
are encoded by means of pits on the recording layer of the disc. The encoding is done
using a technique referred to as EFM, eight-to-fourteen modulation, in CDs and
EFMPlus, eight-to-sixteen modulation, in DVDs.

Inside your CD player, there is a miniature laser beam (called a semiconductor diode
laser) and a small photoelectric cell (an
electronic light detector). When you press play,
an electric motor (not shown in this diagram)
makes the disc rotate at high speed (up to
500rpm). The laser beam switches on and

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scans along a track, with the photocell, from the center of the CD to the outside (in the
opposite way to an LP record). The motor slows the disc down gradually as the
laser/photocell scans from the center to the outside of the disc (as the track number
increases, in other words). Otherwise, as the distance from the center increased, the
actual surface of the disk would be moving faster and faster past the laser and
photocell, so there would be more and more information to be read in the same amount
of time.

The laser (red) flashes up onto the shiny (under) side of the CD, bouncing off the
pattern of pits (bumps) and lands (flat areas) on the disc. The lands reflect the laser light
straight back, while the pits scatter the light.Every time the light reflects back, the
photocell (blue) detects it, realizes it's seen a land, and sends a burst of electric current
to an electronic circuit (green) that generates the number one. When the light fails to
reflect back, the photocell realizes there is no land there and doesn't register anything,
so the electronic circuit generates the number zero. Thus the scanning laser and
electronic circuit gradually recreates the pattern of zeros and ones (binary digits) that
were originally stored on the disc in the factory. Another electronic circuit in the CD
player (called a digital to analog converter or DAC) decodes these binary numbers and
converts them back into a changing pattern of electric currents.

4.3 Real-time analog input in microprocessor

When we input analog signal to microprocessor in result it doesn’t understand it at all. In

fact Microprocessor only understand digital signals and for understand it requires a
means to somehow conversion of analog signals to digital signals. SO, FOR THIS TO
HAPPEN WE NEED SOME CONVERTER.
Microprocessor uses some specific converter to convert analog signals to digital and
digital to analog depending on the scenario. Namely;
1. Analog to digital converter (ACD).
2. Digital to analog converter (DAC).

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5. ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION

5.1 What is Analog to Digital Conversion?
An analog-to-digital converter, or ADC as it is more commonly called, is a device that
converts analog signals into digital signals. Analog information is transmitted by
modulating a continuous transmission signal by amplifying a signal's strength or varying
its frequency to add or take away data. Digital information describes any system based
on discontinuous data or events. Computers, which handle data in digital form, require
analog-to-digital converters to turn signals from analog to digital before it can be read.
One example is a modem which turns signals from digital to analog before transmitting
those signals over communication lines such as telephone lines that carry only analog
signals. The signals are turned back into digital form (demodulated) at the receiving end
so that the computer can process the data in its digital format.

Basic Principles of ADC

• The basic principle of operation is to use the comparator principle to determine
whether or not to turn on a particular bit of the binary number output.
• It is typical for an ADC to use a digital-toanalog converter (DAC) to determine
one of the inputs to the comparator.

5.2 Process of ADC

Analog signals are converted to digital signal by putting things in the following process:
An input signal is converted from some continuously varying physical value (e.g.
pressure in air, or frequency or wavelength of light), by some electro-mechanical device
into a continuously varying electrical signal. This signal has a range of amplitude, and a
range of frequencies that can present. This continuously varying electrical signal can
then be converted to a sequence of digital values, called samples, by some analog to
digital conversion circuit. illustrates this process.

Sampling a Continuous Signal

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There are two factors which determine the accuracy with which the digital sequence of
values captures the original continuous signal: the maximum rate at which we sample,
and the number of bits used in each sample. This latter value is known as the
quantization level, and is illustrated in figure

Quantization of Samples

The raw (un-compressed) digital data rate associated with a signal then is simply the
sample rate times the number of bits per sample. To capture all possible frequencies in
the original signal, Nyquist's theorem shows that the digital rate must be twice the
highest frequency component in the continuous signal. However, it is often not
necessary to capture all frequencies in the original signal - for example, voice is
comprehensible with a much smaller range of frequencies than we can actually hear.
When the sample rate is much lower than the highest frequency in the continuous
signal, a band-pass filter which only allows frequencies in the range actually needed, is
usually put before the sampling circuit.

5.3 Application OF ADC

Following are the application:
• Microphones - take your voice varying pressure waves in the air and convert them into
varying electrical signals
• Strain Gages - determines the amount of strain (change in dimensions) when a stress
is applied
• Thermocouple – temperature measuring device converts thermal energy to electric
energy

• Voltmeters

• Digital Multimeters

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6. DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERSION

6.1 What is Digital to Analog Conversion?
Digital-to-analogue conversion is frequently required in a digital system used to control
some external analogue circuitry. The D/A converter (or DAC) gives a controlled analogue
output voltage or, in certain specialist applications, a controlled analogue output current or
another circuit parameter such as resistance, whose value corresponds to an input digital
word. Here it will be assumed that the digital input is a conventional positive base 2
integer. If the digital input is in some other numerical format, it can be converted to base 2
as described elsewhere in this text. If the output is required to be bipolar, that is, the
numerical input may have either positive or negative polarity to produce either positive or
negative output voltages or currents, then this may be most easily handled by two
separate converters, one for each of the output polarities and only one of which is allowed
to be active at any one time. Alternatively, there are some bipolar D/A converters available
commercially.
6.2 Process of DAC
Three techniques to convert digital signal into analog signal:

• Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

• Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

• Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

1. Amplitude Shift Keying:

It is a technique in which carrier signal is analog and data to be modulated is digital. The
amplitude of analog carrier signal is modified to reflect binary data. The binary signal
when modulated gives a zero value when the binary data represents 0 while gives the
carrier output when data is 1. The frequency and phase of the carrier signal remain
constant.

Advantages:

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• It can be used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.

• The receiver and transmitter have a simple design which also makes it comparatively
inexpensive.

• It uses lesser bandwidth as compared to FSK thus it offers high bandwidth efficiency.
Disadvantages:

• It is susceptible to noise interference and entire transmissions could be lost due to this.

• It has lower power efficiency.

2. Frequency Shift keying:

In this modulation the frequency of analog carrier signal is modified to reflect binary
data. The output of a frequency shift keying modulated wave is high in frequency for a
binary high input and is low in frequency for a binary low input. The amplitude and
phase of the carrier signal remain constant.

Advantages:
• Frequency shift keying modulated signal can help avoid the noise problems beset by
ASK.

• It has lower chances of an error.

• It provides high signal to noise ratio.

• The transmitter and receiver implementations are simple for low data rate application.
Disadvantages:

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• It uses larger bandwidth as compared to ASK thus it offers less bandwidth efficiency.

• It has lower power efficiency.

3. Phase shift keying:

In this modulation the phase of the analog carrier signal is modified to reflect binary
data. The amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal remains constant. Phase shift
keying has further two subtypes:

• Binary phase Shift Keying

• Quadrature phase shift keying

Binary Phase Shift Keying:

BPSK also known as phase reversal keying or 2PSK is the simplest form of phase shift
keying. The Phase of the carrier wave is changed according to the two binary inputs. In
Binary Phase shift keying, difference of 180 phase shift is used between binary 1 and
binary 0. This is regarded as the most robust digital modulation technique and is used
for long distance wireless communication.

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying:

This technique is used to increase the bit rate i.e. we can code two bits onto one single
element. It uses four phases to encode two bits per symbol. QPSK uses phase shifts of
multiples of 90 degrees. It has double data rate carrying capacity compare to BPSK as
two bits are mapped on each constellation points.
Advantages:
• It is a more power efficient modulation technique as compared to ASK and FSK.

• It has lower chances of an error.

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• It allows data to be carried along a communication signal much more efficiently as

compared to FSK.

Disadvantages:

• It offers low bandwidth efficiency.

• The detection and recovery algorithms of binary data are very complex.
• It is a non-coherent reference signal

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CONCLUSION:

By writing this report we discovered a world of analog and digital quantities. This
report contains the fundamentals but not advance educational aspects of analog
and digital quantities. In conclusion following points were highlighted:

 We learned about the analog devices.

 We learned about analog to digital conversion.
 How microprocessor processes digital data.
 How data is converted in digital form
 What digital and analog signals converters are.
 What is digital to analog conversion?

REFERENCES:

• https://www.elprocus.com/differences-between-analog-signal-
and-digital-signal/
• https://www.slideshare.net/HrideshVishwdewa/introduction-to-
analogsignal?from_action=save
• https://www.quora.com/What-is-difference-between-normal-
processor-and-DSP-processor
• https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
search=Real+time+analog+input+devices&title=Special:S
earch&go=Go&ns0=1&searchToken=8naar7rt5slsj4ic5apwyf3yc
• https://www.academia.edu/3478621/REAL_TIME_DATA_ACQUISITION_
SYSTEM

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